M7 Maintenance Practices

Fundamentals
M7 Maintenance Practices
EASA Part-66 Cat. B1
P66 B1 M7 E
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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
Page: 1
Lufthansa Technical Training
M7.1 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS-AIRCRAFT
AND WORKSHOP Part -66
M 7.1 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS - AIRCRAFT AND WORKSHOP

INTRODUCTION
This module is concerned with fire and safety precautions around workshops Health and Safety
and hangars. A workshop is a potentially lethal environment.
It is up to all of us working in this environment to ensure the safety of people The Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 is the law dealing with the health,
and equipment. safety and welfare of people at work.
Bear in mind that most accidents are the result of over-confidence or the action
of inexperienced people. Therefore, to avoid injury to expensive equipment or Employer’s Responsibilities
personnel, a sensible approach to your work place should be adopted. The employer is responsible for providing
Personal habits, such as alcohol and drug abuse, can render a person a haz- S a safe place to work
ard both to himself and to his co-workers. S safe plant and equipment
Fatigue is potentially a considerable hazard, particularly when operating ma- S a safe system of work
chinery. S a safe working environment
Supervision and training (both in normal processes and in emergency proce-
S safe methods of handling, storing and transporting goods
dures) is essential.
S reporting accidents and incidents
The general environment is potentially hazardous:
S information, instruction, training and supervision
S unguarded or badly maintained tools, equipment and machinery
S a safety policy.
S slippery floors
Failure to comply or maintain these conditions can result in an inspector from
S poorly maintained stairways and staging
the Health and Safety Executive prosecuting the company.
S crowded workplaces with obstructed passageways
S bad lighting, inadequate ventilation and noise can result in headaches, fa- Employee’s Responsibilities
tigue and carelessness Under the Health and Safety at Work Act, an employee can also be prosecuted
S dirty, unpleasant surroundings can lead to a lowering of personal standards. for breaking the safety laws. Therefore, the employee is legally bound to co-op-
erate with the employer to enable him to comply with the requirements of the
Accident Prevention Act.
For Training Purposes Only
S Eliminate the hazard Therefore, employees are responsible for

S Remove the hazard S personal health and safety
S Guard equipment S not misusing equipment.
S Wear personal protection
S Safety education
HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec.2005 Page: 2

Machines
16%
Means of tran-
25% 24% 6% port and lifting
equipment
Falling or Stepping on, 19%
jumping striking 9%
Equipment
against, or Other
struck by ob-
jects
Caught in objects
8% Crates and
5% 5% other contain-
ers
3% 20%
28% 10% Materials, chemi-
Over-exer- Other cals and radiation 22%
tion and Working
strain Exposure or contact enviro-
with extreme tempera- ment

Struck by
tures, electric current,
falling ob- hazardous chemicals
jects or radiation
Types of Accident Agent of Accident
Figure 1 Industrial Injuries

MANUAL LIFTING
Loads and Safety
In the engineering industry, loads are defined as heavy and cumbersome ob- To raise the load, first straighten your legs. This ensures that the load is being
jects such as machines, large castings and forgings, heavy bar, sheet and raised by your powerful thigh muscles and bones, and not by your back. To
plate materials, etc., which have to be loaded onto vehicles, unloaded from ve- complete the lift, raise the upper part of your body to a vertical position.
hicles and moved within the factory itself. To carry the load, keep your body upright and hold the load close to your body.
The movement of heavy loads involves careful planning and the anticipation of Wherever possible hold the load so that the bone structure of your body sup-
potential hazards before they arise. When moving such loads it is important ports the load. If the load has jagged edges, wear protective gloves, and if haz-
that you use the correct handling techniques and observe the appropriate ardous liquids are being handled wear the appropriate protective clothing.
safety precautions and codes of practice at all times.
Individual Lifting Team Lifting
In the engineering industry it is often necessary to lift fairly heavy loads. As a When a lifting party is formed in order to move a particularly large or heavy
general rule, loads lifted manually should not exceed 20 kg. Mechanical lifting load, the team leader is solely responsible for the safe completion of the task.
equipment should be used for loads in excess of 20 kg. However, even lifting The team leader should not take part in the actual lifting but should ensure
loads less than 20 kg can cause strain. and lifting loads incorrectly is one of the that:
major causes of back trouble.
S Everyone understands what the job involves and the method chosen for its
The risk of personal injury and damage to equipment can be reduced by taking completion.
simple precautions before the lifting or handling operations begin. For example,
S The area is clear of obstructions and that the floor is safe and will provide a
if the load is obviously too heavy or bulky for one person to handle, you should
good foothold.
ask for assistance.
S The members of the lifting party are of similar height and physique, and that
Even a light load can be dangerous if it obscures your vision. All moveable ob-
they are wearing any necessary protective clothing.
jects which form hazardous obstructions should be moved to a safe place be-
fore movement of the load commences. S Each person should be positioned so that the weight is evenly distributed.
As has already been stated, it is important to use the correct lifting technique. S He or she takes up a position which gives the best all--round view of the
This is because the human spine is not an efficient lifting device. If it is sub- area and will permit the development of any hazardous situation to be seen
jected to heavy strain, or incorrect methods of lifting, the lumbar discs may be so that the appropriate action can be taken in time to prevent an accident.
damaged causing considerable pain. This is often referred to as a ’slipped disc’ S Any equipment moved in order to carry out the operation is put back in its
and the damage (and pain) can be permanent. original position when the task has been completed.
The correct way to lift a load manually is shown opposite. You should start the
lift in a balanced squatting position with your legs at hip width apart and one
foot slightly ahead of the other. The load to be lifted should be held close to
your body. Make sure that you have a safe and secure grip on the load. Before
taking the weight of the load, your back should be straightened and as near to
the vertical as possible. Keep your head up and your chin drawn in; this helps
to keep your spine straight and rigid.

Rubber or
plastic gloves
Clear mov- Rubber or
able objects
plastic apron
Rubber or
plastic boots
Keep back Keep Straighten Keep body Let bone Wear appropri-
straight and spine legs to raise upright and structure ate clothing
near--verti- straight load load close support
cal to body load
Everyone under- Each person should Team leader positions

stands what the be positioned so that himself to ensure ap-
job involves the weight is evenly propriate action is taken
distributed to prevent an accident
Figure 2 Individual and Team Lifting

PERSONAL PROTECTION Do
S Minimise the chances of developing dermatitis with barrier cream, applied to
Over the past 30 years or so, health and safety at work has become a major
the hands (and arms if necessary) before commencing work. After washing,
issue for both employers and employees. Gone are the dark days when work-
don’t forget to re-apply the cream.
ers had few rights and were exploited to the detriment of their health and well-
being. S Use suitable protective gloves.
It is the employer’s responsibility to provide suitable, adequate personal protec- S Wear correctly-fitting overalls (fastened correctly at the cuffs and front, not
tive equipment - it is the employee’s responsibility to wear/use it. If an injury just covering the legs and tied at the waist).
occurs and suitable protection was available but not used, then the casualty S Protect your hearing by wearing ear-defenders or plugs.
can blame no-one but himself. S Protect your head with a hard-hat.
Accident Book S Protect the feet from falling objects, as well as chemical spills, by wearing
In the event of an injury being sustained at work, it is the employee’s responsi- safety boots.
bility to ensure that a record of the injury (and subsequent treatment) is re- S Prevent injury to the eyes by wearing safety spectacles or goggles.
corded in the Accident Book. S Prevent hair becoming entangled in machinery by wearing a suitable cap or
Failure to do this (however small or inconsequential you may feel the injury to hair-net.
be) means that, should complications arise at a later date, there will be no legal S Wear a suitable respirator when dust and fumes are present.
starting-point should you wish to seek compensation. S Handle tools and equipment with care - they bite!
Remember S When using grinding machines
You only have one pair of eyes, one pair of ears etc; look after yourself (and -- ensure guards are fitted and positioned correctly
others) by taking care. -- ensure the tool-rest is adjusted to provide the minimum gap with the
abrasive wheel
Do not
-- use the front face of the wheel, not the side, and
S Wear watches, rings and other items of jewellery that can catch in machin-
ery, scratch metal etc or cause a short in electrical circuits. -- only apply reasonable pressure to the wheel.
S Take chances. There is always time to get it right first time. S When using pillar drills
-- ensure guards are fitted and positioned correctly
-- clamp the work
-- use the correct cutting speed and apply the correct pressure
-- use the applicable lubricant.

S Minimise the possibility of trips by covering trailing airlines, electrical leads
etc wherever possible.

Head protection
Ear protection
Tidy hair style
Close-fitting
high-buttoned
overalls
Close- fitting
cuffs
No rings UNSAFE WORKING ENVIRONMENT
Eye or watch
protection
Cuffless
trousers
Reinforced Insulated
footwear soles Keep workplace
safe, efficient
and tidy
SAFE WORKING ENVIRONMENT
Figure 3 Workshop and Hangar Safety

ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
General
When using electrical equipment, you must ensure the following conditions are
met:
S A three pin plug must be fitted, incorporating an earth wire.
S Switch the current OFF before disconnecting or plugging into the mains
supply.
S Stand on a dry surface. If unable, stand on a wooden platform or move to a
dry position.
S Wear non-conductive footwear.
S Don’t let the power cable trail through fluids.
S Ensure the cable is in good condition before using the equipment.
S If practical, work with one hand in your pocket. If there is a short-circuit, this
should minimise the possibility of the electricity disrupting the heart’s
rhythm.
Electric Shock -- First Aid
If personnel are subjected to an electric shock you should proceed as follows:
S Switch off current or remove the victim from the supply by the use of insu-
lated material, eg rubber gloves or a broom.
S Treat for shock, keep the victim warm.
S Get medical assistance immediately.
Electrical Fire Safety
Never overload extension cables or wall sockets. Heat generated by excessive
current flow can result in a fire.

Path of current
240 volts
Earth (0 volts)
ELECTRIC SHOCK
Work with
0.1AMP one hand in
pocket
Fatal to
Insulated
0.2AMP soles
Insulated
mat
May cause 0.012AMP
muscular to
contraction 0.02AMP
0.001AMP
May feel
some sensa- to
tion 0.008AMP TAKE PRECAUTIONS WHEN
WORKING ON LIVE EQUIPMENT
REACTION OF BODY TO 100 VOLTS
Figure 4 Working with Electricity

COMPRESSED GASSES
You will encounter compressed gasses whilst working in aircraft and workshop Oxygen causes spontaneous combustion when in contact with oils or greases,
environments. including soap, butter and some hand-creams. The presence of heat is not
necessary for this reaction to occur.
Compressed Air
Oxygen itself does not burn, but supports and intensifies a fire with any com-
Compressed air is commonly used to operate drills, rivet guns, paint spray- bustible material.
guns etc.
A build-up of static electricity can result in a spark being generated, which
Compressed Nitrogen could then cause a fire in an oxygen-rich environment.
Compressed nitrogen is used to inflate, amongst other things, tyres and under- A small, high-pressure leak in an oxygen system can cause ignition of the ma-
carriage struts. terial through which it is leaking by friction-generated heat.
Fire Prevention
Storage and Distribution
To prevent accidents when working with oxygen systems or components:
Compressed air is normally created by a compressor, stored in a tank and dis-
S Minimise the possibility of static electricity build-up by bonding equipment
tributed via pipes and hoses.
and ensuring the aircraft is suitably earthed.
Other compressed gasses, such as nitrogen and oxygen, are stored in steel
cylinders, usually on trolleys. When full, they are normally pressurised to 2,000 S Display warning signs outside the aircraft whilst an oxygen system is being
PSI (pounds per square inch) (136 bar). serviced.
S Tools and equipment must be scrupulously free from oils and greases, as
Safety well as dust or lint. Protective caps should be fitted to exposed ends of
Compressed gasses entering the bloodstream can result in severe injury or pipes/component apertures immediately upon disconnection.
death. S Only use materials approved for use with oxygen.
Personal injury can be avoided by: S Do NOT use PTFE (polytetraflourethylene) tape (with the exception of Tef-
S Not indulging in horseplay. lon tape to spec MIL-T-27730) or jointing compounds, as these may contain
S Disconnecting air supply to guns when not in use and when oil.
-- fitting/replacing drill bits S Leak-test using approved solutions (spec MIL-L-25567 ’B’ and MIL-L-25567
’C’ Type 1), as soapy water may be oil-based.
-- fitting/replacing riveting dollies etc.
S Keep the oxygen servicing trolley away from hydraulic or refuelling equip-
S Using eye protection. ment.
S Preventing hoses rupturing by maintaining them in good condition. S Turn off oxygen supply prior to disconnection of couplings.
S Using a cage when carrying out initial inflation of a tyre after refitment/re- S Minimise heat build-up by opening valves slowly and gradually.
placement.
S Have appropriate fire-fighting equipment readily to hand.
S Using calibrated tyre inflation gauges.
S Minimise the build-up of a concentration of oxygen by adequate ventilation.
S Ensuring protective caps are fitted to cylinders when not in use.
S Clothing may become saturated over a long period of working in an oxygen-
Oxygen rich atmosphere, and should be kept away from naked flames or heat for at
Pressurised oxygen is carried on aircraft as an emergency measure to support least 15 minutes in a well-ventilated area.
breathing at high altitudes in the event of the pressurised cabin failing.

Worker ’thought he was going to die’ The Royal Society for the Prevention
A South Wales man told how he thought he was going to die after one of his of Accidents, London, reports a serious case when
colleagues directed compressed air from an air line up his rectum in an ’act of employees in a carpenters’ shop were using a compressed air
horseplay’. hose to remove sawdust from their clothing.
Craig Warburton, of Cefn Hengoed, is accused of assault occasioning actual One man was seen to push the hose between the legs of a fellow--
bodily harm on Philip Morgan at work in January last year. worker from behind and the man sustained the following injuries:
Mr Morgan told a jury at Cardiff Crown Court how he felt severe pain and a
bubbling in his stomach before passing out. SBruising and bleeding in the area of the rectum;
’I thought I was going to die’, he told the court, ’I thought my insides were go- SShock;
ing to come away from me’. SAir through tissues over abdomen, chest and neck;
Mr Morgan told how employees at the factory, Conservatory Roof Systems of SHernia canals in the groin ballooned with air;
Caerphilly, often used to engage in acts of horseplay during quiet periods. SAbdomen filled with air;
’There was name calling and bad language. Most of it was directed towards SLower bowel torn open in three places, the longest tear
me.’ being four
He said he was often the butt of the practical jokes because he worked in his inches;
own corner of the factory. SAbdominal cavity filled with bowel material from lower
’I would sometimes retaliate, but the more I fought back, the worse it would be bowel, also contained much fluid and blood; and
for me’. SLining of abdominal cavity torn in several places.
He said the workforce often took part in boisterous antics at quiet times, using
reels of tape as Frisbees and firing screws from the compressed air lines. The man was operated upon and blood transfusions given, but he
’I was never given any training in the use of the air lines, but I received training died three days after being injured.
in my previous job’, he told the court.
The defendant is alleged to have placed the air line at the seat of Mr Morgan’s Subsequent investigations revealed that the maximum pressure at
jeans and released the jet of air, with a pressure of 80 psi. the nozzle with the valve turned fully open was about 351 lbs,
Mr Morgan needed surgery after the incident and had to use a colostomy bag for but the actual pressure at the time of the accident was much less -
several months before undergoing surgery again to reverse the colostomy. probably only a third.
Warburton admits committing the act, but is denying the charge, claiming that
Mr Morgan was a willing participant in the horseplay.
The case continues.
Figure 5 Safety With Compressed Air

OILS AND CHEMICALS

Oils and chemicals present several personal safety concerns. They can:
S be inflammable
S give off noxious fumes
S present a slip hazard when spilt
S cause skin disease (dermatitis).
Safety
Personal safety can be enhanced by taking certain sensible precautions.
S Educate yourself about the properties (and any necessary safety precau-
tions to take) of the substance you are dealing with. It is the employer’s re-
sponsibility to provide COSHH (Control of Substances Hazardous to Health)
sheets, which provide important information for the user.
S Minimise the possibility of combustion by
-- wearing non-steel-tipped footwear
-- not carrying matches or lighters.
S Minimise the effects of fumes by
-- wearing a suitable mask or respirator
-- using a fume cabinet.
S Clean up or contain (and cordon off) spillages promptly.
S Prevent the contraction of dermatitis by
-- applying barrier cream prior to work
-- washing thoroughly after contact with oils and chemicals
-- using suitable protective gloves.

Fan Fan
Filter
Glass Panel
Glass Panel Super-Interception Filter
Super-Interception Filter
Filter Work Sur- Work

face Surface
VERTICAL HORIZONTAL
FLOW Filter FLOW
Glass Panel Fan
Exhaust Fan Pre-Filter Pre-Filter

Grill Fan
HORIZONTAL VERTICAL
GLOVE FLOW FLOW
BOX
CLEAN WORK BOXES CLEAN WORK STATIONS
Figure 6 Clean Work Containers (Fume Cabinets)

FIRE FIGHTING Halogenated Hydrocarbon

The most common fire extinguishing agent for aircraft cabin fires is Halon, a
Types of Fire liquefied, compressed gas that stops the spread of fire by chemically disrupting
Depending on the fuel component, fires are divided into the following groups: combustion. It is most effective on Class B and C fires. It can be used on Class
S Class A - wood, cloth, paper A and D, but is not as effective.
S Class B - flammable liquids, oil and grease While the production of Halon ceased on January 1, 1994 under the Clean Air
Act, it is still legal to purchase and use recycled Halon and Halon fire extin-
S Class C - electrical guishers. In fact, the FAA requires all commercial aircraft to exclusively use
S Class D - flammable metals (magnesium, potassium, sodium). halon.
Types of Fire Extinguishers Halon 1211 and 1301 or ”Halon Blend” are liquefied compressed gasses which
stop the spread of fire by chemically interrupting combustion. Halons are
Water odourless, colourless, electrically nonconductive, leave no residue after use
Water extinguishers work by cooling the fire below its kindling temperature. and are ”people safe.”
They should only be used for Class A fires, where electricity and chemicals are The Halon blend is far superior to the 1211 Halon propelled by nitrogen be-
not present. Indeed, using water on a Class D fire can intensify the fire. cause it generates its own pressure so that it does not change even if the extin-
guisher is almost empty.
The water is pressurised and propelled from the extinguisher by air or carbon
dioxide. Halon 1211 is Bromochlorodifluoromethane (BCF).
Halon 1301 is Bromotrifluoromethane.
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide extinguishers work by excluding oxygen from a fire, as well as Foam
rapidly cooling it. Foam fire extinguishers use an aqueous film forming foam (AFFF) agent that
It is suitable to extinguish Class B fires, and because carbon dioxide is not expels a layer of foam when it is discharged through a nozzle onto the surface
electrically conductive, can also be used on Class C fires. of a burning liquid, starving a fire of oxygen. They also have a cooling action
with a wider extinguishing application than water on solid combustible materi-
Dry Powder als, and are therefore suitable for Class A and B fires.
These extinguishers are most effective on Class B, C and particularly Class D Firefighters spray a foam ’blanket’ onto runways when aircraft land ’wheels-up’
(metal) fires. to suppress sparks as the aircraft slides along.
The two types of dry chemical extinguishers include one that contains ordinary AFFF, known asTridol, is a synthetic foam concentrate containing detergent
sodium or potassium bicarbonate, urea potassium bicarbonate and potassium and fluorocarbon surfactant that forms a foam capable of producing a vapour--
chloride base agents. The second multi--purpose type contains an ammonium suppressing aqueous film on the surface of some hydrocarbon fuels. It pro-
phosphate base. The multi--purpose extinguisher can be used on class A, B, vides rapid flame knockdown on short preburn, shallow spill fires (eg aircraft
and C fires. crash fires), but is not suited for use on long preburn, deep--seated fires (eg
Most dry chemical extinguishers use stored pressure to discharge the agent, storage tank fires).
and the fire is extinguished mainly by the interruption of the combustion chain Developed in the 1960s, AFFF is today largely replaced by the more sophisti-
reaction. cated FFFP, known as Petroseal, a natural protein--based foam concentrate
containing fluorocarbon surfactants that forms a foam capable of producing a
vapour--suppressing aqueous film on the surface of hydrocarbon fuels. It was
developed in the 1980s.

Figure 7 Types of Fire and Relevant Extinguishers

FIRE PRECAUTIONS
You will already be aware of the potential fire hazards of working in an environ-
ment containing vast amounts of highly flammable fuel, such as that contained
in aircraft.
Because fire is a most dangerous threat which will always be with us the follow-
ing precautions must be observed:
S Smoke only in designated areas set aside for that purpose.
S Observe and obey ’No Smoking’ signs on flight lines.
S Do not carry non-safety matches and do not wear steel tips on shoes, as
they can create sparks.
S When operating petrol engined ground equipment, have a foam fire extin-
guisher handy.
S Flammable liquids like paints and dope should be kept in an approved store
outside the hangar or workshop.
S If using heat torches in a workshop (such as blow lamps), the flame should
be directed towards fire bricks when not in immediate use.
S You should find out where fire extinguishers and fire buckets are located in
your place of work.
Working in Tanks
When fuel tanks have been completely emptied, the fire risk is still present due
to the presence of fuel fumes.
S Tanks should be thoroughly purged prior to entering them and ideally contin-
ually purged throughout occupation.
S Station an assistant outside the tank access to assist in a rescue if neces-
sary.
S Always use flameproof torches when working in tanks.

Close door to confine fire
If safe to do so, fight fire
Sound alarm
If fire cannot be controlled, evacuate
Notify fire brigade
Figure 8 Fighting Fires

FOREIGN OBJECT DEBRIS (FOD)

FOD (such as propeller nicks, tyre damage and fabric tears) has been a part of
accidents and unscheduled maintenance reports since the earliest days of
flight. The problem of foreign objects really came into focus with the introduc-
tion of the jet engine.
FOD includes loose hardware, tools, parts, pavement fragments, catering sup-
plies, building materials, rocks, sand, pieces of luggage, pens, coins, badges,
hats, drink cans, paper clips, rags, paperwork and even wildlife (see opposite).
Anything that can find its way into an aircraft engine or flight control mecha-
nisms is a recipe for foreign object damage.
This damage can result in anything from minor repairs to catastrophic events.
FOD can be found anywhere in the aviation environment; from the manufac-
turing plant to airport terminal gates, cargo aprons, taxiways, runways, and
run--up pads. Aircraft engines make very efficient vacuum-cleaners.
Good husbandry is vital; tool control must be stringently applied by the trades-
man and the work area diligently checked for any tools or FOD at the end of a
job or work-shift.
FOD is preventable.

Ensure all loose articles are removed ...
Aircraft engines make very

efficient vacuum-cleaners
Fodded engine
Figure 9 Fod Examples

THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK


M7.2 WORKSHOP PRACTICES
Part -66
M 7.2 WORKSHOP PRACTISES


Part -66
TOOL HUSBANDRY TOOL CALIBRATION

A good tradesman looks after his tools. Precision measuring and test equipment must, by definition, be accurate.
Good tools are expensive and should be treated with respect. They will let you To be able to rely on the equipment’s accuracy, it must itself be checked (cali-
down only if neglected. brated) periodically.
If they fall into disrepair, they lose their effectiveness and are potentially dan- Standards for calibration are laid down by the authorities, and companies per-
gerous. forming the calibration must meet exacting criteria.
Always keep tools in a serviceable condition: Equipment in what is considered normal use will be subject to annual calibra-
S Lubricate them regularly to prevent corrosion and seizing up. tion, but frequent-use equipment will be calibrated more frequently.
S Inspect them before use for any damage (cracks, splits, rounding-off of Use of Precision Measuring and Test Equipment
edges, bluntness etc).
When using precision measuring and test equipment, ensure that a calibration
Damaged tools beyond repair should be destroyed. The temptation is always to certificate accompanies the tool and that it is within its calibration due-date. If
keep them for use as specially-adapted tools, but there is invariably a tool desired, record the equipment’s details and calibration information on the job
manufactured and available for the job, so resist the temptation. card.
TOOL CONTROL STANDARDS OF WORKMANSHIP
As stated in the previous section, FOD is preventable. Safety in the aircraft business is judged to be of the utmost importance.
Tool control must be stringently applied by the tradesman, and the work area Lives depend on the aircraft performing as designed, transporting people and
diligently checked for any tools or FOD at the end of a job or work-shift. cargo safely from A to B.
Tool Stores As an engineer, maintaining people’s confidence in this safe performance starts
with your attitude to your work.
Tool stores will often have a system in place whereby all tools on loan to a
tradesman will be accounted for by tagging. A tool tag (or ’tally’) belonging to There can be no half-measures with aircraft maintenance and repair - proce-
the tradesman will be exchanged for the tool and placed on the spot vacated by dures are developed precisely so that servicing is carried out correctly and
the tool (tools are often held on “shadow boards“ for easy checking). In this safely and must not be deviated from without express permission or conces-
way, it can be quickly established that a tool is missing from the store and who sion from the designers.
booked it out. It is vital that the aircraft engineer applies the highest standards of workman-
This is to prevent the theft of tools, but also (and more importantly) to minimise ship at all times.
the chance of the tool being left in the aircraft, becoming a potential loose-ar- The aircraft engineer is constantly under pressure to complete work quickly.
ticle hazard. Always remember that there is always time to do the job properly. Do it wrong
and you may not have anything to correct.
Personal Tools
Would you be happy and confident to fly on an aircraft that you have worked
All personal tools should be marked by the individual so that they are traceable on?
to him.

Part -66
Figure 10 Tool Control

Part -66
USE OF WORKSHOP MATERIALS

Safety Stock should remain in its delivery packaging as long as is practicable.
Workshops, by their very nature, contain a variety of items that may Materials in long lengths (extrusions, tubes, bars etc) should be stored verti-
S be heavy cally, thereby reducing the risk of bowing and handling damage.
S be sharp All pipe and hose assemblies should be stored with their ends blanked to pre-
vent ingress of dirt. Hoses should be uncoiled.
S be toxic
Tyres should be stored vertically in special racks embodying tubes that ensure
S give off noxious fumes
each tyre is supported at two points, reducing distortion to a minimum. They
S deliver electric shocks should be rotated every two or three months and any delivery wrapping should
S burn be kept in place.
S irritate the eyes etc. Sheet metal should be stored on edge in racks clear of the floor with transport
The list is seemingly endless, but it is important to protection (grease, paper or plastic coating) left in place. Flat stacking is not
recommended to minimise scratching.
S recognise that workshops are potentially dangerous places
Metal bars and tubing should be stored in racks either horizontally (well-sup-
S know how to minimise the risks.
ported along their length) or vertically.
Personal protective apparel has been covered in the previous section, but it is
Fasteners (nuts, bolts, rivets etc) should be kept in their delivery packaging
also important to look after the materials themselves.
(with their identification labels) as long as possible prior to use. This is a safety
“The correct handling of materials, especially the high strength aluminium al- issue; it reduces the possibility of an incorrect item being fitted if it is clearly
loys, is of extreme importance. Great care is necessary during loading and un- identified.
loading and storage at the consignee’s works to ensure that the material is not
damaged by chafing, scratching, bruising or indentation, and that it is not ex- Identification
cessively strained by bending, otherwise the mechanical properties of the ma- All materials in storage should have sufficient information attached to them to
terial may be seriously affected. Heavy forgings, extrusions and castings provide an audit trail, ie they can be identified to a manufacturer’s batch.
should be carried and stored singly, ensuring that there is adequate support to
Sheet aluminium alloy is normally stamped with the relevant information in one
maintain the material in its intended shape without strain.
corner, whilst sheet steels usually have a stamped tally attached to one corner.
Storage This information should be copied to work documents.
Aircraft supplies should be stored in clean, well-ventilated premises maintained
Care
at an even dry temperature to minimise the effects of condensation. Very often,

the manufacturer will specify the ideal conditions. Care should be taken with all material used in the workshop.
All materials of a flammable nature (dope, thinners, paint and other solvents) Scratches in metal surfaces are stress-raisers that can initiate cracks or corro-
should be stored in an area isolated from main buildings. sion.
Items that can adversely affect other items should be segregated: Environment
S acid should not be placed whereby its fumes may affect raw materials or Take care of your environment. Dispose of waste according to local instructions
finished parts in approved containers. Recycling should always be encouraged.
S phenolic plastics should be segregated from cadmium-plated steel parts
S magnesium alloys should not be stored with flammable materials.

Part -66
Figure 11 Typical Equipment Stores

Part -66
DIMENSIONS, ALLOWANCES & TOLERANCES
GENERAL
Introduction
In order to arrive at values of distance, weight, speed, volume, temperature,
pressure etc., it is necessary to be familiar with the accepted methods tor mea-
suring these values and the units used to express them.
Through the ages, human beings have devised many methods for measuring.
However, it would be impossible to cover even a small part of the information
accumulated over these several thousand years.
Measurements used today in aviation are the English (Imperial) system and the
SI (metric) system.
SI is the abbreviation for the Système International d’Unités, the modernized
version of the metric system that the USA and other nations have agreed to
use.
Diameter
Width
Thickness
Length

Part -66
1 Inch
Yard
Metric
Imperial
Figure 12 Measurement Systems

Part -66
Measurement of Dimensions Allowance
Measuring of material and machined subjects involves the use of measuring Parts that have a maximum and minimum allowable size are still considered
tools to determine sizes of length, width, thickness, diameters etc. acceptable if their size falls within the range given.
The difference between the nominal dimension and the upper or lower limit is
Dimensional Tolerances
called the allowance. For example, if a dimension is depicted as .3125 inches
A general tolerance is usually given for all dimensions on a drawing and is +/- .0005, the allowable dimensions are between .3120 and .3130 inches.
stated in a printed box on the drawing. When the general tolerance is not ap-
propriate, an individual tolerance may be given to a dimension. As shown be-
low, tolerances may be expressed by:--
S quoting the upper and lower limits, or
S quoting the nominal dimension and the limits of tolerance above and below
that dimension.

Part -66
Figure 13 Number Prefix Table

Part -66
Di
MEASUREMENT UNIT SYSTEM

Metric System
The International System of Units, known as the SI system, had its origin when
the metre was selected as the unit of length and the kilogram as the unit of
mass. These units were created by the National Academy of Science and
adopted by the National Assembly of France in 1795.
The United States Congress legalised the use of the metric system throughout
the United States on July 28, 1866, but it was not until December 23, 1975 that
the metric Bill was signed into law in the United States to convert all measure-
ments into the metric system.
One of the great advantages of the metric system is the fact that it is built on
decimal units. Each basic unit may be multiplied or divided by ten as many
times as it is necessary to get a convenient size. Each of these multiples has a
definite prefix, symbol and name.
English System
The majority of people in English--speaking countries are familiar with the En-
glish unit system. Its units of length, time and weight are the inch, second and
pound. Therefore the complete documentation of Boeing aircraft uses the En-
glish unit system.
Airbus documentation uses both Imperial and metric units.

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Part -66
English Length System Metric Length System

Originally the units inch, foot, yard and mile were not exact multiples or factors The basic unit of measurement in the metric system is the metre.
of one another, but for the sake of convenience the foot was made equal to 12 The length of a metre is based on a distance equal to one ten--millionth of the
in, the yard was made 3 ft and the mile was made 5,280 ft or 1,760 yds. distance from the equator to the poles measured along a meridian, the merid-
It is said that the inch was the width of a thumb, the foot was the length of a ian being the shortest distance along the earth’s surface and at right angles to
human foot and the yard was the distance from the tip of the nose to the tip of the equator. This distance is equal to 1,650,763.73 wavelength of the orange--
the thumb when the arm was extended to the side with the thumb pointing for- red light of excited krypton of mass number 86. Thus we see that the metre is
ward and the head faced forward. based on a sound reference that will always be approximately the same.
The mile was originated by the Romans and represented 1,000 paces, each In order to provide an exact reference metre for scientific purposes, a bar of
pace being two steps (or 5 ft). This distance was later changed to 5280 ft, platinum--iridium was inscribed with two lines exactly 1m apart at the freezing
which is the present statute mile in both Great Britain and the United States. point of water (320Fahrenheit (F) or 0_Celsius (C)). The International Metre bar
The nautical mile, used internationally for navigation, is based on 1/60 of one is kept at the Bureau of Weights and Measures near Paris. Copies of this bar
degree of the earth’s circumference at the equator. It is approximately 6,080 ft, have been made and are kept in depositories in all the principal nations. In the
or 1,853.2m. metric system, all measurements of length are either multiples or sub-divisions
of the metre based on multiples of 10.
Many other units of length measurement have been used in various countries
including the rod, fathom and league. All these units were established to meet The following table shows how the units of length are related:
particular needs within different areas.
Because of the increase in travel, international commerce and scientific ex- 10 millimetres = 1 centimetre
changes, there was a need for the standardisation of measurements. This has 10 centimetres = 1 decimetre
taken place through the use of the metric system. 10 decimetres = 1 metre
10 hectometres = 1 kilometre
One metre is equal to 39.37 in, which is a little longer than the U.S. yard. Thus
1 decimetre (dm) is equal to 3.937 in. In practice the units of length most com-
monly used are the millimetre, the centimetre, the metre and the kilometre.

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Part -66
Boeing Dimensioning System
All linear dimensions on Boeing drawings are in inches and decimal fractions,
enabling the designers to clearly specify the degree of accuracy required for a
given dimension.
The Boeing system of dimensioning, the decimal system, is in units of tens,
hundredths, thousandths, ten thousandths (1’s, 10’s, 100’s, 1,000’s, 10,000’s)
and so on.
Each unit, when multiplied by ten, falls into the category of the next larger unit
or, when divided by ten, into the next lower unit. Decimal fractions may seem
rather difficult at first, but in reality they are much simpler than common frac-
tions.
Decimal fractions work in units of ten, the same as whole numbers. However,
decimal fractions are always on the right side of the decimal point. Whenever
numbers follow the decimal point, they represent measurements smaller than
one inch.
The first number after the decimal point is in tenths of an inch. There are ten
tenths in an inch.
The second number after the decimal point is in hundredths of an inch. Since
the second number in 0.12 falls into the hundredths category, the entire dimen-
sion must be read in hundredths; that is, twelve one hundredths of an inch.
A dimension is read in terms of the smallest unit shown; therefore 0.0015 is
read as fifteen ten thousandths of an inch, or one and one--half thousandths.

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Part -66
Unit Conversion
1 in = 25.4 mm
For sheet metal work it is essential to know the conversion between metres
and inches because all hole sizes, material gauges, all dimensions etc. are
given in inches and often need to be converted to the metric system.
Conversion Examples
1/2 in = 25.4 2 = 12.7 mm
1/4 in = 25.4 4 = 6.35 mm
1/8 in =25,4 8 = 3.18 mm
3/16 in = 25.4 16 x 3 = 4.76 mm
5/16 in = 7.935 mm
3/8 in = 9.525 mm
5/32 in = 3.968 mm
0.312 in = 25.4 x 0.312 = 7.92 mm
1.15 in = 25.4 x 1.15 = 29.21 mm

0.159 in = 25,4 x 0.159 = 4.038 mm
0.190 in = = 4.826 mm

Part -66
DECIMAL AND METRIC EQUIVALENT OF INCHES
Decimal Millimeter
Inches
Equivalent Equivalent
1/64 0.0156 0.379
1/32 0.0313 0.794
3/64 0.0469 1.191
1/16 0.0625 1.588
5/64 0.0781 1.985
3/32 0.0938 2.381
7/64 0.1094 2.778
1/8 0.1250 3.175
9/64 0.1406 3.572
5/32 0.1563 3.969
11/64 0.1719 4.366

3/16 0.1875 4.762
13/64 0.2031 5.159
7/32 0.2188 5.556
Figure 14 Decimal And Metric Equivalent Of Inches

Part -66
RULES AND SCALES

General
Steel scales or steel rules are found in almost all toolkits in both 6-- and 12-inch
lengths. They are used for sheet metal layout and for making measurements
where the accuracy of a vernier or a micrometer is not needed.
Theses scales are made of either tempered carbon steel or of satin--finished
stainless steel. They may be graduated in either the fraction or the decimal
system of English or in metric measurements, with some scales having gradua-
tions in both systems.
Fractionally graduated scales usually have one scale divided in increments of
1/32 inch and the other in 1/64 inch increments.
Decimal scales have one scale in 1/10 or 1/50 of an inch and the other scale in
increments of 1/1,000 inch.
Metric graduations are in centimetres and millimetres.
Scales are available in both the flexible form (about 0.015 inch thick) and the
rigid form (about 0.040 inch thick).
Flexible Steel Tape
The flexible steel tape is a very useful instrument for taking measurements up
to several feet.
The steel tape is equipped with a hook on one end so that it will hold onto a
corner or ledge, thus making it possible for the rule to be used by one individ-
ual. The hook is attached to the tape with rivets and is slotted to allow it to
move slightly to account for its thickness in calculations.
Most steel tapes are graduated in English and metric measurements.

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Flexible Tape
Steel Rule
Figure 15 Rules
Part -66
Scale Handling
When taking measurements with a scale, it should be so held that the gradua-
tion lines are as close as possible to the face. The eye which is observing the
reading should be as near as possible opposite to the mark being read, to mini-
mise the possibility of parallax error.

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Figure 16 Scale Handling

Part -66
SQUARES AND GAUGES

Set Square
The set square is the most common tool for testing squareness.
When using the square, care should be taken to ensure that its blade is held
perpendicular to the surface being tested or errors may occur.

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External Squareness Internal Squareness

Measurement Measurement
Figure 17 Set Square

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Radius Gauge
Radius gauges are used to measure either inside or outside radii.
Find a blade that fits the surface being checked.

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Radii of the work are

too small
Inside radius
Radii found okay
Outside radius
Radii of the work are
too large
Figure 18 Radius Gauge

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Protractor
The protractor consists of an adjustable blade with a dial that is graduated from
0o to 180o.
To use a protractor, set the blade to the angle being checked and lock the nut.
The angle is indicated on the protractor head.
The protractor is generally used in assembly areas to check part flanges or to
verify jig--located angles, clips, etc.

Part -66
Figure 19 Protractor
Part -66
Thickness (Feeler) Gauge

The feeler gauge is made up of a number of thin steel leaves that fold into a
handle like the blades of a pocket knife. The thickness in thousandths of an
inch or in hundreds of a millimetre is marked on each leaf.
The marked leaves are inserted into a gap until the closest fitting leaf is found.
The thickness of that leaf represents the size of the gap.
The gauge is generally used in assembly areas to check interface gaps or gaps
under bolt heads or nuts.

Part -66
Figure 20 Feeler Gauge

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Blend Out Measurement Sequence With A Feeler Gauge (Ref. NDT A3 10)
1. Put the straight edge on to the inspection area.
2. Measure the gap between the straight edge and the structure with the
leaves of the feeler gauge. Make sure that the gauge touches the straight
edge and the structure.
3. Write down the measurement by adding the respective feeler gauge
dimensions.

Part -66
Area where paint must

be removed
SECTION
A-A
Skin
Straight edge flat Feeler Gauge Straight edge
on skin
Gap
Skin Straight edge
Feeler Gauge
Figure 21 Blend Out Measurement Sequence

Part -66
BALL GAUGES
Ball (or hole) gauges are devices that are fitted into a hole and adjusted to fit
the hole snugly.
The gauge is then removed from the hole (taking care not to disturb the gauge
setting) and its diameter measured (eg with a micrometer) to determine the
hole’s size.

Part -66
Adjustable end Ball end expands as ad-

justable end is turned in
Set has variety of diameters
Figure 22 Ball (Hole) Gauges

Part -66
TEMPERATURE Conversion Examples

1. ?0C = 630F
There are three temperature scales in use today; Fahrenheit, Celsius and Kel-
5/9 (63--32) = 630F
vin.
5/9 x 31 = 630F
0
17.2 C = 630F
Fahrenheit Unit
In the English / American unit system all temperatures are given in degrees
Fahrenheit. 2. ?0F = 270C
Fahrenheit temperature scale is a scale based on 32 for the freezing point of 27 x 9/5 + 32 = 270C
water and 212 for the boiling point of water, the interval between the two being 80.60F = 270C
divided into 180 parts. Absolute zero is --460.
Kelvin Unit
The 18th--century German physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit originally took
Kelvin temperature scale is the base unit of thermodynamic temperature mea-
as the zero of his scale the temperature of an equal ice--salt mixture and se-
surement in the International System (SI) of measurement. It is defined as 1/
lected the values of 30 and 90 for the freezing point of water and normal body
273.16 of the triple point (equilibrium among the solid, liquid, and gaseous
temperature, respectively; these later were revised to 32 and 96, but the final
phases) of pure water.
scale required an adjustment to 98.6 for the latter value.
The kelvin (symbol K without the degree sign) is also the fundamental unit of
Celsius Unit the Kelvin scale, an absolute temperature scale named for the British physicist
Until the 1970s the Fahrenheit temperature scale was in general common use William Thomson, Baron Kelvin. Such a scale has as its zero point absolute
in English--speaking countries; the Celsius (or centigrade) scale was employed zero, the theoretical temperature at which the molecules of a substance have
in most other countries and for scientific purposes worldwide. Since that time, the lowest energy.
however, most English--speaking countries have officially adopted the Celsius Many physical laws and formulae can be expressed more simply when an ab-
scale. The conversion formula for a temperature that is expressed on the Cel- solute temperature scale is used; accordingly, the Kelvin scale has been
sius (C) scale to its Fahrenheit (F) representation is: adopted as the international standard for scientific temperature measurement.
F = 9/5C + 32. The Kelvin scale is related to the Celsius scale. The difference between the
Celsius temperature scale (also called centigrade temperature scale) is the freezing and boiling points of water is 100 degrees in each, so that the kelvin
scale based on 0 for the freezing point of water and 100 for the boiling point of has the same magnitude as the degree Celsius.
water. Absolute zero = --273.
Invented in 1742 by the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius, it is sometimes
called the centigrade scale because of the 100--degree interval between the
defined points.
The following formula can be used to convert a temperature from its represen-
tation on the Fahrenheit ( F) scale to the Celsius (C) value:
C = 5/9(F -- 32).
The Celsius scale is in general use wherever metric units have become ac-
cepted, and it is used in scientific work everywhere.

Part -66
Figure 23 Temperature Scales

Part -66
MARKING OUT AND TOOLS

General
Marking out means marking on the material all the lines and points which are
needed to work with. In general this will be done in accordance with a
dimensional drawing. This is a drawing showing the exact shape with all di-
mensions indicated.
Take a piece of material and accurately copy the given dimensions of the work
from the drawing. Then cut out the piece of material with the work marked out
on it.

Part -66
Figure 24 Marking Out Sequence

Part -66
Marking Out Rules

S Never use a lead pencil on titanium. The carbon, when heated, can infuse
the metal and cause cracking.
S When using a scriber or pencil with a straight edge, hold it at a slight angle
so that the line will be parallel and as close as possible to the straight-edge.
S For marking of aluminium alloy use only a soft lead pencil (except for cut-
lines, when a scriber may be used).
S Mark only thin lines.
S Mark lines only once.
Rule
For marking out length, a rule or steel tape is used.
Tri-Square
For squaring and for lines at right angles a tri-square is used.
Dividers
Dividers are used for scribing arcs and circles, for measuring between points
and for transferring dimensions taken from a steel rule. The contacts are the
sharp points of the straight legs, and measurement is by visual comparison.
Dividers are difficult to use accurately when the legs are widely extended and
the points steeply inclined to the work surface.
Dividers or compasses should not be used when marks or reference lines are
drawn on metal skin surfaces, since the metal points will cause permanent
damage. Instead, pencils are commonly used to mark out skins.

Part -66
Rule
Tri Square
Dividers
Figure 25 Marking-Out Tools

Part -66
Scriber Pencil
The scriber is used to mark lines on metal surfaces. When working with aluminium alloy, a soft lead pencil may be used for layout
work or for marking reference lines in areas that will not be removed. However,
using normal lead pencils on bare aluminium alloy can scratch the surface and
NOTE: A SCRIBER IS USED ONLY WHEN THE MATERIAL WITHIN THE
introduce graphite into the material, resulting in corrosion.
SCRIBED LINE IS TO BE CUT OUT AND THE SCRIBE MARK IS
REMOVED AS PART OF THE SCRAP. Three examples of acceptable commercial pencils are Stabilo 8008, Dixon
Phano and Blaisdell, which use soft wax-charcoal in lieu of graphite.
Scribing Block
A scribing block is sometimes called a surface gauge. It is always used on a
marking-out table or surface plate.
A heavy cast base carries a post (or mast) on which is mounted a double-en-
ded scriber. The scriber has one straight end and one curved end. It can be
moved up and down the post, forwards and backwards in relation to the post
and can be set at different angles.
The post can also be adjusted and set to any desired angle using the locking
screw at its base. A screw adjuster on the base can be used to tilt the post
slightly to make fine adjustments to the height of the scriber point.
Using a Scribing Block

Use a scribing block for marking out in the following way.
S Set an engineer’s rule vertically on the marking out table using some suit-
able support, such as an angle plate. Check that the datum end of the rule
is in contact with the marking-out table.
S Position the scribing block so that the point of the scriber is adjacent to the
rule and adjust its height to the required dimension. Use the fine adjuster to
get the height exactly right.
S Slide the scribing block across the marking out table until the point of the
scriber contacts the workpiece at the required position.
S Hold the scribing block firmly and slide it on the marking-out table so that
the point of the scriber marks a line on the workpiece. When doing this you
must ensure that:
-- the base of the scribing block remains firmly seated on the marking-out
table
-- the point of the scriber bears on the workpiece with a steady pressure
-- the point of the scriber trails as it is moved along the workpiece.

Part -66
Rule
Scriber
Lock Scriber
Angle
Plates
Post
or
Mast
Post
Angle
Lock Fine
Adjuster
Base
Figure 26 Scribing Block

Part -66
VERNIER HEIGHT GAUGE

Introduction
The vernier height gauge has a vertical beam beam scale fixed to a flat base. It
is usually used on a surface plate or a marking out table (the datum beam sur-
face). The instrument can be used for measuring absolute height above the
X mm
datum surface, but is often used for measuring differences in height between
different parts of the item being measured. Y mm
The height gauge is also frequently used for making accurate markings on
components. A finger with a sharp ground edge is used for this purpose.
Vemier height gauges are often dual scale instruments. These have both milli-
meter and inch scales on the same instrument. Y mm
Using a Height Gauge X mm

When using a vernier height gauge:
Y mm
S ensure that the base of the height gauge, the surface table and the work-
piece are kept perfectly clean at all times
S bed the workpiece and the base of the height gauge firmly onto the datum
surface with the finger slightly above the workpiece
S secure the fine adjustment clamp and use the fine adjustment screw to
bring the finger lightly into contact with the feature being measured
S take the reading from the scale in a good light -- a magnifying glass can be
helpful to get an accurate reading.
When you finish using the height gauge it should be carefully returned to
proper storage.
Measuring to the Underside
The vernier height gauge can also be used for measuring to the underside of a
feature on the component. To do this the finger should be reversed, as shown

in the illustrations. L
When using the instrument in this way, a further allowance (additional to any
allowance for the zero reading) must be added to the scale reading to give the
absolute dimension. This allowance is equal to the height of the finger arm plus
twice the height of the finger, that is X + 2Y mm.
Measuring to the Underside

Part -66
Beam
Scale
Beam
Fine Adjustment Fine Adjustment

Screw Clamp
Finger
Clamping
Clamp
Screw
Finger
Base
Figure 27 Vernier Height Gauge

Part -66
Combination Set
The combination set is an elaboration of the steel rule.
It consists of a rule with three heads; the stock (or square), the centre and
the protractor.
These heads slide along the scale and are removable.

Part -66
Scriber
Spirit Level
1 Rule
2 Square Head Clamp
45o
3 Centre Head 45o
90o
Clamp
4 Protractor Head
When used with rule, Tri Square and Height Gauge Centre Line of Disk 45o Angle Gauge
forms a simple clinom-
eter
Depth Gauge Parallel and Scribing Mitre 45o

Spirit level ascer-
tains face ’A’ is
plumb
Figure 28 Uses of Combination Set

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M7.3 TOOLS
Part -66
M7.3 TOOLS

M7.3 TOOLS
Part -66
PUNCHES
Introduction Looking After Punches
Punches concentrate the force from a hammer blow to the immediate area of Over a period of time, the end of a punch (particularly the softer metals) will
the punch tip. become burred over from repeated hammer blows. This burr can eventually
split and small chips fly off; potentially a safety hazard.
Safety
The punch end should be ground back to its original shape. Use a hand-file for
Eye protection should always be worn when a punch is used. the softer materials.
Composition
Punches are generally composed of steel, but can also be made of copper or
bronze (to minimise damage to the object being drifted out).
Centre Punch
A centre punch’s tip is ground to an angle of approximately 60o and is used to
make indentations in metal. This helps to prevent ’wander’ when starting to drill
a hole. Care should be taken not to distort the surrounding material by using
too agressive a blow.
Automatic Centre Punch

An automatic centre punch incorporates an adjustable spring-loaded trip mech-
anism, negating the requirement for a hammer.
Starting (Taper) Punch
This is used to start when driving out a bolt or pin. Once the taper almost fills
the bolt-hole, the job should be finished with a pin punch.
Pin Punch
Pin punches have a parallel shank and the diameter is sized to match rivet
shanks.
The matching size punch is selected for the diameter of rivet being punched
out. During this operation, the structure should be supported (normally with a
riveting block) on the opposite face to prevent damage and minimise ’bounce-
back’.

M7.3 TOOLS
Part -66
Centre
Punch
Parallel
Pin Punch

Taper Pin
Punch
Hollow
Punch
Automatic-
Centre
Punch
Figure 29 Punches
M7.3 TOOLS
Part -66
SAWING
Introduction
Sawing is mostly used for separating material but also for producing grooves
and notches.
A saw blade has many teeth. Their cutting edges are shaped like a chisel.
When sawing, at any time more than one tooth must be in contact with the
workpiece. The teeth remove small chips of the material.
The teeth must point in the cutting direction.
NB The blade fitted in the junior hacksaw has the teeth facing towards the
handle; the cutting direction is towards the operator. This is because the saw
frame is springy and compresses the blade if force is applied as the saw is
pushed away. The blade subsequently buckles.

M7.3 TOOLS
Part -66
adapter frame
guide
blade adapter handle

wing nut
blade
cutting direction cutting direction
Figure 30 Saws
M7.3 TOOLS
Part -66
SAW BLADE
Pitch Clearance
The pitch is the space from one tooth to the next. To prevent the saw blade from binding as it cuts into the material, the slot it
Saw blades are rated depending on the number of teeth per one inch of blade creates must be greater than the blade thickness.
length: The saw blade, therefore, must cut the required clearance. This is accom-
plished by either of the following:
S Coarse: for soft materials
S The teeth are set or
S Medium: for normal materials
S The blade is waved.
S Fine: for hard materials

M7.3 TOOLS
Part -66
clearance
25mm bottom
Coarse
(1 inch) view
14 teeth
Teeth are set

25 Medium
(1 inch)
clearance
22 teeth
bottom
25 Fine view
(1 inch)
32 teeth
Waved blade
Figure 31 Saw Blade

M7.3 TOOLS
Part -66
Guiding the Hacksaw
Cutting is achieved mostly by arm movement. Moving the body assists the pro-
cess.
To produce a good cut, start the cut by holding the saw at an angle.
S Forward stroke under pressure.
S Return stroke without pressure.
Use up as much of the blade length as possible.
Near the end of the cut, just before the material separates, reduce the
pressure on the saw.

M7.3 TOOLS
Part -66
cutting direction
chips
tooth gap
return stroke
cutting stroke
without pressure
with pressure
angle
Figure 32 Sawing
M7.3 TOOLS
Part -66
FILING
Introduction
Filing is a process which removes material from metal or wood, etc.
Filing can be :
S A rough process to alter the size and shape of a part by removing a consid-
erable amount of material.
S A finishing process to smooth a surface without removing much material.

M7.3 TOOLS
Part -66
tip
blade
tang
handle
Figure 33 File Parts

M7.3 TOOLS
Part -66
FILE SHAPES
General
The selection of the file shape depends on the size and shape of the surface to
be worked.
Flat files
Flat files are used for flat or convex surfaces.
Triangular files
Triangular files have a cross-section that is an equilateral triangle. These files
are limited to internal angles greater than 60˚.
Square files
Square files are used for filing keyways and for enlarging square or rectangular
holes.
Round files
Round files are used to file small radii.
Half-round files
Half-round files are used to file medium and large radii.

M7.3 TOOLS
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Flat
Triangular
Round
Square
Half-Round
Figure 34 File Shapes

M7.3 TOOLS
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FILE CUTS GRADE OF CUT

General General
File cuts are divided (with reference to the character of the teeth) into Files are also graded by the type, or grade, of finish they produce:
single-cut, double-cut, rasp-cut and curved-tooth.
S Smooth
Single-Cut
S Second Cut (not to be confused with Double-Cut)
Single-cut files are generally used to produce a smooth surface or to file a keen
edge. S Bastard
Also for use on soft metals like lead, zinc or aluminium. S Rough
Double-Cut
Double-cut files are used for fast metal removal and where a rough finish is
permissible.
Rasp-Cut
A rasp-cut file produces an extremely rough cut and is used on very soft mate-
rials such as wood and leather.
Curved-Tooth
A curved-tooth file (often called a ’Dreadnought’) is used to produce a very
smooth finish on soft metals such as aluminium.

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File Types
Curved
Single Cut Double Cut Rasp (Dreadnought)
Smooth Second Cut Bastard Rough
File Grades
Figure 35 File Cuts

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PROPER WORKING POSITION

Bench Vice
Bench vice adjustment is important to achieve a proper working position.
The bench vice should be 5--8 cm (2--3 inch) below your elbow (see picture).
Holding the file

Hold the handle with your right hand so that the end of the handle presses
against the palm.
With the palm, or fingertips, of your left hand press down on the file tip.
Left handed persons should hold the handle in their left hand and press on the
file blade with the right hand.
Safety
Always ensure a file in use has a handle fitted - the tang can puncture your
hand.

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Ensure handle
fitted for safety
5--8 cm
2--3 inch
Figure 36 Working Position

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FILE TECHNIQUE
General Pressing on the file
Guide the file by moving your body evenly. With your right hand push the file along the longitudinal axis and press it down;
Move the file in the direction of its longitudinal axis in order to avoid burrs in the with your left hand only press it down. Left handed persons vice versa.
work surface. Apply pressure on the forward stroke only. Return the file without pressure.
Soft Metals
However, when filing very soft metals (such as lead or aluminium), pressure
should be applied on both forward and backward strokes. This has the effect of
dislodging chips from between the file teeth, preventing clogging.

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Figure 37 File Technique

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FILING OF RADII
Filing of convex radii Filing of concave radii
In order to obtain a radius, flat surfaces are filed until they approximately form a The radius of the file must be smaller than the radius to be filed.
radius. Guide the file straight as if a flat surface is to filed, but turn the file about its
The file is moved in the longitudinal direction and up and down at the same longitudinal axis at the same time.
time. The position of the work in the vice has to be changed frequently in order To produce an even radius it is necessary to advance the file sideways. To pre-
to produce an accurate radius. vent burrs, do not feed sideways .

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flat surface
up and down motion

Figure 38 Filing of Radii

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DRAW FILING
General
For a final finish, you can use the draw filing process. This process is often
used on parts that are long relative to their width, for example aluminium
sheet’s edges.
This procedure is used to get a fine surface on the edges to prevent crack
growth.

Lufthansa Technical Training 1
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finish of stroke
cut on forward
stroke only
start of stroke
Figure 39 Draw Filing

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CLEANING DIRTY FILES

General
Files need to be cleaned frequently. A dirty file cannot produce a good finish
and acts like a dull file.
You can clean a file with a file brush by brushing across the file in a direction
parallel to the teeth.

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Figure 40 File-Cleaning with File Brush

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DRILLING TWIST DRILL NOMENCLATURE

Shank
GENERAL The shank of a drill is the part designed to fit into the drilling machine. It may be
a plain cylinder in shape, which is designed for use in a drill chuck on a drill mo-
Introduction tor, pillar drill or hand drill. The drill shank may also be tapered or pyramid--
Technicians are often faced with the need to drill accurately-sized round holes shaped.
in order to make attachments and join parts of an assembly. The tool usually
The tapered drill shank is usually used in pillar drills.
used for drilling such holes is the spiral-- or twist-drill.
The pyramid--shaped shank is also called a bit shank and is designed to fit a
The steel drill usually consists of a cylinder into which has been cut spiral
hand brace such as that used for wood bits.
grooves or flutes. One end is pointed and the other is shaped to fit a particular
drilling device such as a hand--drill. Body
Drills are made of both carbon steel and high speed steel (HSS). The carbon The body of a drill is the part between the point and the shank. It includes the
steel drills cost less, but they will overheat and lose their hardness when they spiral flutes, the lands and the margin.
are used to drill very hard or tough material. For this reason, HSS drills are by The body is slightly tapered, being fractionally larger in diameter at the tip than
far the most economical for use in aviation work. at the shank, thus causing it to bore a hole with clearance to prevent the drill
There are several types of drills available, so generally we have to use different from binding.
drills, drill speeds, cutting agents and pressure for different materials.
Cutting edge
The point of a drill includes the entire cone--shaped cutting end of the drill. The
point includes the cutting edges, or lips, which are sharpened when the drill is
ground.
The web is the portion of the drill at the centre along the axis. It thickens nearer
the shank. The web may also be defined as the material remaining at the
centre of the drill after the flutes have been cut out. The web forms the dead--
centre tip at the point of the drill.
The dead--centre is in the exact centre of the tip and is on the line forming the
axis of the drill.
Land
The land is the peripheral portion of the body between adjacent flutes.
Flutes
Helical grooves cut or formed in the body of the drill to provide cutting lips, to
permit removal of chips and to allow cutting fluid to reach the cutting lips.
Margin
The cylindrical portions of the land which is not cut away to provide clearance.

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Cutting edge
(lip)
Lip relief or
heel angle
ss
Lip angle
Included angle
Lip or Shank
Cutting Flute Margin Land
Edge
Body
Figure 41 Twist Drill

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DRILL TYPES
Jobbers Drills
The jobbers drill is the most often-used twist drill in sheet metal work. It is a
pointed tool that is rotated to cut holes in material.
It is made of a cylindrical hardened steel bar having spiral flutes (grooves) run-
ning the length of the body and a conical point with cutting edges formed by the
ends of the flutes.
Twist drills have one to four spiral flutes. Drills with two flutes are used for most
drilling; Those with three or four flutes are used principally to follow smaller
drills or to enlarge holes.
The principal parts of a twist drill are the shank, the body and the point. The
drill shank is the end that fits into the chuck of a hand or power drill. The
straight shank is generally used in hand, breast and portable electric drills.
Taper shank drills

Tapered shank drills have a taper called the Morse taper. The size of taper in-
corporated on any particular drill depends on the drill diameter. At the end of
the taper shank of a drill is a tongue, called the tang, and when the taper shank
is fitted into the socket or machine spindle this tang engages in a slot.
If the taper itself is in good condition, the frictional grip between this and the
surface of the taper hole should be almost, if not entirely, sufficient to drive the
drill, but if the taper becomes damaged, more load will be thrown on the tang in
driving the drill, and if the drill seizes in the hole the tang may be twisted off.
For this reason, every consideration to the care of taper shanks should be
given in use, and they should always be extracted with the proper taper drift.
Extension drill
The extension drill has a long shank for reaching limited--access areas. The
drill should not be used unless absolutely necessary.
Use a drill guard (a plastic tube slipped over the drill to protect adjacent struc-
ture from drill whip, and to make it possible to guide the drill by hand).
Hold the drill guard as near to the drill point as possible.

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Jobber Drill
Extension Drill
Taper Shank Drill
Figure 42 Drill Types

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Machine Spindle
The number of the Morse taper hole in a machine spindle will depend on the
size of the machine, varying from No.1 in small machines to No.4 or 5 in large
ones.
When a drill has to be accommodated in a spindle with a larger taper than its
shank, taper sockets must be used. These should also be cared for, because if
they become damaged, the drill fitted into them will no longer run true.

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Machine
Spindle
Blow Drift
Tang on
Drill
Figure 43 Machine Spindle

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DRILL GRINDING
GENERAL
Introduction Drill Grinding Sequence
Do not use blunt drills or attempt to sharpen them. Using blunt drills wastes 1. Adjust the grinder tool rest to a convenient height for resting the back of the
time and makes poor holes. Return blunt drills to the tool shop. The drills will be hand whilst grinding.
sent for resharpening.
Only machine grinding is sufficiently accurate to produce sharpened drills that 2. Hold the drill between the thumb and index finger of the right or left hand.
will cut holes to the correct size. A hand--sharpened drill usually has the point Grasp the body of the drill near the shank with the other hand.
off--centre and will cut oversize holes.
3. Place the hand on the tool rest with the centre line of the drill making a 59o
Grinding Drill Point Angles
angle with the cutting face of the grinding wheel. Lower the shank end of
In order to perform correctly, the drill must be ground or sharpened properly. the drill slightly.
For general--purpose work, the drill point should be sharpened to a cone (or
included) angle of 1180 (lip angle 590). This point will work satisfactorily for 4. Slowly place the cutting edge of the drill against the grinding wheel. Gradu-
most drilling jobs. ally lower the shank of the drill as you twist the drill in a clockwise direction.
For very hard or tough metals, a greater angle at the point is often used. The Maintain pressure against the grinding surface only until you reach the heel
point angle may be as great as 1400 (lip angle 700) in this case. of the drill.
For soft metals or fibre, the cutting angle may be reduced to 400.
Plastic materials are usually drilled most satisfactorily with a cutting angle of 5. Check the results of grinding with a gauge to determine whether or not the
about 300 (included angle 600) for shallow holes and with an angle of up to 700 lips are the same length and at a 59o angle.
for very deep holes.
The cutting edge is ground off to produce a zero--rake angle for soft plastics
such as plexiglass.
For drilling stainless steels or titanium, the drill--point angle should be about
1400.
For standard aluminium alloys, a drill--point angle of 1350 is very satisfactory.
The point is ground with a lip relief angle ranging from about 12--15 degrees for
drills used in normal hard materials. For very soft materials, this angle is usu-
ally increased to somewhere around 18--20 degrees.
In grinding the drill point, it is important to see that the desired point angle and
the proper lip--clearance angle are obtained. Further, it is essential that the
lengths of the lips be made equal. Where they are unequal, the drilled hole will
be oversize and possible out-of-round. If the cutting lips are ground with differ-
ent cutting angles, the drill will bind on one side and may break. Otherwise, it
will produce an oversize hole.

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Figure 44 Drill Grinding Sequence

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Point Thinning
The metal at the centre of a drill (the web) tapers and gets thicker towards the
shank. This causes the centre of a drill point to get thicker as its length is re-
duced by grinding. To prevent this thick edge from reducing the efficiency of the
drill it should be ground thinner.
The point thinning of a drill will usually keep the drill in a proper position when
starting the hole.
Grinding Problems
1. Lips of different lengths - drill moves off starting position.
2. Lips at different angles - Hole will be enlarged, rough hole surface.


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Lips of Different Lengths

Lips at Different Angles

Figure 45 Grinding Problems
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DRILLING SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

General
The following safety precautions are very important. Study them carefully.
-- When drilling, safety glasses, goggles or face shields must be used to

protect the eyes.
-- Remove the chuck key before starting the drill motor. Serious injury may
otherwise result.
-- When drilling through structure, give warning to anyone who may be on
the opposite side.
-- Use drill stops. They will protect aircraft skin material and understructure,
as well as personnel.
-- Use extreme care when drilling with extended drills. Always use exten-
sion drill guards.
-- Limit drill speed to a maximum of 6000 RPM for all drills longer than
three inches.
-- Use only a sharp drill with the correct point angle.
-- Never use a drill that is bent.
-- Select a drill motor suited to job requirement: size, speed, range and
configuration.
-- Use the shortest drill practicable.
-- If you drill magnesium or titanium alloys, ensure that there is a fire extin-
guisher next to you.
-- Prevent your hair becoming entangled with the spindle of the boring ma-
chine.

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TYPES OF DRILL MACHINES

Pillar Drill
A pillar drill is a bench--mounted or floor-mounted machine designed to rotate a
drill bit and press the sharpened point of the bit against metal in order to drill a
hole.
The pillar drill is driven by an electric motor through a speed--changing mecha-
nism; either a belt transmission or a gear transmission. The belt transmission
consists of two stacks of V--belt pulleys which vary progressively in size from 2
to 6 in (50.8 to 101.6 cm). The pulleys are arranged so that one set decreases
in size as the belt is moved up the stack and the other decreases as the belt is
moved down the stack. Thus, as the belt is moved up or down the pulleys, the
ratio of the motor speed to the spindle speed is changed.
This is an important feature because the speed of rotation of the drill bit should
vary in accordance with the type of material being drilled and the size of the
hole being drilled.
The pillar drill spindle is either fitted with a standard chuck or provision is made
for the insertion of drill bits with tapered shanks. Many pillar drills are arranged
so that a drill chuck with a tapered shank can be installed when the machine is
driving small drills and, when large drills are used, the chuck can be removed
and a drill with a tapered shank inserted directly into the hole in the spindle.
When used correctly, the pillar drill makes it possible to do precision drill work.
There should be no play in the spindle, spindle bearing or chuck and all should
be in perfect alignment. The drill point should be properly sharpened and
should not wobble when the machine is turned on. The work being drilled must
be securely clamped to the pillar drill table so it cannot move during the opera-
tion.
The operator of a pillar drill should make certain that the machine speed is ad-
justed correctly for the work being performed, that the drill point has the angle
most suitable for the machine and that the correct drilling pressure is applied
with the feed lever.

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Figure 46 Pillar Drill

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Pillar Drill Work Sequence
1. Select the correct speed and adjust it on the control panel.
2. Select the correct drill and install it in the chuck.
3. Clamp the work on the pillar drill table.
4. Wear safety glasses, goggles or face shield.
5. Start pillar drill motor.
6. Press down drill using the feed lever. Use the recommended feed range.
7. Curling chips (swarf) are formed.
8. Material will have been cut away by the drill and a hole produced.
9. Stop motor and remove drill and work.


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Figure 47 Pillar Drill Work Sequence

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HAND-HELD DRILL MOTORS

General
The most commonly-used drill motor for drilling aircraft sheet metal is the pneu-
matic or air drill. The main advantage of an air drill over an electric drill is
safety. Sparking in the motor of an electric drill can ignite fuel or oil vapour.
It is also far less hazardous to have air hoses in the crowded aircraft structure
where many sheet metal repairs are made than to have electrical cables.
Another advantage is the control offered by air drills. By varying trigger pres-
sure we can make them run slow, intermediate or high speed and there is al-
ways adequate torque. Drill motors are equipped with quick-change chucks or
keyed chucks.
Common Drill Motors

The pistol-grip or straight drill are the most often-used drill motors. These tools
are ordered by drill size capacity and speed.
Angle Drill Motors

Angle drill motors or power vanes are designed to be operated in tight or under
limited--access places. Three head angles - 30o, 45o, and 90o - are available.

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Common Drill Motors Angle Drill Motors

Figure 48 Hand-Held Drill Motors

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Flat Offset Drilling Head

Another tool designed for use in close quarters is the flat offset drilling head or
„pork chop”. This tool uses threaded shank drills up to 1/4 inch diameter. The
pork chop is ordered by spindle direction (up or down) motor speed and offset
dimension.
Flexible Snake Drill
The flexible snake drill is used only in limited--access areas where an angle drill
motor cannot be held perpendicular to the surface. The drill motor should be
held in one hand, the snake drill steadied with the other.

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Flat Offset Drilling Head

Flexible Snake Drill
Figure 49 Special Hand Held Drill Motors

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HAND DRILL
General
The hand drill is a simple device designed to hold a drill and enable the opera-
tor to rotate the bit at a comparatively high speed. The hand drill provides a
convenient means for drilling small holes, countersinking or deburring.
The hand drill consists of a chuck, a handle, an operating handle, a rest and a
transmission drive.
Hand Drill Handling
Position for vertical drilling
One hand is used for rotating the operating handle and the other for pressing
the drill down.
Position for horizontal drilling
One hand is used for rotating the operating handle, the other holds the handle
and pressure is exerted with the chest.

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Figure 50 Hand Drill

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THE CHUCK OF A DRILL MACHINE

Using the Keyed Chuck
The chuck of a drill machine is a tool which tightens the drill, countersinking bit,
reamer, etc. In using the keyed chuck, be sure to use the correct-size chuck
key. The key should mesh easily but firmly with the teeth of the chuck. In use,
hold the key securely in mesh with the chuck teeth, to prevent it slipping.
Turn the key counter--clockwise until the tool slips easily into the chuck jaws.
Turn the key clockwise and tighten the tool securely in the jaws, using at least
two different keyholes and make sure that the tool shank is gripped uniformly in
all three jaws.
Check the tightness of the tool. If necessary, tighten further, using the third key-
hole.
Handling Precautions
Do not tighten the chuck by holding it in your hands with the motor running.
This practice can cause injury and can also damage the chuck or the drill.
Do not start the motor with the key in the chuck; the key can cause injury.
Ideally, disconnect power or air supply whilst working with the chuck.

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Figure 51 Keyed Chuck

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DRILLING WORK SEQUENCE

GENERAL
Using the Drill
1. Hold the drill motor as shown. Notice that the thumb and forefinger of one
hand are used to steady the motor. This method can be used only with a
short drill. Short drills are always preferred.
2. Put the drill point on the spot to be drilled.
3. Keep the drill perpendicular to the surface being drilled. If necessary use a
drill guide.
4. When drilling thick material (two or three times drill diameter or more), with-
draw the drill from the hole periodically to prevent chips from packing in the
drill flutes. Tightly-packed chips can cause an oversized, scarred hole.
5. Use just enough pressure to allow the drill to cut its way through the metal.
Never force the drill; this can cause drill breakage, separation of parts or
oversize or out--of--round holes.
6. Ease the pressure just as the drill point breaks through the material. Drill
through material no more than 1/4 inch thick.
7. Use a drill-stop to prevent the drill from going through the part further than
necessary (adjust the stop). If a drill-stop is not used, the part may be dam-
aged by the drill chuck, and the underlying structure may be damaged by
the drill point.
8. Keep the drill motor running while withdrawing the drill from the hole.

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Pressure on
centre-line of
drill
Set screw

Drill-stop
Set drill-stop to ma-

terial thickness +
.10 inch
Figure 52 Using The Drill

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DEBURRING
General
When holes are drilled through two sheets of material, small burrs are formed
around the edges of the holes and chips can be pushed between the two
sheets. It is therefore essential to remove the burrs and chips.
Removal of burrs from drilled holes may be accomplished with a manufactured
deburring tool, a countersinking tool (using a very light cut) or a large drill which
will clear the edges of a drilled hole. Care must be taken to remove only the
rough edges and chips from the hole.
When two or more sheets are drilled at the same time, it is necessary to re-
move chips from between the sheets. The right-hand picture shows the results
of leaving material between drilled sheets.
Special Deburring Tool

This tool is designed to deburr holes on the exit side which you could not reach
with standard deburring tools, due to limited access. This tool is chucked in a
drill motor for rapid work.
The retractable blade is held in place by spring pressure. To use, push the tool
through the hole and remove burrs from the exit side. Then draw the tool back
through the hole and remove burrs from the entry side.
This deburring tool comes in common hole sizes from 5/32 to 3/8 inch

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Special Deburring Tool
Figure 53 Deburring
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COMMON DRILLING PROBLEMS
Indication Probable Cause

Outer corners of drill break off 1. Excessive cutting speed.
2. Hard spots in the material.
3. Flutes clogged with swarf.
1. Excessive feed rate.

Parts of the cutting edges break off
2. Excessive drill cutting edge clearance.
Cracks in drill cutting edges
1. Drill overheated or cooled too quickly whilst sharpening or drilling.
1. Drill point improperly ground.

Drill breaks
3. Drill blunt.
4. Flutes clogged with swarf.
1. Insufficient drill cutting edge clearance.

Drill splits up its centre
1. Drill blunt.
Drill will not feed into material
2. Insufficient drill cutting edge clearance.
3. Drill too large (i. e. pilot hole required).
1. Drill point improperly ground/blunt.

Hole wall rough

2. Insufficient or incorrect lubricant.
4. Material not rigid.
Hole oversize
1. Unequal angle and/or length of cutting edges.
2. Loose spindle.

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Drilling Hints
1. For soft metals use a drill with a quick twist to its flutes, and vice versa for
hard metals.
2. Cut with soluble oil for steel and malleable iron, kerosene or turpentine for
very hard steel. Cast--iron or brass should be drilled dry, or with a jet of
compressed air.
3. If the corners wear away rapidly, the cutting speed is too high.
4. If cutting edges chip, reduce the feed or grind with less clearance.
5. If the drill will not start drilling there is no clearance on lips.
6. Examine relative sizes of turnings produced from each flute. They should
be approximately the same but, if not, the drill is incorrectly ground with one
lip doing more cutting than the other.
7. Drill breakage may be caused by the point being incorrectly ground; feed
too great; not easing drill at ”break through”; binding in hole due to lands
being worn away; drill choked in a long hole.
8. The blueing of a high--speed steel drill is not detrimental but it is fatal to a
carbon steel drill.
9. A hard spot encountered may be removed by reducing speed and using
suitable cutting compound or fluid.
10.For holes larger than 3.2mm, it is necessary to initially drill a pilot hole and
enlarge it to the required hole size.

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WORK CLAMPING
General Pillar Drill Clamping
Unless work is so large and heavy that there is no danger of its moving or be- To secure work when using the pillar drill a vice, clamps and dogs are often
ing rotated with the drill, it should always be clamped or held by some method. used.
The necessity for clamping cannot be understated because unclamped or inse-
curely clamped work is not only a cause of inaccurate work and broken drills, Vice
but also a danger to the operator.
Most work will be secured by using a vice. The main use of the vice is to hold
The chief danger in drilling occurs just as the drill point breaks through at the the work during drilling, reaming etc. in the correct position. Care should be
underside of the part being drilled. Whilst the point is being resisted by solid taken to ensure that when the drill passes through the work it does not drill into
metal, the feeding pressure causes some spring-back to take place in the ma- the bottom of the vice.
chine and the work, putting them into a similar condition to a strong spring
which is compressed slightly under a load.
Clamps and Dogs
As soon as the drill point breaks through, most of the resistance against it sud-
denly vanishes and the stress in the machine releases itself by imparting a sud- The tables of most pillar drills are provide with either T-slots to accommodate
den downward push onto the drill, just as a sudden relieving of the load from a bolt heads or long slots running through to enable bolts and clamps/dogs to be
spring would allow the end of it to jump up. The sudden downward push on the used.
drill generally causes one or both of the lips to dig in, often with disastrous re-
sults.
When feeding the drill by hand, pressure should be eased off when the point is
felt to be breaking through, and for this reason small drills should always be fed
by hand.
Special care is necessary when drilling thin plate, as the drill point often breaks
through before the drill has cut its full diameter.

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Figure 54 Pillar Drill Clamping

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Hand Drill Clamping

When using a hand drill motor, the work to be drilled must be properly secured
so it cannot move. It should never be held by hand because, in the event of a
broken drill, the broken end may pierce the hand or a finger, causing a painful
injury.
Angle vices, pin vices, hand vices etc. are to be used to hold the work to be
drilled in position.

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Figure 55 Hand Drill Clamping

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DRILLING AIDS
ADDITIONAL TOOLS FOR DRILLING
Drill stop
The drill stop regulates the hole depth, cushions the break through, eliminates
surfaces marks and reduces drill breakage. The drill stop locks onto the drill
with a set screw.
Drill guide
The hand-held drill guide keeps the drill 90o to the skin surfaces. The guide
assembly consists of a clear plastic housing and special screw in type hard-
ened steel bushing. The bushing can be interchanged.

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Figure 56 Drill Stop and Drill Guide

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Nut Plate Drill Jig

The nut plate drill jig is designed for accurate drilling of rivet holes for nut plates
(sometimes called ’anchor-nuts’). It is manufactured with a flexible handle to
provide hand clearance when the jig is in use. There are a lot of different drill
jigs available.
Drill Jig Handling
1. Align the pilot with the pilot hole when drilling the first hole.
2. Align the pilot with the pilot hole, pilot-pin the hole drilled in the first opera-
tion and then drill the second hole.

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Figure 57 Nut Plate Drill Jig

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Hole Finder
When replacing an old skin with a new one, if there are no pilot holes drilled in
the new skin it is quite difficult to precisely locate the holes in the structure. For
this procedure, a hole finder (sometimes called a ’back-marker’) may be used.
The finder resembles a clamp that slips over the new skin, and on its underside
is a pin that exactly fits through the hole in the structure. A hole in the top side
guides the drill in making a hole in the new skin that will align with the one in
the structure.

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Figure 58 Hole Finder

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Drill Gauge
The size of a drill is stamped on its shank. If the size cannot be read, it can be
determined by using a drill gauge. Drill gauges are available for all three series
of drill sizes; fractional, letter and number.
Fractional drills are furnished in sizes from 1/16 to 1 inch in diameter, gradu-
ated in sixty--fourths of an inch.
Letter drills range in size from A (the smallest) to Z (the largest).
Number drills range from I (the largest) to 80 (the smallest).
To gauge a drill, insert the point into a hole in the drill gauge (remember the
shank is fractionally smaller than the point). If the drill slips easily into the hole,
insert it into the next smaller hole. When the correct size has been determined,
the drill will rub lightly in the hole.

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Figure 59 Drill Gauge

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DRILL AGENTS
General
Drilling agents are recommended (unless prohibited by the engineering draw-
ing) to improve tool life, hole tolerance and hole finish. Recommended cutting
agents for drilling, reaming, and countersinking are shown in the following
table. Cutting agents are mandatory only when so specified.
Boelube
Boelube is used as an agent for drilling aluminium, magnesium and steel, as
well as titanium.
Boelube consists of cetyl alcohol, a non--toxic lubricant from the fatty alcohol
chemical family. It is suitable for many production operations and is manufac-
tured in solid, paste, and liquid forms. It is approved for use with aluminium,
steel or titanium materials. It is also sealant- and paint-compatible, and is non--
corrosive. Disassembly for cleaning is not required in sealant or paint areas.
Boelube lubricants have the following characteristics:
-- non--toxic, non--polluting and non-irritating under normal conditions
-- excellent lubricating properties under extreme pressure
-- removed by solvent wiping or washing with warm water and mild deter-
gent
-- compatible with most lubricant application systems

Remaining Boelube residue must be removed within 48 hours after use.

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Material Cutting Agent Application

Freon TB-1 Mist x
Aluminium
and Water Soluble Coolants Flood, mist or through oil hole drill or
Magnesium or BOELUBE reamer or directly to the cutting tool y
BOELUBE (Countersinking) Directly to cutting tool z
Steel { Water soluble coolants Flood, mist or through oil hole drill or
(includes or BOELUBE reamer y
stainless Mineral oils Directly to cutting tool
steels) BOELUBE (countersinking) Directly to cutting tool
Freon TB-1 Mist x
Water soluble coolants Flood, mist or through oil hole drill or
Titanium reamer y
or BOELUBE
BOELUBE (Countersinking) Directly to cutting tool
x Freon and TB-1 must be applied as a mist. Several systems for applying TB-1 are available and are generally
supplied by the tool rooms or to the shop as shop equipment.
y ST1219C-11T mist coolant tank was designed for water soluble coolants. Do not use Freon TB-1.
z Special systems have been designed for application.
{ Refer to BAC 5440 for lubricants and application when it is specified on the engineering drawing.

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DRILLING SIZES
General
Twist drills used in aircraft sheet metal are usually of the number drill sizes be-
tween one and sixty. However, for larger-sized holes either fraction drills or let-
ter drills may be used.
The diagram opposite shows a twist--drill size chart that lists sizes from No. 80,
the smallest normally in use, up to 5/16 inch. There are, of course, drill sizes
smaller and larger than those listed, but they fall outside of the general use of
the aircraft mechanic.
You will notice that the smallest drills have the largest numbers; for example, a
No. 80 drill is much smaller than the No. 1 drill. In addition to the number drills,
there are letter drills from A to Z, with A being the smallest.
The fraction drills are interspersed among the number and letter drills, and only
at one point do we find a fraction and a number or letter drill of the same size;
both the 1/4-inch drill and the E drill are 0.250 inch.

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Figure 60 Drill Size Chart

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DRILL SPEEDS
GENERAL
Introduction Material / RPM tables
Drill speeds are an important factor in getting good results. Drill speed deter- Table IV--1 Material / RPM - Drilling ferrous metals
mines the rate at which the outer cutting edge of the drill is moving across the
material being out. Table IV--2 Material / RPM - Drilling high Temperature alloys (Inconel, titanium)
The correct speed for aluminium alloy will not produce the best results with
stainless steel or titanium. When harder materials are drilled, slower speeds Table IV--3 Material / RPM - Drilling nonferrous metals (aluminium alloys, mag-
are required. nesium)
The following drill speed tables are recommended for drilling. Material / revolu-
tions per minute (RPM) values and speeds and feeds for most materials com- Table IV--4 Material / RPM - Drilling nonferrous metals (fibreglass laminates,
monly used are given. These speeds and feeds are a guide for selecting the nylon Teflon, graphite, epoxy, kevlar epoxy)
correct portable and stationary drilling units to improve tool life, hole tolerance,
and hole finish. In some portable drilling applications, speeds and feeds may
Table IV--5 Material / RPM - Drilling composite with metal (graphite or kevlar
have to be reduced to be compatible with motor power and other limitations.
epoxy and aluminium stack, and graphite or kevlar and titanium stack)
However, the speeds and feeds shown in the tables should never be exceeded.
Despite all these facts and figures, though, for practical purposes use the cor-
rectly-ground drill and appropriate lubricant, start drilling slowly and increase
the revolutions until swarf starts to appear. Then you know you are using the
correct drill speed.

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Figure 61 RPM Table IV - 1

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Figure 62 RPM Table IV - 1 (Continued)

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Figure 67 Table IV - 2
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Figure 68 Table IV - 2 (Continued)

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REAMING

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LIMITS AND FITS

General Transition Fit
In precision manufacture it is not possible to make an engineering component This is a range of fits which can be either clearance or interference.
to an exact size. Gauge blocks are considered to be very accurate standards of The shaft can be larger or smaller than the part it fits into.
length, but even these are not exact.
If a component cannot be made to an exact size then the amount by which it
can be in error (known as the deviation from the exact size) must be known Tolerances
and included with the dimension. The type of fit between two assembled parts depends on the size to which
If moving parts in machines are to function properly, then the relationship be- each part is made. Since no size can be exact, then each part must be made
tween the size of one part and the size of the part which fits into it is of extreme within two sizes. The two sizes within which a part must be made are called
importance. When. for example. manufacturing a shaft which has to run freely limits.
in a bearing. there must be enough space for a film of oil between the two in If the basic size (also known as the nominal size) of the part is 25mm then the
order to prevent wear. limits could be given as
The maximum and minimum permanent sizes of a component are known as
limits. The difference between the maximum and minimum sizes (limits) is
called tolerance. 25.0I -- Upper limit
There are a number of limits and fits systems in use which give the largest and 24.99 -- Lower limit
smallest size of a part for any required type of fit.
If you subtract the lower limit from the upper limit the result is known as the
THE ISO SYSTEM OF LIMITS AND FITS tolerance.
The ISO system of limits and fits gives a range of sizes to which parts should
be made if the type of fit is known. The following list gives you examples of the 25.01
types of fit in use:
24.99 -
S Clearance fit
S Interference fit 0.02 = Tolerance
S Transition fit
Clearance Fit
In this assembly there is a space between the two parts. The shaft is always
smaller than the part it fits into.
Interference Fit
In this assembly there is no space between the parts. The shaft is always
larger than the part it fits into. This means that force is required to assemble
the parts.

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CLEARANCE FIT INTERFERENCE FIT
CLEARANCE NO CLEARANCE
(space between
hole and shaft)
A force is required
to push the shaft
through the hole
TRANSITION FIT
Can be clearance or interference
Figure 75 Basic Types Of Fit

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Systems of Fits
There are two systems of fits in use:
S Hole basis system
S Shaft basis system
The Hole Basis System of Fits
This is the preferred system. The range of fits is obtained by manufacturing the
hole to a fixed size and the shaft size is varied. This system is preferred be-
cause reamers, for example. are made in a range of standard sizes. (It would
be impossible to make a range of reamers to cover all types of fit.)
The Shaft Basis System of Fits

In this system the shaft is the fixed size and the hole sizes are varied. This sys-
tem is sometimes used when a variety of components. e.g. bearings. cou-
plings. gears etc. are all to fit the same shaft.

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Figure 76 ISO Fits (Hole Basis) - British Standard 4500

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REAMING GENERAL
Introduction
Holes must be of high quality. Finishing operations such as reaming improve Bottoming reamers have no taper and are used to complete the reaming of
the quality of the hole. Under certain flight conditions, the maximum design blind holes.
strength of every fastener is required. Proper hole fill is essential in attaining Many factors affect the finished size of a reamed hole. The following are the
maximum design strength. When a fastener does not fill the hole, it is the weak most common:
link in a chain of several fasteners.
-- Pilot hole diameter.
Care and good workmanship are essential in reaming high quality holes.
Surface defects of holes are given in the SRM Chapter 51 ”Surface Defect Cri- -- Hardness of material being reamed.
teria for Fastener Holes in Metal“.
Basics -- Amount of material being removed by the reamer.
Reaming is a process in which a fluted tool, called a reamer, is used to enlarge
a drilled hole. Reaming is a finishing operation that provides closer control of -- Speed of reamer.
hole sizes and better finish than drilling alone.
In normal practice, a hole that is to be reamed is drilled 1/32 inch under the -- Rate of feed (pressure).
finished hole size. Reamer pilots are sized to suit the drilled holes.
Before using a reamer on a production part, try it out on scrap material of the -- Sharpness of reamer.
same alloy and thickness in a drilled hole of the same size as the one to be
reamed. Verify that the reamer will cut to the required tolerance or continue -- Amount and type of lubrication.
testing until the right combination of reamer size, speed and feed is found. A
reamer will generally produce a hole that is from 0.0001 to 0.002 inch larger in -- Removing reamer from hole.
diameter than the exact size of the reamer.
Reamer are made of either carbon tool steel or high--speed steel. The cutting
blades of a high--speed steel reamer lose their original keenness sooner than
those of a carbon steel reamer. However, after the first super-keenness is
gone, they are still serviceable. The high--speed reamer usually lasts much lon-
ger than the carbon steel type.

Reamer blades are hardened to the point of being brittle and must be handled
carefully to avoid chipping them. When reaming a hole, rotate the reamer in the
cutting direction only. Turn the reamer steadily and evenly to prevent chatter-
ing, or marking and scoring of the hole walls.
Reamers are available in any standard size. The straight--fluted reamer is less
expensive than the spiral--fluted reamer, but the spiral type has less tendency
to chatter. Both types are tapered for a short distance towards the end to aid in
starting.

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Figure 77 Table Of Defect Criteria (ATA-Chapter 51-- 40-- 05)

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REAMER DESCRIPTION
Shaft
Shafts of reamers can take different shapes and forms. There is never a char-
acteristic shape for either a hand-- or a machine--reamer. The type of driving
mechanism determines the shape of the shaft.
Hand reamers mostly have a cylindrical shaft with a square end (for a tap
wrench).
Shafts of machine--reamers are mostly designed as Morse tapers.
Chucking grooves
Chucking grooves are the spaces between the single teeth; all chips are col-
lected and transported in these spaces. The course of the chucking grooves
affect the direction of the removal of chips.
There are straight--fluted and spiral--fluted reamers.
Straight--fluted reamers have no precise affect on the direction of the removal
of chips. They have a low abrasion and are the most used type.
Spiral--fluted reamers, on the other hand, lead the removed chips in a definite
direction.
Left--hand twist -- Right--hand twist (For the use of Right--hand cutting tools)
Right--hand twist affects the direction of the removal of chips like a normal twist
drill.
The Left--hand twist moves the chips into the advance direction. The chips can-
not have an adverse effect on the reamed part of the holes drilling. Therefore
left--hand twist--fluted reamers are only suitable for transmission drills. They
have the advantage that they do not tend to pull themselves into the hole.
When reaming grooved holes, it is better to use spiral--fluted reamers.

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Shank Neck Flutes (body) Chamfer (straight taper)

Square
Straight flutes
Spiral flutes
Figure 78 Reamer
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Spacing
Vibration of the tool or work whilst cutting often leads to undesirable chatter
marks. Modern reamers are made with an uneven spacing; in that way the ef-
fect of periodical vibration is reduced.
Remove the reamer from a hole by rotating it in the cutting direction (working
direction). Otherwise, due to the wedge effect of the chips at positions A and B,
the hole surface and/or the cutting edges will be damaged.

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Spacing and diametral pitch are designed in such Correct direction of rotation of reamers (working
a way that two cutting edges are facing one direction)
another (measurability)
Figure 79 Space Of Cutting Edges

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TYPES OF REAMERS
General
There are two basic types of reamers; the hand-- and the machine--reamer.
Machine Reamer
The machine reamer is designed with a large cutting angle, short major cutting
edges (short first cut) and short overall cutting edges. Due to the short first cut
the machine reamer, in principle, can only be used if the work piece and the
reamer have no axial play during the reaming process. So you cannot use a
hand drill.
The advantages of a machine reamer are a much higher cutting capacity and
the possibility of reaming dead centre holes.

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Overall length
Shank length
Tang
Flute length
Taper shank
Cutter Chamfer Chamfer

sweep angle length
Straight shank Helix angle

Actual
size
Shank length Helical flutes Body

RH helix
shown
Chamfer length Land width
Chamfer
Chamfer angle relief Margin
Chamfer relief
angle
Actual
Radial rake
size
angle
Figure 80 Machine Reamer

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Hand Reamer
The hand--reamer is designed with a small cutting angle, large major cutting
edges (large first cut) and large overall cutting edges.
The hand--reamer will be guided into the hole through the long first cut and the
long major cutting edges.

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Square Shank Neck Flutes (body) Chamfer (starting taper)
Straight flutes
Spiral flutes
Starting
Margin Relieved land
Taper
Cutting edge Relief angle
Land Heel
Width
Cutter face
Actual size
Flute
Core diameter
Bevel Land
Figure 81 Hand Reamer

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Pilot Reamer
The pilot reamer is guided into the hole through a bushing.
Pilot Chuck Reamer

The pilot chuck reamer is the most commonly used reamer which gives accu-
rate lead into a drilled hole and a superior finish.

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Pilot Reamer
Pilot Chuck Reamer
Figure 82 Pilot and Pilot Chuck Reamer

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Expansion Hand Reamer

This reamer is used when the hole must be cut a few thousandth of an inch
over nominal size for fitting purposes. Slots are cut into the hollow centre of the
tool and the centre opening is machined on a slight taper. The reamer is ex-
panded by tightening a taper screw into this opening.
The amount of expansion is limited and the reamer could be damaged if over-
expanded. It is not recommended that the expansion reamer be used in place
of a solid reamer because of the danger of producing oversize holes.
Taper Reamer
This reamer is used to finish a taper hole (for example for a taper shank bolt)
accurately and with a smooth finish. Because of the long cutting edges, taper
reamers are somewhat difficult to operate.

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Expansion Hand Reamer

Taper Reamer
Figure 83 Expansion Hand Reamer and Taper Reamer

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Adjustable Hand--Reamer
This reamer is threaded its entire length and fitted with tapered slots to receive
the adjustable blades. The blades are tapered along one edge to correspond
with the taper slots in the reamer body so that, when they are in position, the
cutting edges of the blade are parallel.
The diameter of the reamer is set by loosening one adjusting nut and tightening
the other. The blade can be moved in either direction.
This type of reamer is manufactured in sizes ranging from 3/8-1/2 inch and
each reamer has sufficient adjustment to increase the diameter to the size of
the next larger reamer.

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LARGER SMALLER
CUTTER TAPER
Adjustable Hand Reamer
Figure 84 Adjustable Hand Reamer

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REAMING SPEED AND AGENTS

Reaming speeds
The reaming speed is the speed of the chip removal. The recommended mate-
rial / RPM values (speeds and feeds) for reaming are shown in the following
tables:
Table V--1 Reaming aluminium alloys
Table V--2 Reaming titanium alloys
Table V--4 Reaming titanium or aluminium stackup
Table V--5 Reaming composites and composites with metal


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Figure 85 Table V - 1
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Figure 86 Table V - 1 (Continued)

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Figure 91 Table V- 4
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Reaming Agent
To ream a hole to a high degree of surface finish, a cutting agent is needed.
A good agent will cool the work and tool, and will also act as a lubricant be-
tween the chip and the tool to reduce friction and heat build--up.
The following cutting agents given in Table VII--l are recommended (unless pro-
hibited by the engineering drawing) to improve tool life, hole tolerance and hole
finish.

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Material Cutting Agent Application

Freon TB-1 Mist x
Aluminium
and Water Soluble Coolants Flood, mist or through oil hole drill or
Magnesium or BOELUBE reamer or directly to the cutting tool y
BOELUBE (Countersinking) Directly to cutting tool z
Steel { Water soluble coolants Flood, mist or through oil hole drill or
(includes or BOELUBE reamer y
stainless Mineral oils Directly to cutting tool
steels) BOELUBE (countersinking) Directly to cutting tool
Freon TB-1 Mist x
Water soluble coolants Flood, mist or through oil hole drill or
Titanium reamer y
or BOELUBE
BOELUBE (Countersinking) Directly to cutting tool
x Freon and TB-1 must be applied as a mist. Several systems for applying TB-1 are available and are generally
supplied by the tool rooms or to the shop as shop equipment.
y ST1219C-11T mist coolant tank was designed for water soluble coolants. Do not use Freon TB-1.
z Special systems have been designed for application.
{ Refer to BAC 5440 for lubricants and application when it is specified on the engineering drawing.

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REAMING ADVICE
General
Do not try to straighten the drilled hole by applying side pressure; you will prob-
ably cut oversize.
Stop reamer rotation as soon as the reamer’s major diameter breaks through.
When removing the reamer from the hole rotate it by hand in the direction of
the cut; backing up the reamer will dull it.
Chatter corrections may be made by reducing the speed, increasing the feed or
using a reamer with a pilot.
Oversize holes can be caused by inadequate work support, worn guide bush-
ings, worn or loose spindle bearings or a bent reamer shank.
Check the reamer if it gradually starts cutting larger holes; it may be caused by
built--up edges on the reamer cutting surfaces. Some aluminium alloys and
mild steel are affected by these built--up edges.
Reamers should be stored so that they do not get in contact with another
reamer to avoid burrs on the tools.
If you take a reamer or a reamer set out of the toolshop, check out given di-
mensions marked on the shank with the given hole sizes in the SRM.

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BUILT-UP EDGE
90˚
Figure 94 Reaming Advice

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COUNTERSINKING

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GENERAL
Introduction
To install a countersunk fastener, it is necessary to provide a conical cut-out or
depression in the surface of the skin so that the head of the fastener will be
flush with the surface. This provides smooth aerodynamic surfaces on airplane
structures or smooth surfaces for attaching adjoining members.
The use of countersinks on riveted joints also provides weight saving by elimi-
nating the weight of the rivet head material.
The depression is made by means of a countersinking tool when the skin is
sufficiently thick and by dimpling when the skin is thin.
The use of a machine countersink is limited by the size of the fastener and the
thickness of the skin. Generally, sheet metal should not be countersunk entirely
through the sheet (See SRM - minimum sheet thickness for countersinking for
fasteners), as this results in ’knife-edging’ - potential crack sources.
A countersinking tool is usually provided with a straight shank for use in a hand
drill, a drill motor or a bench drill.
Countersinks are made with a variety of cutting angles. In sheet-metal work,
countersink cutters are available for 82o, 100o and 120o fastener heads, and
for special NACA rivets. Always be sure that the cutting angle you use is the
correct one for the fastener to be used.
NOTE: IN GENERAL, ALL SHEET METAL WORK IS DONE USING 100O
FASTENER HEADS.

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Figure 95 Example Table Of Sheet Thickness For Countersinking

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COUNTERSINKING TOOLS
Standard Countersink / Plain Counter
A standard countersink can be used in a drill motor or a hand drill, but the diffi-
culty in cutting the depression to the correct depth makes this tool impractical
when you have several holes to countersink. Standard countersinks are avail-
able with one, three or multiple cutting lips.
Standard Countersink with Pilot
This type of tool looks like the standard countersink. The only difference is the
pilot pin which guides the countersink into the material.

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Countersink / Plain Counter Countersink With Pilot

Figure 96 Standard Countersink

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Microstop Countersink
For general purposes the microstop countersink, fitted with a removable cutter,
has been proved to be the most efficient countersinking tool. This tool controls
countersink depth and keeps the cutter perpendicular to the work surface.
The microstop is equipped with a removable cutter and pilot. The cutter con-
sists of a cutting head and a pilot that may be removable.
Countersink cutters are available for 82o, 100o and 120o fastener heads and
for special NACA rivets.
NOTE: Always be sure that the cutting angle you use is the correct
one for the fastener to be used.

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Barrel Skirt
Locking Ring Cutter Pilot

Figure 97 Typical Microstop Countersink

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Instructions For Using Microstop Countersink Tool

The shaft of the microstop countersink tool rotates on a bearing inside an ad- In actual practice, the proper depth of the countersink is determined by driving
justable locking sleeve and foot piece assembly. The foot piece (or ”stop” as it a test rivet in a scrap piece of metal. The depth adjustment of the microstop
is often called) screws onto the shaft bearing, enabling depth adjustments to be countersink tool is gradually increased until a countersink depth is obtained that
made. provides the required flushness of a driven rivet. Once the correct countersink
Markings, indicating depth differentials in 0.001--inch increments, surround the adjustment has been established in this manner, the tool can be used for coun-
bevelled circumference of the locking sleeve to aid in depth adjustments. tersinking on the actual job.
Adjustment is made by pulling the sleeve back and turning the stop to increase NOTE: WHEN COUNTERSINKING A CONCAVE OR CONVEX ITEM,
or decrease the cut. The sleeve is then dropped back into its original position to THE CUTTER WILL NOT CUT TO THE SAME DEPTH AS SET
effect a lock. UP ON A FLAT PIECE OF MATERIAL.
TRY TO SET UP ON A TEST-PIECE OF THE SAME CURVA-
NOTE: MAKE SURE THAT THE LOCKING SPLINES INTERMESH;
TURE.
ONLY THEN IS THE ADJUSTMENT SECURELY LOCKED. IN
GENERAL, ADJUSTMENT OF THE MICROSTOP WILL BE Ideally a countersink tool will have a nylon face fitted to minimise damage to
MADE ON SCRAP MATERIAL. the workpiece.
The stop countersink may be adjusted or set up on the part to be countersunk, Chips will become embedded in this face during the countersinking operation.
providing the following precautions are taken: It is vital that the skirt is prevented from rotating (see diagram) to stop these
1. Be sure the adjustable foot piece is extended far enough to ensure that the chips becoming ground into the workpiece.
cut will not be too deep.
2. Gradually increase the depth adjustment until the depth and diameter of the
hole are the same as the size of the fastener head.
3. If at all doubtful of the accuracy of the adjustment, try the countersink on a
piece of scrap material before using.
The pilot pin guides the spinning cutter as it cuts into the material. The pilot pin
is approximately 0.002 inch less in diameter than the fastener hole. This allows
the cutter to spin without binding in the hole. Cutter-- pilots which are more than
0.002 inch smaller than the hole size will allow the cutter to wobble and result
in a lop--sided countersink.
NOTE: ENSURE THE CUTTER IS SEATED IN THE COUNTERSINK

SHAFT BEFORE USING THE STOP COUNTERSINK, OTHER-
WISE INCORRECT DEPTH OF COUNTERSINK WILL RESULT.

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Adjustment of Microstop
Countersinking Tool
Holding Microstop
1/2 100˚ 1/8

Countersink Tool Skirt
Countersink Cutter
Figure 98 Microstop Handling

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Back Countersinking
The back countersinking tool is used to countersink inaccessible holes. The
tool consists of a pilot rod and a countersink cutter. The rod must be slightly
smaller than the hole.
Work sequence
1. Install the rod in a drilling motor.
2. Insert the pilot rod through the hole.
3. Attach the cutter to the rod end.
4. Start drilling motor and pull back the motor.

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Pilot Rod
Countersink Cutter
Figure 99 Back Countersinking

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Spotfacing
Spotfacing is the method used for cutting a flat area or seat for a bolt head or
nut on a contoured or uneven surface. This operation should be done in a pillar
drill whenever possible, but must occasionally be done with hand--held equip-
ment.
Spotfacers have interchangeable pilots that must be slightly smaller than the
fastener hole. The spotfacer diameter will be called up on the drawing. The op-
erator should use a pilot 1/32 inch smaller than the hole.

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Figure 100 Spotfacer

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GUIDELINES FOR COUNTERSINKING

General
Because countersinking is done through skin tape or through a protective spray
coating, allow for this added thickness when adjusting countersink cutter depth.
Be sure the skirt of the countersink tool is smooth and polished; burrs or nicks
on the skirt may mark the skin.
Do not allow the skirt to rotate on the metal; this can scratch the skin.
Be sure the locking ring is kept snug; the ring tends to work loose during use.
Countersink depth requirements are given in the SRM (aerodynamic smooth-
ness) for each airplane.
Periodically check countersink depth throughout the countersinking operation to
ensure that flushness requirements are being met. Countersink depth will vary
depending upon the skin thickness and understructure support.
Before using, check countersink cutter for pilot size, sharpness, angle and true
running.
Hold countersink at a 90o angle to material.
Cut to full depth each time.
Apply pressure directly behind countersinker.
Ensure there is a thickness of material behind the skin being countersunk to
guide the pilot to prevent chattering of cutter.

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COUNTERSINK CUTTING AGENTS / SPEEDS

General
Cutting agents are recommended (unless prohibited by the engineering draw-
ing) to improve tool life, hole tolerance and hole finish. Recommended cutting
agents are shown below.

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Figure 101 Cutting Agents

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Figure 102 Cutting Guidelines

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THREAD CUTTING

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HAND THREADING TOOLS

The Stock
The stock is the tool used to hold and turn a threading die when producing ex-
ternal threads by hand.
The Die
Dies have three or more flutes to form cutting edges on the internal threads
and cavities for removal of chips.
They have chamfers ground on the first few threads of the leading end of the
die to facilitate easy starting.

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Locking and
adjusting screws
Flute
Handle
Recess for die Chamfer
Cutting
teeth
Leading face of die

Leading face of die
Stock Die
Figure 103 Hand Threading Tools

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HAND TAPPING TOOLS

Tap Wrench
Tap wrenches are tools used to hold and turn a tap when cutting internal
threads by hand.
Tap wrenches have adjustable jaws to grip the hand tap.
Hand Taps
Hand taps have three or more flutes to form cutting faces on the external
threads and channels for removal chips.
Hand taps have chamfers ground on the leading threads of the tap to enable
easy starting.
The end of the shank is squared to allowed it to be gripped firmly in the tap
wrench.

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Tap wrench
grips squared
part of shank
Jaws
Handle Adjust jaw by Chamfer

turning handle
Flute Cutting face
Bar-Type Tap Handle Hand Tap
Figure 104 Hand Tapping Tools

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TYPE OF TAPS
Regular Hand Taps
Each regular hand tap set consists of a taper, an intermediate and a bottoming
tap.
Each tap in a set has identical length and thread measurements and only the
tapered lead is different.
S Always use the taper tap to start thread.
S Use the intermediate tap to follow the taper tap.
S Use the bottoming tap to complete the thread.

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Bottoming
Start with Use intermediate completes
taper tap tap after taper thread
Taper Tap Intermediate Tap Bottoming Tap

Figure 105 Types of Taps

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HOLES FOR TAPPING

Size and Condition
Holes of the correct size and condition are essential for successful tapping.
Theoretically, a tap would produce a 100% thread in an accurate hole of the
same diameter as the minor diameter of its thread.
Calculations based on a different standard formula for each thread may be
used.
Engineering handbooks and manufacturers give tables of tapping drill recom-
mendations.

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Drill hole too small

may cause:- threads to break ,tap may break
Minor diameter
Drill hole not round
may cause tap to break
Major diameter
Drilling swarf left in bottom of blind hole

may cause tap to jam on packed swarf and break
Figure 106 Holes for Tapping

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HOW TO TAP
Procedure
1. Check the size of thread required and select the correct taps. 16.If the flutes are clogged, reverse the tap carefully and remove it from the
2. Determine the correct size of tapping drill. Drill the tapping hole carefully hole. Use a brush to remove the chips from the tap and the hole and con-
and deburr the edges. tinue the tapping process.
3. Fit the taper tap in a matching size bar-type tap wrench. 17.Continue turning the tap until at least half the tap extends below the lower
surface of the material.
4. Hold the tap wrench with both hands close to the centre. Place the end of
the tap in the hole. Sight up that the tap is perpendicular to the surface of 18.When the taper tap reaches the required depth, change to the intermediate
the work. tap. Hand screw the intermediate tap into the thread drilled by taper tap
and continue turning with the wrench.
5. Apply steady downward pressure and begin turning the handles clockwise
in a horizontal plane. 19.To complete the hand-tapping, change to the bottoming tap after the inter-
mediate tap reaches the required depth. Do it the same way as with the
6. Complete two turns while keeping the wrench handles level and applying
intermediate tap.
even downward pressure.
7. Release and remove the tap-wrench, leaving the tap in place.
8. Place a small tri-square on the work to check that the tap is vertical to the
work surface. Test again in a second position about 90˚ from the first. If the
tap is not square to the surface, note the correction required.
9. Refit and tighten the tap-wrench.
10.Hold the tap wrench as before and begin turning. To correct a tap that is out
of square, apply slight side pressure in the direction required as the wrench
is turned.
11. Complete two turns and check as before that the tap is square. The tap
must be square within the first few turns. Out of squareness cannot be cor-
rected after this.
12.If the tap is square with the work, apply a suitable cutting fluid.
13.Hold the tap-wrench at the end of the handles with the fingers to allow sen-
sitive feel of the torque applied to the tap.

14.Turn the wrench with constant pressure applied evenly with both hands. No
downward pressure is required once the tap begins to feed itself into the
hole.
15.As you turn the wrench try to feel the degree of resistance being offered to
the tap. If you feel it is increasing, reverse the wrench a quarter turn. This
will break off metal build-up.

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Start tapping Check tap is square Squaring up the tap

Complete tapping by constant turning

Quarter reverse when necessary
Figure 107 Tapping Sequence

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TORQUE WRENCHES
General Calibration
Torque is the amount of rotational force applied when tightening a fastener. Because torque wrenches and setting rigs are precision instruments, they are
To prevent over-tightening (and thus damaging threads), accurate application subject to periodic calibration testing.
of torque is achieved by using a torque wrench. Depending on the frequency of use, this is either 6--monthly or annually, but if
A torque wrench is a precision tool that either indicates torque applied or, in very frequent use they should be checked on a weekly basis.
through adjustment of the tool, prevents over-tightening.
Depending on the range, a torque wrench is calibrated in inch-pounds or foot-
pounds (Imperial) or Nm (metric).
Types of Wrench
There are three basic types of torque wrench
S Deflecting Beam
S Torsion Bar
S Toggle
Deflecting Beam
This consists of a square-drive at one end of an accurately-ground beam with a
handle (mounted on a pivot) at the other end.
A pointer indicates on a scale the amount of torque applied as the beam bends.
Torsion Bar
When a force is applied, a bar deflects in torsion (twisting) as well as bending.
When the bar is twisted, a rack-and-pinion gear within the wrench is connected
to a dial indicator which shows the amount of torque.
Toggle
This type of torque wrench is set to a pre-determined torque prior to tightening

the fastener. This is done by screwing the handle in or out, either
S setting it to a scale along the wrench body, or
S setting up in a rig.
Effects of Lubrication
Lubrication on threads has a significant effect on torque and great care should
be taken when setting up torque wrenches to given values.
Clarify whether the torque load specified is for wet or dry threads.

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Deflecting Beam
Torsion Bar
Torque Analyzer
Toggle
Figure 108 Torque Wrenches

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Torque Values
Torque values will normally be specified in the Maintenance Manual.
If, however, no figure is given, the table opposite shows standard values.
CAUTION: REMEMBER, TORQUE LOADING VARIES CONSIDERABLY
BETWEEN WET AND DRY THREADS.
THE VALUES IN THIS TABLE ARE FOR DRY THREADS.
It is common practice to give a minimum and maximum value when specifying
torque figures.
In the case where a castle nut is tightened then secured with a cotter pin, al-
ways torque initially to the lower figure. Adjust the torque loading upwards (but
not exceeding the upper value) to align the cotter pin hole with the nut castella-
tion gaps. If this is unsuccessful, replace the washer for one with a different
thickness and re-try.
CAUTION: ROTATING A NUT BY A VERY SMALL AMOUNT IN-
CREASES THE TORQUE CONSIDERABLY.
WITH THIS IN MIND, ALIGNING COTTER PIN HOLES
SHOULD BE CARRIED OUT VERY CAREFULLY. The actual amount of torque applied to a fastener when a 5--inch extension is
Using Extension Bars used with 120 pounds of indicated torque is 150 inch-pounds.
Indicated torque on either a deflecting beam or torsion bar torque wrench is
taken from the centre of the square drive. If an extension bar is to be used, its
length must be taken into consideration (see calculation example).

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Figure 109 Torque Values

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MICROMETER
General Imperial Micrometer
When a part has to be measured to the second decimal place in the metric In this case, the pitch of the screw thread on the spindle is 40 threads per inch.
system (or the third place in the English system), a more accurate method of One revolution of the thimble advances the spindle face toward or away from
measurement is needed than can be obtained with a vernier calliper, so a the anvil face precisely 1/40“ or .025“.
micrometer is commonly used. The reading line on the sleeve is divided into 40 equal parts by vertical lines
Description that correspond to the number of threads on the spindle. Therefore, each verti-
cal line designates 1/40“ or .025“. Lines vary in length for easy reading. Every
A micrometer consists of a semi--circular frame having a cylindrical extension fourth line, which is longer than the others, designates a hundred thousandths.
(barrel) at its right end, with hardened anvils inside, at the left end. For example, the line marked „1“ represents .100“ and the line marked „2“ rep-
Metric Micrometer resents .200“ etc.
The bore of the barrel is screwed 1/2mm pitch and the spindle, which is at- The bevelled edge of the thimble is divided into 25 equal parts, with each line
tached to the thimble, screws through. representing .001“ and every line numbered consecutively. Rotating the thimble
from one of these lines to the next moves the thimble longitudinally 25 of .025“,
Adjustment is provided for the longitudinal position of the spindle and for tight-
or .001“.
ness of the screw head. The barrel is graduated in mm and 1/2mm for a length
of 25mm and the rim of the thimble is divided into 50 equal divisions. Rotating two divisions represents .002“ etc. 25 divisions indicate a complete
revolution of .025“ or 1/40 of an inch.
Measurement is taken between the face of the anvil and the end of the spindle,
and the range of the micrometer is 25 mm, so if we wish to measure up to 150 Calibration
mm we must have six micrometers; 0 to 25, 25 to 50, 50 to 75 and so on with Should the micrometer’s accuracy be in doubt (or it is due periodic calibration),
125 to 150mm as the largest size. it can be checked and readjusted.
This is accomplished by using a standard or gauge block; a piece of metal or
ceramic that is manufactured to very close tolerances which itself is subject to
routine calibration.
The gauge block is inserted between the anvil and spindle and the spindle then
closed gently onto the block. The tool is then adjusted by means of a wrench
(supplied with the micrometer) so that the zero mark on the thimble exactly
coincides with the sleeve datum line.

Calibration/adjustment is normally carried out by a specialist in a temperature/
humidity controlled environment.

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11 1 2 10 3 4 9 5 6 7 8
Index to parts
1. Anvils 6. Adjusting nut for main nut
2. Spindle 7. Thimble adjusting nut
3. Locknut 8. ratchet stop

4. Sleeve 9. Thimble
5. Main nut 10. Frame
Figure 110 Micrometer

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Micrometer Readings - Metric Micrometer Readings - Imperial
The screw in the metric micrometer has a pitch of 0.5mm, so that the jaws The screw in the metric micrometer has a pitch of 0.025 in, so that the jaws
open 0.5mm for each revolution of the thimble. open 0.025 in (1/40 in) for each revolution of the thimble.
The rim of the thimble is divided into 50 divisions, each of which gives a read- The rim of the thimble is divided into 25 divisions, each of which gives a read-
ing of 0.01mm. ing of 0.001 in.
The barrel is marked in millimetres and 0.5mm divisions, so that to take a read- The barrel is marked in 0.1 in and 0.025 in divisions, so that to take a reading
ing we add the number of hundredths indicated on the thimble to the milli- we add the number of thousandths indicated on the thimble to the tenths and
metres and half-millimetres uncovered on the barrel. hundredths uncovered on the barrel.
Reading Example
Reading Example
The thimble has moved out 3 complete turns = 0.300
The thimble has moved out 8 complete turns = 8.00
2 additional 0.025“ divisions are visible = 0.050
1 additional half-millimetre division is visible = 0.50
12 thimble lines have passed the datum line = 0.012
36 thimble lines have passed the datum line = 0.36
Reading = 0.362 in
Reading = 8.86mm

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Highest number (top) visible on sleeve ............................... 8 = 8.0

Lines (bottom) visible between 8 and thimble edge ...... 1 (1 x 0.50) =0.50
Lines on thimble which have passed sleeve datum line ..... 36 = 0.36
Measurement = 8.86mm
Metric
Highest number (top) visible on sleeve ................................ 3 =.300

Lines (bottom) visible between 3 and thimble edge ..... 2 (2 x .025) =.050
Lines on thimble which have passed sleeve datum line ..... 12 =.012
Measurement = .362 in
Imperial
Figure 111 Reading Examples

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20 Complete Turns
20 x 0.50 = 10.00 mm Plus 26 x 0.50 = 13.00 mm Plus ..... x 0.50 = .......... mm Plus
50 x 0.01 = 0.50 mm 1 x 0.01 = 0.01 mm ..... x 0.01 = ......... mm
Reading is 10.5 mm Reading is 13.01 mm Reading is .......... mm
Figure 112 Reading Examples (Continued)

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Micrometer handling
1. Set the micrometer to a oversize dimension
2. Set the frame anvil straight to the work
3. Clamp the spindle against the subject using the ratchet stop
NOTE: USE ONLY THE RATCHET STOP, OTHERWISE THE
MEASUREMENT WILL BE INACCURATE DUE TO
OVERTIGHTENING.

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Tighten using the ratchet stop
Handling on hard-to-get locations

or one-hand handling
Micrometer mounted on a stand (use when

you have to measure a lot of objects)
Figure 113 Micrometer Handling

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VERNIER CALLIPER
General
Vernier callipers / sliding gauges are used to make accurate inside or outside
as well as depth measurements faster than those made with a micrometer, and
for measurements that exceed the practical range of a micrometer.
Description
The vernier calliper consists of a bar and two measuring jaws. One jaw is fixed
to the bar, the other one slides on the bar. The bar of a metric vernier calliper is
equipped with an engraved scale, graduated in mm. Opposite to this scale
there is the vernier scale on the slide. This scale is divided in 10, 20, or 50
equal spacing, known as 1/10, 1/20 or 1/50 vernier.

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1 Internal measuring jaws 6 Reference surface

2 Clamp screw 7 Main scale
3 Slider 8 Vernier scale
4 Depth bar 9 External measuring jaws

5 Main beam 10 Step measuring face
Figure 114 Vernier Calliper

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1/10 Vernier
The distance from 0 to 1 on the main scale is 10mm and it will be seen that 10
divisions on the sliding vernier scale are equal to 9mm on the top main scale.
The length of the bottom division is 9mm: 10 = 0.9mm, and since the top divi-
sion is 1mm, the difference is 1mm -- 0.9mm = 0.1mm. This difference repre-
sents the accuracy to which readings may be taken.
1/20 Vernier
The most often used vernier calliper is the calliper with the 1/20 vernier and an
accuracy reading of 0.05mm.
1/50 Vernier
The accuracy reading is 0.02mm.

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1/10 Vernier
1/20 Vernier
1/50 Vernier
Figure 115 Vernier

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Vernier Calliper Readings

Readings are carried out as follows:
Count the total length indicated on the main scale and note the mark on the
vernier scale which is level with a mark on the main scale.
This latter amount will represent the number of dimensions which must be
added to the first reading.

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Figure 116 Principle of a Vernier

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Figure 117 Vernier Examples

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Reading is 30.00 mm
(1/10 Vernier)
Reading is 73.65 mm
(1/20 Vernier)
Reading is 68.32 mm
(1/50 Vernier)
Figure 118 Vernier Reading

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Figure 119 Vernier Reading Examples 1

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Reading .......... mm .......... inches

Reading .......... mm .......... inches
Reading .......... mm .......... inches Reading .......... mm .......... inches
Figure 120 Vernier Reading Examples 2

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Vernier Calliper Handling

The vernier calliper is made in various sizes from 150mm upwards, a useful
size being one capable of working up to 300mm.
When it is used for a bore or any other inside measurement, set the cross jaws
to an undersize dimension and slide it to the final position.
Outside Measurement
Set the fixed leg against the work and slide the movable leg to the final
position.
Set the starting position with the vernier calliper in the oversize dimension until
in place.
Depth measurement
Ensure that the recess in the depth gauge is in the corner area.

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Outside Measurement
Place the workpiece as deep as possible
into the jaws, ensuring the faces are square
to the object being measured.
Measurement Force Parallax Error
Do not apply excessive force to the workpiece. When taking the reading, ensure you view the scale
This can result in inaccurate measurement due
to positional deviation of the calliper jaws.
perpendicular to the measured point. When viewed
obliquely (direction A) parallax error occurs, resulting

in inaccurate reading.

Internal Measurement

Depth Measurement Step Measurement
Align the step measuring face
Insert jaws as deep as possible into workpiece. with the surface of the object.
Take the maximum reading (internal diameter).

Set the depth bar perpendicular to the measured surfaces.

Take the smallest reading (groove).

Figure 121 Vernier Measuring Precautions

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DIAL INDICATOR
General
The dial indicator is a high-precision measurement tool with an accuracy of
0.01mm. It is especially used in the mechanical engineering section to measure
alignments of shafts or to check the smoothness of surfaces.
A special type of dial indicator is an excellent tool to measure material removed
after corrosion or lightning-strike repairs.
Description
One revolution of the large hand corresponds to 1mm. The second smaller
hand of the rotation tachometer counts the revolutions of the large hand. Mea-
suring range is normally 10mm. Set to zero by revolving the rotary scale.

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Tolerance marks
Rotation tachometer
(mm)
Climb shaft
Spindle
Pin
Figure 122 Dial Indicator

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Work sequence
1. Clean up damaged area.
2. Put the dial indicator with the measuring stand on a flat surface and rotate
the rotary scale mark to zero.
3. Use of the dial gauge for inspection is as shown.
4. Carry out the inspection at different points in the inspection area until you
find the maximum depth of removed material.
NOTE: THIS PROCEDURE MEASURES THE DEPTH OF THE MATERIAL

REMOVED. THE THICKNESS OF THE MATERIAL REMAINING
MUST BE FOUND OUT BY CALCULATION.

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Dial gauge
Measuring
stand
Skin
Base flat
on skin
Area of paint removal
Figure 123 Dial Indicator Work Sequence

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ABRASIVE WHEELS
Introduction Grinding a Centre Punch
The abrasive wheel is made of abrasive materials bonded together. 1. Hold the punch in one hand and position the fingers of the other hand to-
Most wheels are made from silicon carbide (carborundum), but aluminium ox- wards the head of the punch so that it can be rotated during the grinding
ide abrasives are occassionally used for fine grinding. operation.
2. With the first hand steadied against the tool-rest, adjust the angle of the
Safety punch so that it is approximately 60o to the face of the wheel.
An off-hand grinding machine is potentially very dangerous, so approximately 3. As you touch the point of the punch on the wheel, maintain a light, even
3/4 of the circumference of the wheel is encased in the wheel guard. Addition- pressure and rotate the punch.
ally, there is a transparent screen covering as much of the exposed part of the
4. Quench the punch frequently to prevent over-heating and subsequent soft-
wheel as is practical.
ening of the metal.
Despite this screen, always protect your eyes with goggles as well.
CAUTION: THE POINT OF A PUNCH SHOULD ALWAYS BE GROUND
The tool rest should be adjusted to give the smallest possible clearance be-
WITH THE GRINDING LINES PARALLEL TO THE AXIS.
tween it and the wheel.
TRANSVERSE GRINDING WEAKENS THE POINT.
CAUTION: NEVER USE THE SIDE OF AN ABRASIVE WHEEL; A
GROOVE CAN FORM OVER TIME, CREATING A WEAK
POINT THAT HAS, IN THE PAST, LED TO WHEELS EX-
PLODING.
Over a period of time, the surface of the wheel will become grooved and pitted
and embedded with metal.
A specially-trained operative will dress the wheel using a diamond-tipped tool.
Description
The off-hand grinding machine is basically an electric motor with grinding
wheels mounted onto the spindle (normally one on either side).
It is common practise to have different grade wheels; one for rough finishes
and the other for finer grinding.
Grinding machines can be either bench- or floor-mounted.

Floor-mounted (or pedestal) grinding machines often have a tank mounted on
the front containing some sort of queching fluid (usually water).
Excessive grinding of items without periodic cooling can destroy it’s tempering.

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Screen
Wheel guard
Goggles
Bench Grinding Machine
Grinding Screen
wheel
Quenching
tank
Quenching
fluid
Tool rest adjuster
Tool rest Drive motor
Pedestal Grinding Machine
Figure 124 Off-Hand Grinding Machines

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LUBRICATION
Introduction What is grease?
To prevent heat build-up, increase efficiency and prolong component life, mov- Grease is a lubricant composed of an oil or oils thickened with a soap or other
ing parts must be lubricated. thickener to make a solid or semi--solid product.
What are lubricants ? Methods of Application

Lubricants control friction and wear by introducing a friction-reducing film be- Oils and greases are normally applied via oil cans and grease guns, whereby
tween moving surfaces in contact. They may be fluid, solid or plastic. the lubricant is pumped into the area requiring it. Usually the lubricant is hand-
Lubricants are generally formulated for specific applications. For example, en- pumped, but large grease drums can be fitted to pneumatic devices to facilitate
gine oils. In this application, they reduce fiction and so increase fuel efficiency, greasing of multiple points.
reduce wear of moving parts, protect the inside of the engine against corrosion,
Personal Safety
cool the piston and other hot components, remove combustion impurities and
blow--by gases and help seal the piston during combustion, thus improving en- Oil and grease in contact with the skin can result in dermatitis. Barrier cream
ergy conversion. should be applied prior to handling these lubricants.
Lubricants are highly sophisticated products, not easily formulated. The accidental subcutaneous injection of oil or grease can also have serious
health implications. Oiling and greasing equipment should be handled with care
What is mineral oil and why is synthetic oil different? and horseplay can result in disciplinary action.
Mineral oil is derived from crude oil, which is extracted underground from rock
Oil or Grease?
structures. In the industry, we call mineral oil a base oil or a base stock, simply
because it forms the base of a formulation. The Maintenance Manual will indicate the correct lubricant, method and fre-
quency of application.
To manufacture base oils, crude oil is heated up and the evaporated material
collected at different temperatures (atmospheric distillation). The material col-
lected is then vacuum distilled, processed through a furfural extraction unit to CAUTION: LUBRICANTS SHOULD NOT BE MIXED; COMPONENT
remove aromatic components and solvent dewaxed to remove wax crystals. SEALS ARE CHOSEN FOR THEIR COMPATIBILITY WITH A
Hydrofinishing is then undertaken to remove impurities and make the base oil SPECIFIC LUBRICANT. INTRODUCING AN INCORRECT
brighter. LUBRICANT CAN BREAK DOWN A SEAL, DESTROYING
Synthetic oils are manufactured by chemical reaction and can produce very ITS EFFECTIVENESS.
consistent quality base stocks of different viscosities depending on the molecu- OILS AND GREASES SHOULD BE KEPT IN CLEARLY-
lar weight of the material produced. The key differences are that mineral base MARKED CONTAINERS, PREFERABLY THAT IN WHICH
stocks contain some impurities, are less molecularly pure and less thermally THEY ARE RECEIVED FROM THE MANUFACTURERS.
stable than equivalent synthetic oils. OIL CANS AND GREASE GUNS SHOULD BE CLEARLY
MARKED WITH THEIR CONTENTS.
However, catalytic techniques are making special base stocks almost identical
to synthetic oils. CAUTION: LUBRICANTS ARE GENERALLY VOLATILE AND SHOULD
Interestingly, it has been found that impurities in mineral base stocks can en- BE STORED IN LOCKERS AND AREAS DESIGNED TO
hance certain performance aspects, for example anti--oxidant properties. MINIMISE THE POSSIBILITY OF FIRE.

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Air release valve

Lubricating connector
Pump operating lever
Outlet tube assembly

Grease container
Application
spout
High pressure piston Air release valve
Transfer valve
Plunger piston
Outlet tube assembly Pump assembly
Filling handle
Handle
Grease container
Pressure spring
High pressure piston Plunger piston
Pressure spring Non-return valve
Lubricating connector Light alloy head Oil container
Operating lever Operating lever

Filling handle Wanner HP Grease Gun
Oil Can
Lumatic Minor
HP Grease Gun
Figure 125 Lubrication Tools

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GENERAL LUBRICATION INSTRUCTIONS - BOEING

General Instructions for Lubrication Other Lubricants
This section of the AMM gives the normal aircraft lubrication procedures. S BMS 3--32, Type II Landing Gear Shock Strut Fluid, Anti--Wear
Specific data about where to lubricate is given in the subsequent subjects of S MIL--H--5606, Hydraulic Fluid, Petroleum base, Aircraft (NATO H--515)
this section.
S MIL--PRF--7870, Lubricating Oil, General Purpose, Low Temperature
There are other lubrication instructions in other ATA sections of the AMM about (NATO O--142).
equipment removal and replacement.
Lubrication Symbols
General--Purpose Aviation Grease
Lubrication blocks are used to show the part or unit to be lubricated.
Boeing selects the grease to use based on the specific application.
Examples of lubrication blocks used in the manual are shown opposite. If nec-
Greases that meet the following specifications are considered general--purpose essary, more data is given near the lubrication block to help you lubricate the
aviation grease for the --100oF (--73oC) to 250oF (121oC) range: airplane correctly. Each block shows this data:
S BMS 3--33 S The lubrication method
S MIL--PRF--23827 S The type of lubricant
S MIL--G--21164 (NATO G--353). S The access panel number is given above or below the lubrication block for
BMS 3--33 is the preferred general--purpose aviation grease recommended by points if it is not easy to find the area you must lubricate.
Boeing for applications exposed to temperatures of less than 250oF. It is rec- More data on commonly-used grease is available in Boeing Service Letter
ommended because it shows better wear, corrosion protection and low temper- 737--SL--20--027, Summary of Most Commonly Used Greases on Boeing Air-
ature torque properties. planes.
Greases that have been used before and approved by Boeing for the specific
assembly are listed as flagnotes on the lubrication instructions for the specific Lubrication Application Procedures and Cautions
assembly. If there is an application where only one grease must be used, it will Do the following to prevent lubricant contamination:
be listed with the word ”Only” after it. S Put lubricant identification labels on all containers, guns and dispensers.
Special Performance Greases S Keep lubricants in containers that have tight covers.
Special performance greases include: S Make sure that the container material will not absorb contamination.
S Royco 11MS S Keep out dust and other contamination when the container is open.
S MIL--PRF--81322 (NATO G--354) S Keep grease guns, brushes and oil cans clean.
S BMS 3--24.
In some applications, a special purpose grease is necessary. Where only one
grease is recommended for a specific application, it will be listed with the word
”Only” after it.

M7.3 TOOLS
Part -66
Figure 126 Lubrication Symbol Examples

M7.3 TOOLS
Part -66
Correct Lubrication
Do not
S let dirt, swarf and other unwanted material get in the lubricant during and
after lubrication. Remove dirt from the grease fittings before you attach the
grease gun.
S lubricate Teflon bearings and bushings; lubricants may cause damage to the
Teflon and decrease the bearing life.
S push the seal out with the grease.
Do
S ensure that the pressure that you set is less than 2500 psi (17237 KPa).
Too much pressure will cause the fitting to blow out, resulting in injuries to
personnel and/or damage to equipment.
S set the pressure at 100 to 200 psi (689 -- 1379 KPa) unless otherwise speci-
fied. This is usually sufficient to push out used grease.
S find all of the lubrication points that are identified in the specific maintenance
task.
S use the specified lubricant.
S use an Alemite Midget flush adapter (No. 314150) for flush--type grease fit-
tings.
Alemite Midget 31450
S apply all lubricants slowly and smoothly.
S dispense grease into the grease fitting until the used grease is visually re-
moved and only new grease comes out.
S remove unwanted grease or lubricating fluid that is around the part or on
other parts to prevent contamination and damage to other surfaces.
S be careful when you lubricate sealed--ball or sealed--roller bearings that
have a grease fitting.
S Use a restrictor--type adapter to decrease the flow rate of the grease.

S Stop the operation if the shape of the seal starts to change, or if the grease
comes out of the bearing.
If a grease fitting comes out, carry out the following:
S Look for blockage in the fitting or part.
S If necessary, dismantle the part to remove the blockage.
S Install a new fitting (AMM TASK 20--10--24--421--001).

M7.3 TOOLS
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Figure 127 B737 Main Landing Gear Lubrication Example

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EXAMPLE: B737 LUBRICATION FITTINGS

REMOVAL/INSTALLATION
Lubrication Fittings -- Installation Installation Of A Lubrication Fitting Which Has Blown Out
CAUTION: ENSURE YOU USE THE CORRECT TOOL TO INSTALL THE 1. Get the specified standard size or a modified size lube fitting for installation.
LUBRICATION FITTING. DRIVE THE LUBRICATION FITTING 2. Clean the lube fitting hole as follows:
IN STRAIGHT TO PREVENT DAMAGE TO THE MATING A. use cotton swabs to remove as much grease as possible from the lube
SURFACES. fitting hole.
1. Get the specified standard lube fitting for installation. B. use cleaner on a clean cotton swab to clean the hole to a depth of 1/2 in
2. Clean the lube fitting hole as follows: minimum.
A. use cotton swabs to remove as much grease as possible from the lube 3. Carry out the following steps to apply the primer:
fitting hole. A. Use a cotton swab to apply a thin coat of primer to the bore of the hole.
B. use cleaner on a clean cotton swab to clean the hole to a depth of 1/2 in B. Let the primer air-dry at room temperature for a minimum of 5 minutes
minimum. before you apply the retainer compound.
3. Use the correct driving tool to fit the lube fitting into the hole in the mating 4. Use a cotton swab to apply a thin coat of adhesive to the bore of the hole.
part. The depth of the adhesive should be 0.25 to 0.40 inch.
5. Put the lube fitting into liquid nitrogen for a minimum of 1 minute to ensure
the lube fitting cools equally.
6. Use the correct driving tool to fit the lube fitting into the hole in the mating
part.
NOTE: PUT THE LUBE FITTING INTO THE HOLE IN THE MATING PART
AS QUICKLY AS POSSIBLE SO THAT IT DOES NOT WARM UP
TOO MUCH.
7. Let the lube fitting cure for 12 hours at room temperature before using it.

M7.3 TOOLS
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Figure 128 Lubrication Fitting Modification and Installation

M7.3 TOOLS
Part -66
EXAMPLE: A320 MLG AND DOORS LUBRICATION

MLG and Doors Lubrication
No specific lubrication equipment required.
Equipment Preparation
1. Ensure that the lubrication equipment is in a serviceable condition before
you fill it.
2. Operate the lubrication equipment to make sure that the lines and adaptor
are full of new lubricant.
3. Clean the greasers with a clean MISCELLANEOUS (Material No. 19--003)
and CLEANING AGENTS (Material No. 11--026).
MLG Lubrication
NOTE: USE THE TABLES THAT FOLLOW TO DETERMINE THE
CORRECT GREASER.
Lubricate the MLG Uplock:
CAUTION: DO NOT OPERATE POWER--OPERATED LUBRICATION
EQUIPMENT AT MORE THAN 103.5 BARS (1500 PSI). HIGH
LUBRICATION PRESSURE CAN CAUSE DAMAGE TO THE
AIRCRAFT.
S Lubricate the MLG uplock, Item No. 5 of the MLG Door and Uplocks Table,
with COMMON GREASE (Material No. 04--004) as follows:
Lubricate the greasers Items 1 thru 4 in the Main Landing Gear
Door and Uplock Table with COMMON GREASE (Material No.
04--004) until new grease comes out.
If you use hand--operated lubrication equipment, lubricate each greaser with a
maximum of two full strokes.

Remove the unwanted grease:
S clean the greasers with a clean MISCELLANEOUS (Material No. 19--003)
and CLEANING AGENTS (Material No. 11--026).
S ensure that the greaser ball has seated correctly.

M7.3 TOOLS
Part -66
Figure 129 Greaser Table

M7.3 TOOLS
Part -66
Figure 130 Greaser Table (Cont’d)

M7.3 TOOLS
Part -66
Figure 131 A320 Lubrication Points

M7.3 TOOLS
Part -66
ELECTRICAL TEST EQUIPMENT

Bond Testing Resistance Values
Bonding is the electrical interconnection of metallic parts (normally at earth The Civil Aviation Authority’s requirements with regard to the maximum resist-
potential) for the safe distribution of electrical charges and currents. ance values for the various conditions of bonding are summarised here.
Bonding provides a means of protection against charges as a result of the
build-up of precipitation, static and electrostatic induction (as a result of light- Bonding Classification Test Condition Maximum Resistance
ning strikes) so that the safety of the aircraft and its occupants is not endan- Between extremities of the fixed
gered. portions of aircraft of Estimated and declared by
Bonding also reduces the possibility of electric shock from the electrical supply non-metallic or composite manufacturer.
system, reduces interference with the functioning of essential services (radio construction.
communications and navigational aids) and provides a low-resistance electrical Between extremities of the fixed
return path for electric current in earth-return systems. Primary
portions of metallic aircraft.
The aircraft’s earthing system is automatically connected to the ground upon Between bonded components
landing via the nose (or tail) wheel tyre, which is impregnated with an electri- 0.05 ohm
and portions of main earth
cally conducting compound. system to which they are
connected.
Bonding Connections
When a bonding connection is to be made or renewed, it is essential that the Between metallic parts normally
conductor has the specified current-carrying capacity. in contact with flammable fluids
and main earth system, and 1 ohm
Braided copper or aluminium cords fitted at each end with connecting tags or also between the parts
lugs (’bonding jumpers’) are used for bonding connections between moving themselves.
parts or parts subjected to vibration.
Between all isolated conducting
All bonding connections must be properly locked to prevent intermittent contact
parts which may be subject to 0.5 megaohm or 100,000 ohms
which may be caused by vibration. Intermittent contact is worse than no con-
appreciable electrostatic per sq ft of surface area
tact at all.
charging and the main earth (whichever is the less)
Bonding connections must not interfere (either mechanically or electrically) with Secondary system.
any associated or adjacent equipment, nor should they be excessively tight or
Between equipment supplied
slack.
fromthe unearthed system, of

Provided that all insulating materials (anodic finish, paint etc) are removed from any voltage, and the main earth
contact faces before assembly, the following joints are considered self-bonding: system.
S metal-to-metal joints held together by threaded devices or rivets 1 ohm
Between equipment containing
S most cowling fasteners, locking and latching mechanisms circuits carrying 50 volts (rms or
S metal-to-metal door and panel hinges dc) or more, and the main earth
system.
S metal-to-metal bearings

M7.3 TOOLS
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Milliohmmeter Voltmeter
Figure 132 Electrical Test Instruments

M7.3 TOOLS
Part -66
Bond Testing (Cont’d)
Special test equipment, consisting of a meter and two cables each of specific Method 2
length, is required for checking the resistance of bonding. Alternatively, the four-terminal method of resistance measurement may be
A meter commonly used consists of an ohmmeter operating on the current ratio adopted with the appropriate miliohmeter (see Fig 1).
principle and a single 1.2 volt nickel-alkaline cell housed in a wooden carrying The test leads may be in the form of duplex spikes (see Fig 2) or, when used in
case. association with crocodile-type test leads, single spikes.
The associated cables are 60 feet and 6 feet in length and are fitted with a Note: In order to check that the instrument is functioning correctly, the two
single-spike probe and a double-spike probe respectively. hand spikes should be placed on a low-resistance conductor with the potential
Note: prior to testing, a check should be made on the state of the cell by ob- spikes (P1 and P2) closely together (see Fig 3). The result of this test should
serving: be a zero reading on the meter.
S that a full-scale deflection of the meter is obtained when the two spikes of 1. A test current (approx 2 amps) is supplied via the internal batteries and
the 6--foot cable probe are shorted passed through the resistance via cables C1 and C2.
S that the meter reads zero when the two spikes of the 6--foot probe are 2. The voltage drop across the rsistance is measured (P1 and P2) and
shorted by the single spike of the 60--foot probe. compared with the current flowing.
The resultant value is then displayed (normally digitally) on the meter.
Method 1
Note: To ensure good electrical contact at the probe spikes, it may be neces-
1. The 60--foot cable should be connected to main earth (also known as the sary to penetrate or remove a small area of a non-conducting protective
bond datum point) at the terminal points usually shown diagrammatically in coating. Therefore any damage to the protective coating must be restored after
the relevant Aircraft Maintenance Manual. the test.
Since the standard bonding tester lead is 60 feet, the measurement
between the extremities of larger types of aircraft may have to be Excessive Resistance
done by selecting one or more main earth points successively, in 1. In the case of bonding jumpers, the connecting tag or lugs should be re-
which case the resistance value between the main earth points moved and the contacting faces thoroughly cleaned, using a slight abrasive
should be checked before proceeding to check the remote point. if necessary. All traces of abrasive must be removed.
2. The 6--foot cable should be used to check the resistance between selected The connecting area should be sealed and treated with anti-oxidant as speci-
points, usually specified in the bonding test schedule or the Aircraft Mainte- fied in the relevant drawing and specification.
nance Manual.
2. If a holding bolt is the bonding connection, the bolt should be removed
When the two spikes of the test lead probe are brought into contact with
and the area under the bolt-head (or nut) cleaned and protected as above.
the aircraft part, the test-meter will ndicate, in ohms, the rsistance of the
bond. 3. If the required bond value cannot be obtained at a structural joint, the ad-
vice of the manufacturer must be sought.
Note: corrosion tends to form at a bonding or earth connection and is often the
cause of excessive resistance.

M7.3 TOOLS
Part -66
C1 P1 P2 C2
Ohmmeter terminals
NOTE: observe position
C1 P1 P2 C2 of potential spikes
P Resistance P
Resistance
Fig 1: Four Terminal Resistance Measurement Fig 2: Duplex Hand Spikes
LOW RESISTANCE CONDUCTOR
P P
Fig 3: Test Position of Hand Spikes
Figure 133 Bond Testing Methods

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Continuity Testing
A concealed break in a cable core or at a connection may be found by using a
continuity tester, which normally consists of a low-voltage battery (2.5 volts)
and a test lamp or low-reading voltmeter.
Before testing, the main electrical supply should be switched off or discon-
nected. Check that fuses are intact and that there is no intermediate discon-
nection. Switches and circuit-breakers, as appropriate, should be closed to
complete the circuit.
When carrying out a low-voltage continuity check, it is essential to work pro-
gressively through the circuit, commencing from the relevant fuse or circuit
breaker and terminating at the equipment. Large circuits will probably have
several parallel paths and these should be progressed systematically, breaking
down as little as possible at plug and socket or terminal block connections.
Millivolt Drop Test

Excessive resistance in high-current carrying circuits can be caused by loose
terminal connections, poorly swaged lead ends etc. Faults of this kind are indi-
cated by low terminal voltage at the connections to the service load and by
heating at a conductor joint.
If such faults are suspected, a millivolt drop test is recommended.
For continuously-rated circuits, the test should, whenever possible, be made
with the normal operating current flowing, the power being derived from an ex-
ternal source.
For short-rated circuits, a suitable resistance or other dummy load should be
used in lieu of the normal load and the current should be scaled down to avoid
overheating.
The millivolt-meter should be connected to each side of the suspected joint and
a note made of the volt drop indicated. The indicated reading should be
compared with the figures quoted in the relevant publication (an approximate
guide is 5 mV/10 amps flowing).

M7.3 TOOLS
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M7.4 AVIONIC GENERAL TEST
EQUIPMENT Part -66
M7.4 AVIONIC GENERAL TEST EQUIPMENT

INTRODUCTION
Electrical and Avionic general test equipment is primarily concerned with the the term ’movement’ may be applied to the same basic device performing the
measurement of: display function.
-Voltage
-Current Practical electromagnetic meter movements can be made with a pivoting wire
-Resistance coil suspended in a strong magnetic field, shielded from the majority of outside
influences.
-Power
-Frequency
Such an instrument design is generally known as a permanent--magnet, mov-
ing coil, or PMMC movement.
These measurements are undertaken utilising a variety of test equipment, the
most common of which is examined in this book.
METER MOVEMENTS
A meter is any device built to accurately detect and display an electrical quan-
tity in a form readable by a human being.
In the analysis and testing of circuits, there are meters designed to accurately
measure and display the basic quantities of voltage, current, resistance, power
and frequency.
There are many other types of meters, this section primarily covers the design
and operation of the basic five.
Most modern meters are digital in design. Older meters are mechanical in na-
ture, using some kind of pointer device to show quantity of measurement. In
either case, the principles applied in adapting a display unit to the measure-
ment of quantities are similar.
The display mechanism of a meter is often referred to as a movement, borrow-

ing from its mechanical nature to move a pointer along a scale so that a mea-
sured value may be read. Though modern digital meters have no moving parts,

EQUIPMENT Part -66
Common polarity--sensitive movements are the D’Arsonval and Weston de-

signs, both PMMC--type instruments.
Current in one direction through the wire will produce a clockwise torque on the
needle mechanism, while current in the other direction will produce a counter--
clockwise torque.
Some meter movements are polarity--insensitive, relying on the attraction of an

unmagnetised, movable iron vane toward a stationary, current--carrying wire to
deflect the needle.
Such meters are ideally suited for the measurement of alternating current . A
polarity--sensitive movement would just vibrate back and forth uselessly if con-
nected to a source of AC.

EQUIPMENT Part -66
VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT
Voltmeter design To create a voltmeter to measure in excess of 0.5v, we need to design a circuit
allowing only a precise proportion of measured voltage to drop across the me-
ter movement. For this purpose, a voltage divider circuit is required to propor-
Most meter movements are sensitive devices. Some D’Arsonval movements tion the total measured voltage into a lesser fraction across the meter move-
have full--scale deflection current ratings as little as 50 A, with an internal wire ment connection points.
resistance of less than 1000 Ω. This makes for a voltmeter with a full--scale
rating of only 50 millivolts (50 A X 1000 Ω)!
This will extend the meter movement’s range to measure higher voltages than
before. Correspondingly, the scale must reflect its new measurement range
In order to build voltmeters with practical, higher voltage scales from such sen- with this proportioning circuit connected.
sitive movements, we need to find some way to reduce the measured quantity
of voltage down to a level that the movement can handle.
As voltage divider circuits are built from series resistances, a resistor is con-
nected in series with the meter movement, using the movement’s own internal
To illustrate the concept we can use an example problem with a D’Arsonval resistance as the second resistance in the divider.
meter movement having a full--scale deflection rating of 1 mA and a coil resist-
ance of 500 Ω
Using Ohm’s Law (E=IR), we can determine how much voltage will drive this
meter movement directly to full scale:

The series resistor is called a ”multiplier” resistor because it multiplies the work-
E=IR ing range of the meter movement as it proportionately divides the measured
E = (1 mA)(500Ω ) voltage across it. Determining the required multiplier resistance value is an
easy task if you’re familiar with series circuit analysis
E = 0.5 v

EQUIPMENT Part -66
For example, to determine the necessary multiplier value to make this 1 mA,
500 Ω movement read exactly full--scale at an applied voltage of 10 volts. To
do this, we first need to set up an E/I/R table for the two series components:
Another way to calculate the same value of resistance would be to determine

voltage drop across the movement at full--scale deflection (E=IR), then subtract
that voltage drop from the total to arrive at the voltage across the multiplier re-
sistor.
Knowing that the movement will be at full--scale with 1 mA of current going Finally, Ohm’s Law could be used again to determine resistance (R=E/I) for the
through it, and that we want this to happen at an applied, total series circuit multiplier:
voltage of 10 volts, we can fill in the table as such:
Either way provides the same answer, 9.5 kΩ. One method could be used as
There are two ways to determine the resistance value of the multiplier. One verification for the other, to check accuracy of work.
way is to determine total circuit resistance using Ohm’s Law in the ”total” col-
umn (R=E/I), then subtract the 500 Ω of the movement to arrive at the value for
the multiplier:

EQUIPMENT Part -66
This is how practical electrical meters are designed and used: a sensitive meter
movement is built to operate with as little voltage and current as possible for
maximum sensitivity.
It is then ”fooled” by some sort of divider circuit built of precision resistors so

that it indicates full--scale when a much larger voltage or current is impressed
on the circuit as a whole.
With exactly 10 volts applied between the meter test leads from a battery or
precision power supply, there will be exactly 1 mA of current through the meter
movement, as restricted by the ”multiplier” resistor and the movement’s own
internal resistance.
Exactly 0.5v will be dropped across the resistance of the movement’s wire coil,
and the needle will be pointing precisely at full--scale.
Having re--labeled the scale to read from 0 to 10 V (instead of 0 to 1 mA), any-

one viewing the scale will interpret its indication as ten volts.

EQUIPMENT Part -66
Generally, it is useful to have multiple ranges established for an electrome- The end result is a voltmeter with four different full--scale ranges of measure-
chanical meter such as this, allowing it to read a broad range of voltages with a ment.
single movement mechanism.
Of course, in order to make this work sensibly, the meter movement’s scale
This is accomplished through the use of a multi--pole switch and several multi- must be equipped with labels appropriate for each range.
plier resistors, each one sized for a particular voltage range:
The five--position switch makes contact with only one resistor at a time. In the
bottom (full clockwise) position, it makes contact with no resistor at all, provid-
ing an ”off” setting.
Each resistor is sized to provide a particular full--scale range for the voltmeter,
all based on the particular rating of the meter movement (1 mA, 500 Ω).

EQUIPMENT Part -66
With such a meter design, each resistor value is determined by the same tech-
nique, using a known total voltage, movement full--scale deflection rating, and
movement resistance. For a voltmeter with ranges of 1 volt, 10 volts, 100 volts,
and 1000 volts, the multiplier resistances would be as follows:
With each successively higher voltage range, more multiplier resistors are uti-
lised by the selector switch, making their series resistances add for the neces-
sary total.
For example, with the range selector switch set to the 1000 volt position, we
need a total multiplier resistance value of 999.5 kΩ:
RTotal = R4 + R3 + R2 + R1
RTotal = 900 kΩ + 90 kΩ + 9 kΩ + 500 Ω
RTotal = 999.5 kΩ

EQUIPMENT Part -66
Voltmeter impact on a measured circuit However, if the voltmeter in question has a lead--to--lead resistance of 10 MΩ
(a common amount for a modern digital voltmeter), its resistance will create a
parallel subcircuit with the lower resistor of the divider when connected:
Every meter impacts the circuit it is measuring to some extent, just as any
tyre--pressure gauge changes the measured tyre pressure slightly as some air
is let out to operate the gauge.Whilst some impact is inevitable, it can be mini-
mised through good meter design.
Since voltmeters are always connected in parallel with the component or com-
ponents under test, any current through the voltmeter will contribute to the
overall current in the tested circuit, potentially affecting the voltage being mea-
sured.
A perfect voltmeter has infinite resistance, so that it draws no current from the
circuit under test. However, perfect voltmeters do not exist in real life!
The following voltage divider circuit is an extreme example of how a realistic

voltmeter might impact the circuit it is measuring:
This effectively reduces the lower resistance from 250 MΩ to 9.615 MΩ (250
MΩ and 10 MΩ in parallel), drastically altering voltage drops in the circuit. The
lower resistor will now have far less voltage across it than before, and the up-
per resistor far more.
With no voltmeter connected to the circuit, there should be exactly 12 volts

across each 250 MΩ resistor in the series circuit the two equal--value resistors
dividing the total voltage exactly in half.

EQUIPMENT Part -66
A voltage divider with resistance values of 250 MΩ and 9.615 MΩ divides 24v
into portions of 23.1111v and 0.8889v, respectively. Since the voltmeter is part
of that 9.615 MΩ resistance, it will indicate: 0.8889 volts.
The voltmeter can only indicate the voltage it is connected across. It has no
way of knowing there was a potential of 12v dropped across the lower 250 MΩ
resistor before it was connected across the resistor.
The very act of connecting the voltmeter to the circuit makes it part of the cir-
cuit, and the voltmeter’s own resistance alters the resistance ratio of the volt-
age divider circuit, consequently affecting the voltage being measured.
This effect is called loading, and it is present to some degree in every instance
of voltmeter usage. The example shown here is worst--case, with a voltmeter
resistance substantially lower than the resistances of the divider resistors.
The higher the voltmeter resistance, the less loading of the circuit under test.
That is why an ideal voltmeter has infinite internal resistance.
Voltmeters with electromechanical movements are typically given ratings in

”ohms per volt” of range to designate the amount of circuit impact created by
the current draw of the movement. Because such meters rely on different val-
ues of multiplier resistors to give different measurement ranges, their lead--to--
lead resistances will change depending on the range setting.
Digital voltmeters however, often exhibit a constant resistance across their test
leads regardless of range setting and as such are usually rated simply in ohms
of input resistance, rather than ”ohms per volt” sensitivity.

EQUIPMENT Part -66
To minimise the loading of a voltmeter on any circuit, the designer must seek to
minimise the current draw of its movement. This can be accomplished by re--
designing the movement itself for maximum sensitivity (less current required for
full--scale deflection), but a more sensitive movement tends to be more fragile.
Another approach is to electronically boost the current sent to the movement,

so that very little current needs to be drawn from the circuit under test.
This is accomplished utilising an amplifier, and the voltmeter thus constructed

is an amplified voltmeter.
The circuit allows the measured voltage to control how much battery current is
sent to the meter movement. Thus, the movement’s current needs are supplied
by a battery internal to the voltmeter and not by the circuit under test. The am-
plifier still loads the circuit under test to some degree, but generally hundreds
or thousands of times less than the meter movement would by itself.

EQUIPMENT Part -66
CURRENT MEASUREMENT
Ammeter Design
In ammeter design, external resistors added to extend the usable range of the
movement are connected in parallel with the movement rather than in series as
is the case for voltmeters.
This is because we want to divide the measured current, not the measured
voltage to the movement, and because current divider circuits are always
formed by parallel resistances.
Utilising the same meter movement as the voltmeter example, we can see that
the instrument is very limited with full--scale deflection at only 1 mA.
From our given values of movement current, movement resistance, and total
circuit (measured) current, we can determine the voltage across the meter
movement (Ohm’s Law applied to the center column, E=IR):
Using 5 amps as an extended range for our sample movement, let’s determine
the amount of parallel resistance necessary to ’shunt’ (as the design is known)
the majority of current so that only 1 mA will go through the movement with a
total current of 5 A:

EQUIPMENT Part -66
The circuit formed by the movement and the shunt is of a parallel configuration, Using Ohm’s Law (R=E/I) in the right column, we can determine the necessary
therefore the voltage across the movement, shunt, and test leads (total) must shunt resistance:
be the same:
We also know that the current through the shunt must be the difference be-
tween the total current (5 amps) and the current through the movement (1 mA),
As is the case with extending a meter movement’s voltage range, we would
because branch currents add in a parallel configuration:
have to correspondingly re--label the movement’s scale so that it read differ-
ently for any extended current range.

EQUIPMENT Part -66
As is the case with multiple--range voltmeters, ammeters can be given more With such a meter design, each resistor value is determined by the same tech-
than one usable range by incorporating several shunt resistors switched with a nique, using a known total current, movement full--scale deflection rating, and
multi--pole switch: movement resistance.
For an ammeter with ranges of 100 mA, 1 A, 10 A, and 100 A, the shunt resist-
ances would be as such:
The five--position switch makes contact with only one resistor at a time. The
range resistors being connected through the switch so as to be in parallel with
the meter movement. Each resistor is sized accordingly for a different full--
scale range, based on the particular rating of the meter movement (1 mA, 500
Ω).

EQUIPMENT Part -66
Ammeter impact on measured circuit
Ammeters tend to influence the amount of current in the circuits in which they
are connected. The ideal ammeter has zero internal resistance, so as to drop
as little voltage as possible as electrons flow through it. Note that this ideal re-
sistance value is exactly opposite as that of a voltmeter. With voltmeters, we
want as little current to be drawn as possible from the circuit under test. With
ammeters, we want as little voltage to be dropped as possible while conducting
current.
The following is an extreme example used to illustrate the concept of an am-

meter’s effect on a circuit:
Having effectively increased the left branch resistance from 3Ω to 3.5Ω, the
ammeter will read 571.43 mA instead of 666.7 mA.
Placing the same ammeter in the right branch would affect the current to an
even greater extent:
With the ammeter disconnected, the current through the 3Ω resistor is 666.7
mA, and the current through the 1.5Ω resistor is 1.33 A.
The right branch current is now 1 A instead of 1.333 A, due to the increase in
resistance created by the addition of the ammeter into the current path.

EQUIPMENT Part -66
When using standard ammeters that connect in series with the circuit being
measured, it might not be practical or possible to redesign the meter for a lower
input (lead--to--lead) resistance.
However, if we were selecting a value of shunt resistor to place in the circuit

for a current measurement based on voltage drop, choose the lowest practical
resistance for the application.
Any more resistance than necessary and the shunt may impact the circuit ad-
versely by adding excessive resistance in the current path.

EQUIPMENT Part -66
AC voltmeters and ammeters
AC electromechanical meter movements come in two basic arrangements:

those based on DC movement designs, and those engineered specifically for
AC use.
Polarity dependant PMMC meter movements will not work correctly if directly Needle
connected to alternating current, because the direction of needle movement will
change with each half--cycle of the AC. Magnet
Magnet
In order to use a DC--style meter movement such as the D’Arsonval design, the
alternating current must be rectified into DC.
This is most easily accomplished through the use diodes. Arranged in a Meter movement
bridge, four diodes will serve to steer AC through the meter movement in a needle will always
constant direction throughout all portions of the AC cycle. be driven in the
AC Bridge proper direction
Source rectifier

EQUIPMENT Part -66
RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT
Ohmeter Design
The purpose of an ohmmeter is to measure the resistance placed between its If the test leads of this ohmmeter are directly shorted together measuring 0 Ω
leads. This resistance reading is indicated through a meter movement which the meter movement will have maximum current flow through it, limited only by
operates on electric current. the battery voltage and the movement’s internal resistance:
The ohmmeter must have an internal voltage source to create the necessary
current to operate the movement and appropriate ranging resistors to allow the
right amount of current through the movement at any given resistance.
With a simple movement and battery circuit functioning as an ohmmeter:
With 9v of battery potential and only 500 Ω of movement resistance, circuit cur-
rent is 18 mA, which is far beyond the full--scale rating of the movement.
If full left scale represents an infinite amount of resistance, then full right scale
should represent zero.
This design currently pegs the meter movement hard to the right when zero
resistance is attached between the leads.The movement must register just full--
When there is no continuity between test leads, there is zero current through scale when the test leads are shorted together.
the meter movement, and the needle points toward the far left of the scale.
In this regard, the ohmmeter indication is ’backwards’ as maximum indication ,

infinity, is on the left of the scale whilst voltage and current meters have zero at
the left of scale.

EQUIPMENT Part -66
This is accomplished by adding a series resistance to the meter’s circuit:
With an internal movement resistance of 500 Ω and a series range resistor of

8.5 kΩ, this leaves 9 kΩ for an external (lead--to--lead) test resistance at 1/2
scale.
In other words, the test resistance giving 1/2 scale deflection in an ohmmeter
is equal in value to the (internal) series total resistance of the meter circuit.
To determine the proper value for R, calculate the total circuit resistance Using Ohm’s Law a few more times, we can determine the test resistance
needed to limit current to 1 mA with 9v of potential from the battery, then sub- value for 1/4 and 3/4 scale deflection:
tract the movement’s internal resistance from that figure:
1/4 scale deflection (0.25 mA of meter current):
There is still a question of ohmeter range. If we know that the movement has a
full--scale rating of 1 mA, then 0.5 mA must be the value required for half--scale
deflection. Following our design with the 9 volt battery:

EQUIPMENT Part -66
This is perfectly adequate for measuring resistances under several mega--
ohms (MΩ), but when extremely high resistances need to be measured for in-
sulation testing purposes, a 9 volt battery is insufficient for generating enough
current to actuate an electromechanical meter movement.
Megohmmeters, or meggers are very useful for checking high--resistance short

circuit failures between wires caused by wet or degraded insulation. As they
utilise such high voltages, they are not as affected by stray voltages as ordi-
nary ohmmeters.
3/4 scale deflection (0.75 mA of meter current):
The numbered blocks in the illustration are cross--sectional representations of

wire coils. These three coils all move with the needle mechanism. There is no
High Voltage Ohmmeters (Meggers) spring mechanism to return the needle to a set position. When the movement
is unpowered, the needle will randomly ’float.’
Most ohmmeters of the design shown in the previous section utilise a battery of
relatively low voltage, usually nine volts or less. The coils are electrically connected as follows:

EQUIPMENT Part -66
High voltage
Red Black
Test leads
Current through coils 2 and 3

With the test leads open circuit there will be no current through coil 1, only no current through coil 1
through coils 2 and 3. When energised, these coils try to center themselves in
the gap between the two magnet poles, driving the needle fully to the right of
the scale where it points to infinity. Any current through coil 1 (through a measured resistance connected between
the test leads) tends to drive the needle to the left of scale, back to zero.
The internal resistor values of the meter movement are calibrated so that when
the test leads are shorted together, the needle deflects exactly to the 0 Ω posi-
tion.
Because any variations in battery voltage will affect the torque generated by
both sets of coils (coils 2 and 3, which drive the needle to the right, and coil 1,
which drives the needle to the left), those variations will have no effect on the
calibration of the movement.
In other words, the accuracy of this ohmmeter movement is unaffected by bat-

tery voltage: a given amount of measured resistance will produce a certain
needle deflection, no matter how much or little battery voltage is present.

EQUIPMENT Part -66
For maximum safety, some meggers are equipped with hand--crank generators
for producing DC voltage up to 1000v.
If the operator of the meter receives a shock from the high voltage, the condi-
tion will be self--correcting, as he or she will naturally stop cranking the genera-
tor!
Sometimes a ”slip clutch” is used to stabilise generator speed under different

cranking conditions, so as to provide a fairly stable voltage whether it is
cranked fast or slow.
Multiple voltage output levels from the generator are available by the setting of
a selector switch.

EQUIPMENT Part -66
Modern transistorisesd meggers are battery--powered to provide greater preci- Milliometers / Bonding Testers
sion in output voltage.
Utilised for aircraft bonding checks, this type of instrument passes test current
For safety reasons these meggers are activated by a momentary--contact through the resistance to be measured via cables C1 and C2 and the voltage
pushbutton switch, so the switch cannot be left in the ’on’ position and pose a drop across the resistance is measured by cables P1 and P2.
significant shock hazard to the meter operator.
Using Ohms law, the resistance in milliohms is then displayed on the instru-
ment LCD.

EQUIPMENT Part -66
C1 P1 P2 C2
Ohmmeter terminals
NOTE: observe position
C1 P1 P2 C2 of potential spikes
P Resistance P
Resistance
Fig 1: Four Terminal Resistance Measurement Fig 2: Duplex Hand Spikes
LOW RESISTANCE CONDUCTOR
P P
Fig 3: Test Position of Hand Spikes

EQUIPMENT Part -66
Multimeters
As a common meter movement can be made to function as a voltmeter, am- The following illustrations show a typical digital multimeter and detail its use in
meter, or ohmmeter simply by connecting it to different external resistor net- the most common applications.
works, it follows that a multi--purpose meter (multimeter) could be designed in
one unit with the appropriate switches and resistors.
For general purpose electronics work, the multimeter is the instrument of

choice. No other device is able to do as much with such little investment in
parts.
As with most things in the world of electronics, the advent of solid--state com-
ponents like transistors has revolutionised the way things are done, and multi-
meter design is no exception to this rule.

EQUIPMENT Part -66
Current Measurement
Typical Multimeter Layout
Turn off power

Battery level Connect probes
Annunciator across the break
(all current flows
through the meter)
Auto--polarity Break circuit to
insert meter
Touch hold Turn circuit on
Auto--range
View reading
Select amps
AC or DC
Selector switch
Plug black test lead

into COM input
jack & red test
lead into 10A or
300mA input jack

as required
Overload
High energy fuses
protection

EQUIPMENT Part -66
Voltage Measurement Resistance Measurement
Connect the
probe tips across
Touch the probe the protion of
tips across a the circuit to be
load or power measured
source as shown Turn off power
to the circuit
Select volts AC
or DC as required
Select resistance
View reading
View reading
Plug the black test

lead into the COM
input jack. Plug the

red test lead into
Plug the black test the ohms input jack
lead into the COM
input jack & the red
test lead into the
V input jack

EQUIPMENT Part -66
POWER MEASUREMENT
Wattmeter design
Power in an electric circuit is the product (multiplication) of voltage and current,

so any meter designed to measure power must account for both of these vari-
ables.
A special meter movement designed for power measurement is called the dy-
namometer movement. This movement is similar to a D’Arsonval or Weston
movement in that a lightweight coil of wire is attached to the pointer mecha-
nism.
However, unlike the D’Arsonval or Weston movement, another stationary coil

is used instead of a permanent magnet to provide the magnetic field for the
moving coil to react against.
The moving coil is energised by the voltage in the circuit, whilst the stationary
coil is energised by the current in the circuit. A dynamometer movement con-
nected in a circuit is shown below:
Electrodynamometer Movement
Load

EQUIPMENT Part -66
The horizontal coil of wire measures load current while the vertical coil mea-
sures load voltage.
As with the lightweight moving coils of voltmeter movements, the moving volt-
age coil of a dynamometer is typically connected in series with a range resistor
so that full load voltage is not applied to it.
Likewise, the stationary current coil of a dynamometer may have precision

shunt resistors to divide the load current around it.
Electrodynamometer Movement

EQUIPMENT Part -66
FREQUENCY MEASUREMENT
Vibrating reed frequency meter
An important electrical quantity in AC circuits with no equivalent in DC circuits

is frequency. Frequency measurement is very important in many applications of
alternating current, especially in AC power systems designed to run efficiently
at one frequency and one frequency only.
If the AC is being generated by an electromechanical alternator, the frequency

will be directly proportional to the shaft speed of the machine, and frequency
could be measured simply by measuring the speed of the shaft. If frequency
needs to be measured at some distance from the alternator, though, other
means of measurement will be necessary.
One simple but crude method of frequency measurement in power systems

utilises the principle of mechanical resonance. Every physical object possess-
ing the property of elasticity has an inherent frequency at which it will prefer to
vibrate.
to AC voltage
Sheet metal reeds
The tuning fork is a good example of this: strike it once and it will continue to shaken by magnetic
vibrate at a tone specific to its length. Longer tuning forks have lower resonant field from the coil
frequencies: their tones will be lower on the musical scale than shorter forks.
Imagine a row of progressively--sized tuning forks arranged side--by--side. They

are all mounted on a common base, and that base is vibrated at the frequency
of the measured AC voltage or current by means of an electromagnet.
Whichever tuning fork is closest in resonant frequency to the frequency of that

vibration will tend to shake the most or the loudest. A collection of ’tuning forks’
essentially make up the vibrating reed frequency meter:

EQUIPMENT Part -66
Resonant frequency meter

The user of this meter views the ends of all those unequal length reeds as they
are collectively shaken at the frequency of the applied AC voltage to the coil.
While reed--type meters are imprecise, their operational principle is not. In lieu
of mechanical resonance, we may substitute electrical resonance and design a
The one closest in resonant frequency to the applied AC will vibrate the most: frequency meter using an inductor and capacitor in the form of a tank circuit
(parallel inductor and capacitor).
One or both components are made adjustable, and a meter is placed in the
circuit to indicate maximum amplitude of voltage across the two components.
The adjustment knob(s) are calibrated to show resonant frequency for any
given setting, and the frequency is read from them after the device has been
adjusted for maximum indication on the meter.
Essentially, this is a tunable filter circuit which is adjusted and then read in a
manner similar to a bridge circuit (which must be balanced for a null condition
and then read).
Resonant Frequency Meter
Sensitive AC movement
Variable capacitor with adjustment

knob calibrated in Hertz

EQUIPMENT Part -66
Frequency counters
Frequency counters use a digital counting technique to determine the fre-

quency of an unknown signal. A frequency counter consists of an accurate
clock signal source, a gate circuit and a digital counter.
Of course, some kind of display is also required. The display of a counter can
be for example a LED (light emitting diode) display or an LCD (liquid crystal
display).
The counter counts pulses as long as the gate circuit is open. The gate is kept
open, for example exactly for one second, by clocking it with the accurate clock
signal.
As mentioned, the counter counts pulses into a register until the gate is closed.
The unknown frequency can then be calculated simply by dividing the number
of the pulses counted by the time the gate circuit was open.
This kind of frequency counter is called a direct digital counter.
A frequency counter is often the most accurate and easy--to--use measuring

instrument for frequency measurement.
The input frequency range of a frequency counter can be extended by adding a

prescaler between the signal input and the counter.
The prescaler is a digital (binary counter) circuit that divides the frequency of
the measured signal by some constant, e. g. 1000.
Frequency counters built of fast digital integrated circuits are able to measure
frequencies of up to ~1GHz. The limit is set by the maximum speed of the digi-
tal logic.

M7.5 ENGINEERING DRAWINGS,
DIAGRAMS AND STANDARDS Part -66
M 7.5 ENGINEERING DRAWINGS


ENGINEERING DRAWINGS (GENERAL)

INTRODUCTION DRAWING PRACTICES
Engineering drawing is the language of engineers. Drawings convey the de- To understand drawings, the engineer must be familiar with common drawing
signer’s requirements in a much clearer way than could be done by the use of practices. The most common practices will be explained in the following pages
words. and will include the important aspects of:--
Drawings are widely used and must include sufficient information to enable 1. scale
manufacture, assembly, production planning, testing and inspection of the par- 2. use of lines
ticular component, or assembly, to be carried out.
3. methods of presentation
A British Standard (BS8880:2002) lays down criteria and conventions which
4. types of projection
should be adhered to when creating an engineering drawing.
5. special views.
As well as showing the shape by drawing, the actual size of the shape must be
given. For reasons that will be explained later, engineers do not measure draw- Drawing Sheet Sizes
ings to determine sizes, they refer to dimensions which are given on the draw-
The ’A’ Series of paper are normally used for engineering drawings.
ing.
The dimensions given (opposite) are the overall size of the sheets; the actual
The engineer will need to know the finish required on the material. He must, of
drawing frame is smaller.
course, also know the specification of the material from which the component is
to be made.
if you have previously used drawings your list may have been completed as
follows:
S shape
S size or dimensions
S material specification
S material finish
S relationship between the component and associated components in an as-
sembly.
Additionally, data should be provided regarding:
S method of manufacture
S assembly/disassembly sequence
S installation and operation

A4 A4 210mm x 297mm
A3 297mm x 420mm
A2 420mm x 594mm
A1 594mm x 841mm
A3 A0 841mm x 1189mm
A2
A1
A0
Figure 134 A-Series Paper

AIRCRAFT ENGINEERING DRAWINGS PICTORIAL (ISOMETRIC) VIEW

The layout, content and numbering system for aircraft engineering drawings is Isometric is a mathematical method of constructing a 3--dimensional object
decreed by iSpec 2200 of the Air Transport Association of America (superced- without using perspective. Isometric was an attempt to make drawings more
ing ATA Spec 100). realistic. The mathematics involved mean that all lengths when drawn at 30o
This topic is expanded on in Section M7.20 Maintenance Procedures. can be drawn using their true length (in other words lines aren’t shortened as
with oblique drawings).
SCALE An isometric drawing shows two sides of the object and the top or bottom of
the object. All vertical lines are drawn vertically, but all horizontal lines are
GENERAL drawn at 30o to the horizontal. Isometric is an easy method of constructing rea-
Drawings are normally drawn to a uniform scale which is stated on the drawing sonable ’3--dimensional’ images.
and is usually shown in a SCALE BOX by a ratio e.g. 1:1 (full size), 1:2 (half
size), etc.
In practice, no drawing should be measured to obtain a dimension which is not
shown. Drawings to scale 1:1 would be too large to handle comfortably, so they
are generally printed smaller for convenience. During this ’shrinking’ process
actual dimensions can become distorted, so taking a measurement directly
from the print would invariably be inaccurate.
If a particular dimension has been omitted, enquiry must be made to the De-
sign Office or appropriate authority for the information.
Isometric
View

DATE
1:1
Figure 135 SCALE

STANDARDS
Overview
When the large majority of products or services in a particular business or in-
dustry sector conform to International Standards, a state of industry--wide stan-
dardization can be said to exist.
This is achieved through consensus agreements between national delegations
representing all the economic stakeholders concerned -- suppliers, users, gov-
ernment regulators and other interest groups, such as consumers. They agree
on specifications and criteria to be applied consistently in the classification of
materials, in the manufacture and supply of products, in testing and analysis, in
terminology and in the provision of services.
International Standards Organisation

The ISO is a network of national standards institutes from 148 countries work-
ing in partnership with international organizations, governments, industry, busi-
ness and consumer representatives.
An ISO standard can be anything from a 4--page document to one several
hundred pages long and, in the future, will increasingly be available in elec-
tronic form. It carries the ISO logo and the designation, ”International Stan-
dard”. In most cases, it is published in A4 format -- which is itself one of the
ISO standard paper sizes.
Aircraft Materials and Hardware
Specifications and standards for aircraft hardware are generally identified by
the organisation originating them. Some of the most common are:
AMS Aeronautical Material Specifications
AN Air Force-Navy
AND Air Force-Navy Design
AS Aeronautical Standard
ASA American Standards Association
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
DTD Directorate of Technical Development
MS Military Standard
NAF Naval Aircraft Factory
NAS National Aerospace Standard
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers

Figure 136 Standard Example 1



TITLE BLOCK ZONES

Every print must have some means of identification. Aircraft drawings are very large and often run over many sheets.
This is provided by the title block. As can be seen on the diagram opposite, a drawing is bounded by a grid sys-
The title block consists of a drawing number and certain other data conceming tem similar to a map. Typically, the vertical divisions are marked with letters
the drawing and the object It represents. This information is grouped in a prom- and the horizontal numbers.
inent place always in the lower right--hand side of every sheet. When a print is A combination of a vertical and horizontal coordinate indicates a zone.
correctly folded, the title block is on the outside for easy reference. For example, Zone A-7 in the diagram opposite shows the position of the Revi-
The title block on Boeing production drawings contains the following informa- sion Block.
tion: With multi-page drawings, reference will be made to the map reference on the
S DRAWING NUMBER: The drawing number is in 1/2--inch--high characters. relevant sheet, ie A-7-2 (the ’2’ being the sheet number).
S TITLE: The title of a drawing is in 1/4--inch--high characters.
REVISION
S SCALE: The scale of which the majority of views and sections are drawn is
entered as a ratio. When various parts are drawn to different scales, or if Prototype aircraft drawings are not formally released until the aircraft type goes
there is no picture on Sheet One, the word ”NOTED” is entered. into production. Then the drawing will be detailed as ’Issue 1’.
S DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCE NOTES: Preprinted here are the general tol- From time to time, amendments are made to engineering drawings, for exam-
erances to be used with the various drawing dimensions if a tolerance is not ple if an item is modified in some way, or perhaps a new component is added.
otherwise shown on the drawing. This amendment must be recorded on the drawing, as it is important to be
S SH of : The total number of sheets is shown with the consecutive sheet working from the latest issue of an engineering drawing.
number such as SH 1 of 1, SH 1 of 4. On drawings with an automated parts This revision process is known as ’raising-in-issue’ and the drawing issue will
list (APL), this entry does not include the total number of picture sheets. The increase by one digit, ie from Issue 1 to Issue 2.
application block of the separate parts list lists all applicable sheets for each Conventionally, the Revision Block starts in the top right-hand corner of each
item. sheet and subsequent amendments are recorded to the left.
S SIGNATURES: The ”signature” block Is a list of approval signatures for the
drawing. PARTS LIST (BILL OF MATERIALS)
S SECT NO: The section number of the aircraft in which the item is installed. Traditionally, the list of all component parts on a drawing are listed above the
when an installation extends through several sections ”MS” Is used for mul- title block. It is also known as the ’Bill of Materials’.
tisections.
Multi-sheet drawings may have many parts, so to reduce clutter and for conve-
S USED ON: The basic model number. nience they usually have separate ’BoM’ sheets reflecting all the parts, their
part numbers, their locations (by zone) and their effectivity (which mark of air-
craft they are fitted to).

The drawing number should appear in the

top left--hand corner as well as bottom right.
Zone references are provided for quick and
easy location of revisions (modifications).
Full details of all modifications should be

listed in the revision table.
Tables are arranged so that part numbers and revision

letters build up from the border inwards to allow for fu-
ture additions to the drawing.
The parts table only applies when the drawing shows

two or more components assembled together. All parts
(both ’bought in’ and manufactured should be listed.
The title block -- normally standardised by the manufacturer --

contains all the general information relevant to the drawing.
Figure 139 Engineering Drawing - Standard Layout

TYPES AND USE OF LINES

GENERAL
Different types and thicknesses of lines are used on drawings for the purposes
as shown in the table opposite.

Continuous Visible outlines and

thick edges
Continuous Imaginary lines of intersection, dimension lines, projection
thin lines, leader lines, hatching, outlines of revolved sections,
short centre lines
Continuous thin Limits of partial or interrupted views and
irregular sections
Continuous thin Limits of partial or interrupted views and
straight with zig- sections
zags
Dashed Hidden outlines and
thick edges
Dashed Hidden outlines and

thin edges
Chain Centre lines, lines of symmetry, trajectories, pitch lines

thin and circles
Chain thin, thick at

ends and changes of Cutting
direction planes
Chain Lines or surfaces to which a special require-

thick ment applies
Outlines and edges of adjacent parts, alternative and
Chain thin double extreme positions of movable parts, centroidal lines,
dashed initial outlines prior to forming, bend lines on developed
blanks or patterns
Figure 140 Types And Use Of Lines

BREAK LINES
Because of limited space on a sheet of drawing paper, and so as to produce a
compact drawing, the use of break lines is often practised as shown on the
graphic below.

Round Bar Rectangular
Round Tube Rectangular (wood)

Figure 141 Break Lines

REPETITIVE INFORMATION
Where several features are repeated in a regular pattern, such as rivets, bolts
or slots, only the number required to establish the pattern may be shown, by
marking their centerlines. Any further information may be given in a note.
The graphic below shows a typical skin joint which could be drawn in this man-
ner.

Figure 142 Repetitive

SYMBOLS
Introduction
To minimise confusion, certain conventions have been adopted to standardise
the way items appear on engineering drawings.
Holes
As can be seen opposite, holes can be plain--drilled, reamed or threaded.
S Drilled holes are portrayed by a thick--lined circle. Its diameter may be
shown by a note. If the hole is ’blind’ the note will include the depth.
Fastener holes are often shown as symbols with an accompanying explana-
tory table.
S Reamed holes symbols will include an explanatory note differentiating them
from plain holes.
S Threaded holes are defined with a thick circular line for the thread crest
and a thin, broken one for the root.

Straight--through hole Blind hole

Plain Drilled Holes Reamed Hole
Threaded Hole
A hole may incorporate one or more

features, as in this case (spotfaced,
threaded and countersunk).
Figure 143 Common Drawing Symbols - Holes

SYMBOLS - RECESSED HOLES

Holes can be counterbored, spot--faced or countersunk to accomodate fastener
heads for flush fitting.
S A counterbore is a larger diameter hole, concentric to the primary hole,
with a flat shoulder. It is portrayed in plan view as two concentric thick--line
circles.
S A spotface is effectively a shallow counterbore to provide a flat, smooth
seating for a mating part or for a fastener head or nut. It is necessary when
the casting has a rough finish or is not square to the hole.
It is portrayed in plan view just like a counterbore, but the diameter of the
spotface must be given. The depth is not given; it is the minimum neces-
sary to achieve a flat seating.
S Countersunk holes accept the tapered head of a fastener and are created
by special countersinking bits.
It is portrayed in plan view by two concentric thick lines, with details of the
hole and the angle and diameter of the countersink.

Counterbored Hole Spotfaced Hole

Countersunk Hole
Figure 144 Common Drawing Symbols - Recessed Holes

SYMBOLS - CONVENTIONS
The figure opposite shows some typical conventions used in engineering draw-
ings.
These are, however, just a few used.

Interrupted Views
Cylindrical Compression Spring
Bearings
Splined Shaft External Thread
Internal Thread
-
Threaded Assembly
A/F - Across Flats CHAM - Chamfered HYD - Hydraulic Diameter

ASSY - Assembly CSK - Countersink PNEU - Pneumatic Taper
Figure 145 Typical Conventions and Abbreviations

SYMBOLS - SURFACE TEXTURE

Surface Texture
Surface texture is a measure of the smoothness of the surface finish. Where When there is just a single number on the symbol, it shows the maximum de-
this is important, it will be specified on the drawing. gree of roughness that is acceptable.
When a particular quality of surface finish is required, it will be stated by num- Sometimes, however, the surface texture is required between limits -- it must
bers above the triangle. not be too rough or too smooth.
The drawing should specify which scale is being used -- centreline average or This is shown by giving the maximum and minimum values:
roughness number.
Machining symbol
Surface texture Surface texture

shown in micro- shown in roughness
metres numbers

There are three scales commonly used for measuring surface texture.
The smaller the number, the smoother the texture.
The machining symbol can be applied directly

to the line representing the surface or it can
be placed on a leader or extension line.
Figure 146 Surface Texture Symbols

PERSPECTIVE PROJECTION
A perspective drawing shows an object in the way the human eye sees it.
Orthographic Projection
Lines used to construct this type of drawing meet up at a distant point - the
In order that drawings clearly show the designer’s requirements and provide
vanishing point.
the opportunity to show all dimensions, they are usually drawn in either first- or
Perspective drawings are seldom used in engineering, as they cannot accu- third-angle orthographic projection.
rately portray dimensions.
First Angle Projection
The principle of first angle projection (European in origin) is shown opposite.
Each view represents the side of the object remote from it in the adjacent view.
Left Vanishing Right Vanishing

Point Point
Horizon
SKETCHES
A sketch is a loosely-structured hand-drawing graphically depicting an object or
perhaps a proposed repair scheme.
They are typically created without the benefit of drawing instruments. For this
reason, an invaluable aid when creating a sketch is graph paper.

Symbol
A
Front View B Side View C

A
C B
Front View B Side View C
C
B Plan A
Figure 147 First Angle Projection

Third Angle Projection
The principle of third angle projection (American in origin) is shown in Fig. 2.
Each view represents the side of the object nearest to it in the adjacent view.
The majority of drawings produced for aircraft purposes show the parts in third
angle projection, but you may have occasion to use older drawings that were
produced in first angle projection.
Both systems show objects as they actually are, both in size (unless for conve-
nience the drawing is scaled up or down) and shape, when viewed in the verti-
cal and horizontal planes.
The projection used for a drawing must be clearly stated and the appropriate
international projection symbol must be placed in a prominent position on the
drawing. Any views not complying with the projection stipulated, e.g. a view
showing the true shape of an inclined face, as will be explained later, are gen-
erally marked with an arrow and suitably annotated.

Plan A
Symbol
Plan A
C
Front View B
Side View C Side View C Front View B
Figure 148 Third Angle Projection

SECTIONAL VIEWS
GENERAL
A sectional view shows the object drawn as if part of it is removed so that the
interior shape is seen clearly. For this purpose the cutting plane selected must
be clearly shown on one of the other views as shown below.
As the example opposite shows, section lines are drawn equally spaced across
the material which has been cut. These section lines, sometimes called hatch-
ing lines, are drawn at 45o to the axis of the section.
if the drawing shows an assembly of parts, adjacent parts are hatched in differ-
ent directions so as to distinguish the separate parts clearly.
Nuts, bolts, rivets, shafts and ribs are not normally shown in longitudinal sec-
tion.

A View on
A-A
Figure 149 Sectional View

PART, HALF, AND STAGGERED SECTIONS
If full sectioning is considered unnecessary, a part or half-section may be used,
and staggered sections are often used to illustrate particular features. Exam-
ples of these are shown opposite.

Half Section Section In Two Parallel Planes

Part Section
Figure 150 PART, HALF AND STAGGERED SECTIONS

AUXILIARY VIEWS
None of the types of view mentioned will show the true shape of a surface if it
is inclined to the normal planes of projection.
The true shape of such a surface is shown by means of an auxiliary view
drawn at right angles to the surface.
An example of this is shown opposite.

View In Direction of Arrow
Figure 151 AUXILIARY VIEW

DIMENSIONING FROM A COMMON DATUM

One of the methods shown below is usually used when dimensions are given
from a common datum. Dimensions between holes are not often used since
this allows a build up of tolerances. An alternative method, used with riveted
joints, is to locate the end holes and add a note such as ’11 rivets equally
spaced.’

75
55
35
20
75
20
35
55
Figure 152 DIMENSIONING FROM A COMMON DATUM

DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCES
It is the aim of modern engineering production methods to make parts swiftly,
and to an acceptable degree of accuracy. No engineering component can be
made, or needs to be made, exactly to size. By using high-quality machine
tools and a certain flexibility in dimensions, parts can be made at a tremendous
rate and at the same time be guaranteed to be fully interchangeable.
This is done by adopting a system of limits which, in practice, defines how
much bigger or smaller than the basic size an item can be and yet still be con-
sidered acceptable.
In practice, therefore, on an engineering drawing, a basic linear dimension of
25 millimetres is likely to appear so:
This indicates that, although ideally the required size of the item is 25 mm, in
practice, provided that its actual size falls between the extremes shown, the
item is acceptable.
The upper dimension is the maximum permitted size or the High Limit and the
lower dimension is the minimum or Low Limit. The difference between these
high and low limits of size is called the tolerance.
In the example above, the limits of size are in each case 25.05/24.95mm; the
tolerance is the difference between them, which is 0.10mm.
A tolerance may be ’unilateral’ or ’bilateral’. The examples used in the previous
paragraph are bilateral tolerances because the dimensional variation is dis-
posed both above and below the basic size.
A unilateral tolerance is one which permits a variation in one direction only, ei-
ther above or below the basic size. On engineering drawings where each di-
mension is individually toleranced, the limiting dimensionsmay be shown either
as two dimensions or as a single dimension plus and/or minus a tolerance as
shown opposite.
When an overall general tolerance is applied to the majority of dimensions, a
general note to this effect is used.

Figure 153 Dimensional Tolerance Examples

DRAWING READING FUNDAMENTALS

GENERAL
The blueprint system is used by the engineer to communicate his ideas to the
various people who buy the raw material, plan the manufacturing sequences,
build the parts and finally buy the product.
Manufacturing. Planning, and Quality Control personnel will find that most of
their contact with the blueprint system will be with engineering and tooling
drawings.
The purpose of this training section is to familiarize individuals from these and
other areas with the engineering production drawing, procedures and specifica-
tions most commonly used in the fabrication, assembly and installation of the
components that make up today’s modern aircraft and vehicles.
Drawings used in the design, construction and maintenance of engineering pro-
jects are called ”production drawings”. Drawings used in the design, construc-
tion and maintenance of the jigs, tools and checking fixtures that are held in the
building of an engineering project are called ”tool drawings”.
Blueprints are simply copies of engineering drawings. Many ”blueprints” are not
blue at all, but black lines on white, blue lines on white or even brown lines on
white. ”Blueprint” has come to mean almost any colour of drawing reproduced
on paper. Blueprints reproduced on metal or Mylar film are also available.

Figure 154 Detail Drawing 1

DETAIL DRAWINGS
Drawings used In the detailing or fabrication of single parts are called ”detail”
drawings. Sometimes these drawings may be called ”fab” (for fabrication) draw-
ings. Detail drawings do not put parts together.
Most detail drawings are easily recognized by their titles. If the word ”assem-
bly” or ”Installation” does not appear in the title, the drawing Is a detail drawing.
An inseparable assembly delineates items or parts separately fabricated and
permanently joined together, such as welded or riveted parts not subject to dis-
assembly. The size of the drawing gives no indication of the drawing type.
Some detail drawings are small, whereas others are large. The size of the
drawing Is governed only by the size of the part or parts being detailed.
S Remember: detail drawings do not ordinarily show location, position or fas-
tening method. They will occasIonally show where a fastener will eventually
be installed, but they do not show the fastener itself.
Detail drawings are designed primarily to give instruction for fabrication person-
nel and provide only information used to make a part, since the assembly and
installation information is of little value in fabrication work.
Detail information indudes:
S Size and shape description
S Material and heat treatment requirements
S Protective finish Instruction (painting, plating, etc.)
S Machine finish if required (surface smoothness for metal)
S Part numbering and marking instructions -- the next higher drawing number
(here the part will be used).
The engineer may not issue a separate detail drawing for each individual part.
Frequently, several parts are detailed on one detail drawing, or some parts are
detailed on assembly or installation drawings.

Figure 155 Detail Drawing 2

ASSEMBLY DRAWINGS
The engineer may not issue a separate assembly drawing for each assembly.
An assembly may be comprised of only two parts or many, depending on the
Some assembly drawings tell how to built several different assemblies. Also,
whim of the designer. In some cases, a large assembly may comprise several
some assemblies are built from information on installation drawings.
small assemblies fastened together. Information about how to locate the parts
In reference to each other (not In reference to the entire airplane or vehIcle) Most assembly drawings are recognized by their drawing titles, which must
and about how to fasten them together is called ”assembly Information”. contain the word assembly” or ”assemblies”.
The primary function of the assembly drawing is to show the relationship of two The word ”assembly” is defined as follows: ”An assembly Is a multiple--piece
or more parts and subordinate assemblies, or a group of assemblies to form an item that can be disassembled into its component parts or units without de-
assembly of a higher order. struction; it does not independently of Itself perform or fulfil a specific complete
function but is essential for the completeness or proper operation of a more
An assembly drawing must provide five items of information:
complex Item of equipment with which it is mechanically combined”.
S A list of required component parts and process specifications
S Location dimensions (showing exactly how parts fit together)
S Fastening methods
S A part number for the finished assembly
S The next higher drawing number (where the assembly will be used).
NOTE: SOME OF THIS INFORMATION IS FOUND IN THE PARTS LIST.
In addition, an assembly drawing may provide detail fabrication information
about some or all the parts from which it is made. Thus, many are actually
combination detail/assembly drawings. These are called assembly drawings
even though they are not strictly assembly. Many assembly drawings contain
some detail fabrication information.
Bear In mind that there is a great difference between ”detailing” a part and
merely ”showing” a part. To show a part requires only that the outline of the
part, or a symbol of some sort, be pictured. Detailing a part requires a complete
picture description. If a part is detailed on an assembly drawing, the assembly
drawing completely describes that part.
But a part can be shown on an assembly drawing by means of a symbol, in-

complete picture, or even by location only, with no picture actually shown.
Remember: A part that is detailed on one drawing can be shown on many
drawings but cannot be detailed on another drawing. We see, then, that fab-
rication personnel are often required to work from the assembly drawings and
that assemblers often find detail Information on their drawings.

Screw
Washer
Handle
Valve
See Detail A
Upper Gasket
Seat
Faucet
Body
Figure 156 Assembly Drawing

INSTALLATION DRAWINGS
Installation drawings are designed to describe exactly where on the airplane or
vehicle, or in a portion of the airplane or vehicle, certain parts or assemblies
are to be permanently affixed.
Installation drawings must provide the following information:
S A list of required component parts and process specifications
S Location dimensions (in reference to the entire airplane or vehicle)
S Fastening methods
S A part number for the finished installation (tabulation)
S The next higher drawing number (used on drawing number).
NOTE: SOME OF THIS INFORMATION IS FOUND IN THE PARTS LIST.
Note that the Items listed above are almost identical to those listed for assem-
bly drawings. The major difference between the two lies in the interpretation of
the word ”location”. Assembly drawings give locations of parts only as they per-
tain to each other; InstallatIon drawings give position within the aircraft or ve-
hicle structure.
Installation drawings are similar to assembly drawings in that the two are often
combined. Actually, most of the Installation drawings are combination
assembly/installation drawings. The drawing name describes the final operation
performed.
Detailed information about some or all of the assembly or installation compo-
nents may also be given on the Installation drawing. Thus, many of the Installa-
tion drawings are actually combination detail assembly/installation drawings.
They, too, are named by the final operation performed by the Installation. The
word ”installation” appears In the title of all installation drawings

Figure 157 Installation Drawing

EXPLODED-- VIEW DRAWING

Illustrated parts lists often make use of exploded--view drawings to show every
part that is in an assembly.
All of the parts are in their relative position, but are expanded outward, so that
each part can be identified by its physical appearance or by its name. It can
also be identified by a reference number that is coded to the parts list.

Figure 158 Exploded - View Drawing

SCHEMATIC DRAWING
A schematic drawing does not show an exact image of an object; it is used to
illustrate a principle of operation.
It does, however, indicate where objects are located in relation to each other in
a system and (if applicable) direction of fluid flow.
Schematic drawings are ideal for trouble-shooting.

Figure 159 Schematic Drawing

ELECTRICAL WIRING DIAGRAM

Wiring diagrams indicate such things as size of wire and type of terminals to be
used for a particular application.
Several types of wiring diagram exist; some show only one circuit whilst others
portray several circuits within a system.
They also normally identify each component by both its part number and serial
number.
More detailed diagrams show wire connections at splices or the arrangement of
parts.
Like schematic diagrams, wiring diagrams do not show an exact image of a
circuit; it is used to illustrate a principle of operation.
It does, however, indicate where objects are located in relation to each other in
a circuit.
Wiring drawings are ideal for trouble-shooting.

Figure 160 Wiring Diagram

DRAWING STORAGE
Introduction
Engineering drawings have historically been created on paper at 1:1 scale and
stored in cabinet drawers sufficiently large enough to contain them unfolded.
This poses problems of storage space. A modern large aircraft has thousands
of drawings; if paper copies of drawings were stored at their original scale, a
small building would be needed for all the drawing cabinets.
Aperture Cards
One method used to reduce drawings’ physical size (and thus storage space)
was to photograph them and mount the resultant slide onto a card. This card
could be loaded into a viewer for ease of reading and a hard--copy subse-
quently printed off if necessary.
Microfilm
Instead of copies of each drawing being mounted in its own individual aperture
card, hundreds could be stored onto a photographic film (microfilm). As with
the aperture card, this microfilm could be loaded into a reader for ease of view-
ing and, if necessary, printing of hard--copies.
Computer Aided Design (CAD)

The advent of computers resulted in engineering drawing software develop-
ment; computer aided design, or CAD.
Aircraft and their component parts could now be designed on a medium that
did not have the problem of physical storage space for the finished drawings;
they could be held digitally on magnetic media.
Amendments to drawings was a formality and hard--copies could be produced
via a printer linked to the computer.
CD--ROM
With the development of compact discs and their incorporation into computers,
it was a logical step to store electronic copies of drawings onto CD--ROMs.
Now a complete aircraft’s drawings could be stored on perhaps 10 CDs; quite a
difference to the small building necessary for it’s equivalent paper copies.
Designers can distribute their drawings (and any amendments) to customers
via this cheap medium.
Doubtless as their use becomes more common, DVDs (with their superior stor-
age capacity) will become the preferred option over CDs.

Aperture
Cards
Drawing Cabinet
Online System Microfilm

Reader
Figure 161 Drawing Storage Methods

M7.6 FITS AND CLEARANCES
Part -66
M 7.6 FITS AND CLEARANCES

HAM US/F-5 Dec.2005 Page: 354

Part -66
SYSTEMS OF FITS
Limits
The largest acceptable size for a particular dimension is known as the ”high
limit”. The smallest acceptable size for the same dimension is called the ”low
limit”. The difference between the high and low limits is known as the ”toler-
ance”.
When two components are to be fitted together, such as a shaft and a bearing,
the difference between the high limit of the inside component and the low limit
of the surrounding component is known as the ”allowance”.
The allowance is the smallest clearance which can occur between the two
components when assembled. The largest clearance which can occur is equal
to the total of the allowance, the tolerance of the inside component and the tol-
erance of the outside component.
This permitted difference in size for the two components determines the class
of ”fit” between the mating parts.
Note: the tolerances and allowance are very small compared with the overall
size -- the drawing opposite is exaggerated for clarity.

Part -66
High
Limit
Low
Limit
Tolerance
BEARING
Maximum
Clearance
Allowance
SHAFT
Tolerance
Low
Limit
High
Limit
Figure 162 Limits

Part -66
KINDS OF FIT
According to their purpose the work pieces to be fitted are made with a differ- will be between 0.001mm and 0.042mm larger than the hole. These dimen-
ent play or interference. This is why we distinguish between several kinds of fit. sions are typical of an interference fit.
There is an extreme interference fit called a ”shrink” fit. This is when the shaft
CLEARANCE FIT
is so much larger than the hole that it cannot be assembled by the application
In cases of clearance fit you will always have some play after assembly, eg in of force alone. Assembly is achieved by heating the outer component so that it
bearings. expands. The cold shaft is forced into the heat expanded hole, which is then
Clearance fits can be further divided into ”running” and ”free running”. Compo- shrunk onto the shaft by cooling.
nents which have clearance fit can be assembled together by light hand pres-
sure or even without any force at all.
Consider a shaft and a bearing of nominal diameter 30mm with the tolerances
shown in the diagram. If both parts are within the stated tolerances, the hole
must always be at least 0.025mm larger than the shaft and could be as much SHAFT
as 0.080mm. This will enable the components to be fitted together easily and is
typical of a clearance fit. --0.025
30 --0.050
TRANSITION FIT
In the case of transition fit, play or interference can occur between the parts,
depending on the size of their actual sizes. The tolerances of bore and shaft BEARING
overlap.
Transition Fit can be sub--divided into ”light press” and ”push” fits. As the toler-
+0.000
ances are such that the parts may have slight interference or a very small 30 +0.030
clearance, they may need a light press or taps from a hammer to assemble
them.
shown in the diagram. If both parts are within the stated tolerances, the shaft
may be up to 0.018mm larger than the hole or as much as 0.016mm smaller
than the hole. This sort of variation is typical of a transition fit.
INTERFERENCE FIT
In case of interference fit the hole is smaller than the item being fitted (for ex-
ample in the case of a bearing bushing and its housing).
This can also be referred to as a ”drive”, ”press” or ”force” fit. The inner compo-
nent is always larger than the outer component and assembly can only be Running
achieved by the application of considerable force.
Free Running
Fit Fit
shown in the diagram. If both parts are within the stated tolerances, the shaft
Clearance Fit

Part -66
SHAFT
--0.042
30 --0.026
BEARING
+0.000
30 +0.025
Transition Fit Interference Fit
Force Fit
Light Drive Fit

Push Fit Press Fit
Figure 163 Types Of Fit

Part -66
ISO SYSTEM
There is an ISO system for specifying fit between shafts and bearings or simi-
lar mating components. A brief description of the system follows, but refer to Fundamental
BS 4500 for further details. deviation H
The outer component (the bearing or hole) is described by a capital letter fol-
lowed by a number, eg H6. The inner component (the shaft) is described by a Tolerance
lower case letter followed by a number, eg h6.
The letters specify the fundamental deviation of the actual dimensions from the
nominal dimensions -- this is sometimes called the ”tolerance position”. The Nominal
letter H (and also h) specifies zero fundamental deviation (in other words the diameter BEARING
tolerance ranges from the nominal size).
S Example: An h6 shaft of nominal diameter 25mm can vary between
24.987mm and 25.000mm.
Fundamental deviation h
Note, however, that an H6 bearing (or hole) of nominal diameter 25mm can
vary between 25.000mm and 25.013mm. The tolerance on both shaft and Tolerance
bearing is in the direction which increases clearance between the two. The
shaft can be smaller than its fundamental deviation by the amount of the toler-
ance and the hole can be larger than its fundamental deviation by the amount SHAFT
of the tolerance.

Part -66
Figure 164 BS 4500: Limits and Fits For Engineering

Part -66
On the previous page we considered bearings and shafts for which the funda-
mental deviation was zero (H and h). This combination can never give a shaft
which is larger than the bearing; the shaft can be the same size as the bearing
or smaller by the amount of the tolerances. The fit will always be clearance.
SHAFT
Tighter or looser fits can be specified by moving the fundamental deviation of
either the shaft or the bearing, or both. Letters beyond H in the alphabet spec-
ify a shift of fundamental deviation to always give oversize shafts and under- Nominal
size holes. The further the designating letter is from H the greater the amount h diameter
of oversize in the shaft or undersize in the hole and therefore the tighter the fit. k
For a 25mm diameter shaft, the table below gives examples of the minimum
diameters that are within tolerance for different fundamental deviations: n
p
ISO Designating Letter h k n p s
Minimum Diameter mm 25.000 25.002 25.015 25.022 25.035 K
BEARING
Note that the actual value of fundamental deviation for each designating letter
varies with the nominal diameter of the shaft (see the table on the next page).
Nominal
Conversely, an ISO designating letter that comes before H in the alphabet diameter
specifies a shift of fundamental deviation in the direction which gives undersize H
shafts and oversize holes -- a looser fit. K
For a 25mm diameter shaft, the table below gives examples of the maximum N
diameters that are within tolerance for different fundamental deviations.
P
ISO Designating Letter d e f g h Note: the fundamental deviations are
Fundamental Deviation mm 0.065 0.040 0.020 0.007 0.000 very small - the drawing is exager-
ated for clarity.
Maximum Diameter mm 24.935 24.960 24.980 24.993 25.000
The actual value of fundamental deviation designated by each letter varies

with the nominal diameter of the shaft or hole. Examples:

Part -66
ISO FUNDAMENTAL DEVIATION mm

Designating Nominal Diameter of Hole or Shaft
Letter 25mm 60mm 100mm SHAFT
D or d 0.065 0.100 0.120
E or e 0.040 0.060 0.072 Nominal
h diameter
F or f 0.020 0.030 0.036
G or g 0.007 0.010 0.012 g
H or h 0.000 0.000 0.000 f
K or k 0.002 0.002 0.003 e
N or n 0.015 0.020 0.023
BEARING
H Nominal
diameter
G
F
E
Note: the deviations are positive
for holes and negative for shafts
for letters A to G. For letters after
H the signs are reversed - nega-
tive for holes and positive for

shafts.

Part -66
Tolerances
In the ISO system, the number which follows the fundamental deviation letter
specifies the tolerance which is acceptable. The tolerance is the amount of
variation which is permitted between individual parts made to the same specifi-
cation. The combination of nominal size, fundamental deviation and tolerance
specifies the maximum dimensions which are acceptable. Nominal dimension
The number specifying tolerance is on a scale 1 to 16 - the smaller the number
Fundamental deviation f,
the tighter the tolerance. The value of the tolerance for each designating num- with tolerances 6,7 & 8
ber varies with the diameter of the shaft or hole. The table gives examples of
tolerance for three particular sizes of shaft. Fundamental deviation g,
Note that the tolerance ranges from the fundamental deviation in a direction with tolerances 6,7 & 8
away from the nominal size (see diagram). This applies foe both shafts and
bearings (holes). Fundamental deviation h,
Fundamental deviation n, with tolerances 6,7 & 8
with tolerances 6,7 & 8
ISO Tolerance mm
SHAFT
Tolerance Nominal Diameter of Shaft
Number 25mm 60mm 100mm Fundamental deviation p,
with tolerances 6,7 & 8
6 0.013 0.019 0.022
7 0.021 0.030 0.035
8 0.033 0.046 0.054
9 0.052 0.074 0.087
10 0.084 0.120 0.140
11 0.130 0.190 0.220

Part -66
Fits
In the ISO system, the fit of a shaft and a bearing is described by stating the
designation of the hole followed by the designation of the shaft.
BEARING
S Example: H8 -- e7 or H8/e7
A bearing of nominal size 25mm and H8 specification will have a minimum size Hole tolerance of 8
of 25.000mm and a maximum size of 25.033mm. This is made up of zero fun-
damental deviation and a tolerance of 0.033mm. 0.033
0.094
A shaft of nominal size 25mm and e7 specification will have a maximum size of
24.960mm and a minimum size of 24.939mm. This is made up of a fundamen-
0.040
tal deviation of 0.040mm and a tolerance of 0.021mm. 0.021
This combination will give a clearance fit. The minimum clearance will be
0.040mm and the maximum clearance will be 0.094mm, depending upon Fundamental
deviation e SHAFT
where the individual components lie within the range of tolerance.
Using the data given in the tables on the previous 2 pages, work out the an-
swers to the following:
Nominal diameter
Maximum Clearance Minimum Clearance 25mm
1. Shaft and hole with Shaft tolerance of 7
nominal diameter
60mm, ISO fit H8/e7
2. Shaft and hole with
nominal diameter
25mm, ISO fit H7/g6

Part -66
FASTENERS - HOLE AND DRILL DATA - METALLIC STRUC-

TURE
The following tables are extracted from a typical aircraft Structural Repair
Manual (in this case an Airbus A340--200/300).
They give the permitted tolerances for holes for fasteners, depending on the
type of fastener and kind of fit, as follows.
Table Holes For:

3 standard and oversize dia solid rivets
4 standard and oversize dia blind rivets
5 standard dia blind rivets (NAS54212 & NAS54213)
6 standard dia Cherry-Buck titanium solid rivets
7 standard and oversize dia blind bolts
8 standard dia threaded pins and bolts (transition fit)
9 1st oversize dia threaded pins and bolts (transition fit)
10 2nd oversize dia threaded pins and bolts (transition fit)
11 standard dia threaded pins and bolts (clearance fit)
12 oversize dia threaded pins and bolts (clearance fit)
13 standard dia threaded pins and bolts (transition fit close tol.)
14 1st & 2nd o’size threaded pins and bolts (transition fit close tol.)
15 standard dia threaded pins (interference fit)
16 1st & 2nd o’size dia threaded pins (interference fit)
17 standard dia special clearance fit bolts (tension)
18 1st & 2nd o’size dia special clearance fit bolts (tension)

Part -66
Figure 165 Extracts From Airbus SRM - 1

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Part -66
WEAR LIMITS
A300 Outer Airbrake Attachments
This is an example from the Maintenance Manual of wear limits.

Part -66
AIR-
BRAKE
No 1
AIR-
BRAKE
SPOILE No 2
CENTRE
R No 3
HINGE
BRACKET
HINGE
AND JACK Figure 179 Outer Airbrakes - Wear Limits (A300)
HAM US/F-5 Dec.2005 RIB Page: 381
Part -66
TWIST LIMITS
A300 Twist Check
This is an example from the Maintenance Manual of twist limits.
S Record height of the points of fuselage horizontal datum using the two sight
tubes placed on either side of the fuselage.
S Z variations of the fuselage horizontal datum points indicate fuselage twist.
NOTE :The values in the table are actual measurements recorded on air-
craft at zero flight hours and must only be used as guidelines for alignment
checks.
Deviation from the values and tolerances given does not automatically
mean that the aircraft is not serviceable.

Part -66
Definition of Datum
Axes
Alignment and Fuselage Twist

Check
Figure 180 Twist Check

Part -66
STANDARD METHODS FOR CHECKING SHAFTS & BEAR-

INGS
Dial Test Indicator (DTI)
Dial test indicators are precision measuring instruments that can be used to
determine the amount of movement between certain engine and airframe parts.
They may also be used to determine and out-of-round condition on a shaft or
the plane of rotation of a disk.
Checking Method
Engine crankshaft runout is checked with a DTI by assembling the instrument
onto a stand and positioning it onto a smooth part of the crankshaft.
A preload is then applied to the DTI by pressing it against the shaft so that the
pointer deflects by a few thousandths of an inch.
The DTI is then zeroed and, as the crankshaft is turned, the DTI will indicate
the amount of deviation in both directions.

Part -66
Dial test indicators are used to check shafts for out-of-round and for bends.
They are also useful for checking backlash in gears and for measuring axle
end play.
Figure 181 Using Dial Test Indicators

Part -66


M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND
CONNECTORS Part -66
M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND CONNECTORS


CONNECTORS Part -66
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON AIRCRAFT

Note:These safety precautions are of a general nature and apply to all aircraft
types.
As well as the ever present danger of being caught or struck by moving parts,
electrical equipment also presents the dangers of electric shock, burns, fire and
explosion.
Electrical equipment should never be operated in areas where explosive vapors

are present or suspected, unless the equipment is explosion proof and de-
signed specifically for use in such areas.
If it is necessary to work on energised circuits or on live electrical equipment,

always use adequate protective materials and extreme care.
When preparing to work on de--energized electrical circuits ensure that:

-- the external power switch is off.
-- the battery is disconnected.
-- red safety tags are fitted.
These precautions apply to low voltage and high voltage equipment. Where
electrical shock and burns are concerned, it is the current that does the dam-
age, not the voltage.
Never use electric tools which deliver more than 0.02 millijoules of energy or
heat generating tools in fuel tanks or flammable vapor areas.
Only crimped contacts, terminals, splices and non--heat shrinkable sleeves are
to be used in these areas.
SWPM: 20--00--10
ESPM:20--10--00

CONNECTORS Part -66
Battery
to
Disconnect Battery
aircraft
Remove External Power Plug
R
Figure 182 Safety precautions

CONNECTORS Part -66
GENERAL NOTES
Design of the wiring installation shall conform to the following precedence : 4 The bend radius of wire bundles must be extended to the maximum pos-
S 1st-- Flight safety. sible in order to prevent cracks occurring in the insulation.
S 2nd-- Ease of maintenance , removal and replacement of parts.
S 3rd-- Cost effective aircraft production and repair. a) The minimum bend radius for single wires or cables is 3 times the outside
diameter. The best and preferred value is 10 times the outside diameter.
1 For ease of installation and maintenance, wires are arranged into bundles
and groups which may include a variety of different wire types. i.e.: single, b) The smallest bend radius for wire bundles is 6 times the outside
shielded, multicore etc. diameter.
Individual groups must be spot tied and when these groups are bundled to-
gether the spot ties must not be removed. c) For single co--ax cables and wire bundles with co--ax cable attached, the
No plastic ties are allowed in unpressurised areas. minimum bend radius is 10 times the outside diameter of the co--ax cable.
2 Ensure that no mechanical stretch is present on the wire. Wire bundles General Inspections and checks (ESPM 20--52--10)
must be protected against chafing by ensuring that there is no contact between Each time a wire is added, repaired, or reconnected, ensure that:
the wire bundles and mechanical cables, metal tubes, or structural compo-
nents. -- The wire is correctly, mechanically connected to the plug or terminal
block/ module as applicable. For wires with crimp contacts this involves pull-
Carbon arc tracking -- installation precautions ing the wire lightly.
The installation segregation rules must be observed in order to limit the possi- -- A continuity check and functional test of the related system is carried out.
bility of damage and interaction between routes.
The electrical cables, connectors and the boxes and panels which accommo-
date them must be protected against water contamination. Each time a connector is disconnected and reconnected:
-- Do a visual check of the connector locking.
-- Carry out a functional test of the related systems.
3 Wire bundles must run above or alongside piping at least 50mm (1.9 inch)
from lines carrying flammable liquids such as fuel, hydraulic oil, oxygen etc.
This distance may be reduced to 15mm (0.59 in) for lines that do not carry
flammable liquids i.e.: hot air, static air etc.
ESPM 20--33--41 SWPM 20--10--11 ESPM 20-33--10

CONNECTORS Part -66
1 3
NOT CLAMPED
GROUP SPOT TIES ON HYDRAULIC,
HOT AIR, FUEL
OR OXYGEN
TUBES
WIRE BUNDLE
2
WIRE BUNDLE
FRAME FRAME
Figure 183 General Installation

CONNECTORS Part -66
GENERAL NOTES (CONTINUED)

1 Wire bundles in the fuselage or wing must be clamped at every frame. Aromatic polyimide (AP) wires and cables
Coaxial cables must be installed separately from other wire bundles and with
the maximum possible bend radius (10 times the outside diameter). Aircraft that are not fitted with AP wires and cables at manufacture must not
have AP wires and cables fitted during repair or modification. Only the wire and
cable types in the Wiring Diagrams Manual are authorised for use.
2 When wiring is terminated at a connector, a minimum length of slack is If however, you find AP wires already installed, they can be left on the aircraft.
required to facilitate connector removal. This is particularly important if the con-
nector is at the rear of an indicator which has to be pulled forward through a Aircraft that are fitted with AP wires at manufacture must be repaired and mod-
panel for disconnection. ified with the same wire type or suitable alternative as listed in the Wiring Dia-
grams Manual.
3 When a wire bundle is dressed downward to a connector, terminal block
etc. a drip loop must be installed to prevent fluid contamination.
4 Wires must not be tied or fastened together inside conduit or insulating

sleeving. A draw wire must be installed for ease of modification.
Oil or temperature resistant Scotch Electrical Tape as applicable must be used
for abrasion protection and secured with flat waxed binding tape at both ends.
Make a drainage hole after installation is complete and the lowest point is firmly
established.
5 General Conditions for Overbraid Shields (SWPM 20--25--11)
A wire bundle that has an overbraid shield installed must be identified with a W
number:
-- Within 18 inches of all connectors
-- Within 18 inches of all shield terminations
-- At branches
-- Every six feet.
The shield must have the same temperature grade as the wire bundle.

CONNECTORS Part -66
1 3 WIRE BUNDLE
PLUG
DRIP LOOP
WIRE BUNDLE CLAMPED AT EVERY FRAME 4
2 WIRE BUNDLE Drainage hole 1/8

in diameter at
lowest point
LENGTH SUF-
FICIENT
5
Figure 184 General installation (cont)

CONNECTORS Part -66
WIRE SEPARATION
Essential system wire bundles such as Stab Trim, Autoflight, Essential Power General Airbus Segregation Rules (ESPM 20--33--10 )
etc. mustseparated by space. Wiring Segregations or Routes
For safety and EMI reasons electrical wires are installed in physically sepa-
For example; Autopilot 1 must be installed on the left hand side of the fuse- rated routes.These routes consist of wires grouped together according to the
lage, Autopilot 2 on the right and Autopilot 3 in the middle of the fuselage. nature of the wires and the type of signal they carry.
Where these bundles are routed in very close proximity to each other ( near
computers, in racks etc.), they must still be separated. Wires are grouped into 6 categories :
(1) G -- Generation (4) S -- Sensitive cables
Where Fail Op Autoland wire bundles are re--installed after modification or (2) P -- Power distribution (5) R -- Audio cables
other maintenance, the Aircraft Maintenance Manuals must be consulted to
(3) M -- Miscellaneous cables (6) T/U/V -- Coaxial cables
ensure Fail Op Autoland segregation requirements are met.
Two separate routes are defined for categories P,S and M so that a single fail-
General Boeing Separation Rules ( SWPM 20--10--19)
ure cannot affect both channels of a redundant system simultaneously.
General Data
The airplane wiring is designed and installed:
As a general rule two routes of the same category, e.g.1M and 2M, which con-
-- To prevent the propagation of the effects of electrical faults to other inde- tain duplicated systems are routed as far apart as possible.
pendent power sources.
-- To prevent the possibility that the failure of a component in a redundant
--main routes are installed on opposite sides of the fuselage.
system can disable another related, redundant system.
--secondary routes are separated by a minimum distance of 25 mm (0.9842 in.)
-- To avoid electromagnetic interference (EMI) between circuits that are not
unless a physical barrier is provided e.g. raceways or PTFE conduits etc.
EMC compatible.
–Mixing of routes 1 and 2 is strictly forbidden inside all electrical components
including racks, boxes and panels.
Necessary Conditions of Separation for Wire Harness Design
These are the applicable types of separation:
-- Separation between independent power sources (Functional Separation)
-- Separation between redundant system circuits (Functional Separation)

-- Separation between EMC circuits that are not compatible (Electromag-
netic Separation).
To obey these conditions:
-- Electrical circuits, for which separation is necessary, are put in different
wire harness assemblies.
--If this is not possible, separation is achieved within the same wire harness
with sleeves and shielded wire.

CONNECTORS Part -66
Engine burst exposed critical systems

e.g. Primary Flight Control wire bundles
WIRE BUNDLE
SYSTEM # 2
WIRE BUNDLE
SYSTEM # 3 Systems 1 Systems 3 Systems 2
WIRE BUNDLE
SYSTEM # 1
Aircraft Topview
Aircraft cross section
WIRE BUNDLE SEPARATION IN AIRCRAFT FUSELAGE
Figure 185 Wire Separation

CONNECTORS Part -66
WIRE AND CABLE SUPPORT

Wire harnesses are:
Cable Clamps -- Permitted to move in a longitudinal direction in a loop clamp
Primary support of the wiring installation is provided by plastic and metal cable -- Permitted to turn clockwise and counterclockwise in a loop clamp
clamps spaced at intervals not exceeding 24 inches.
-- Not permitted to move or turn in a block clamp.
Clamps must fit properly to prevent damage to the wire insulation. No wires
must be pinched in the clamp
Rubber fillers can be used to improve the fit of a clamp but must not be used
with co--axial cables.
Plastic clamps must not be used in areas where the temperature exceeds
250 _ F (121_ C).
Metal clamps can be used in any area of the aircraft provided that they are
fitted with the appropriate insulation material.
Note: Aromatic polyimide wires must be wrapped with insulation tape prior to
clamping to prevent damage to the insulation.
(SWPM 20--10--12, ESPM 20--33--42)

CONNECTORS Part -66
a) Plastic Clamp Cut 0.10 in to 0.25 in
Filler Plugs
b) Metal clamp
Rubber Fillers
not for Coax-Cables
CORRECT INCORRECT
High Vibration Clamp

Folding Wing Clamp
Insulation
Figure 186 Clamps

CONNECTORS Part -66
Clamps ( continued)
1 If nylon clamps use a spacer, a washer must be fitted.

No washers, ties, tapes, etc. are allowed inside fuel tanks as they could be-
come loose and clog filters.
2 Bundles must be routed and clamped to preclude chafing against the

edges of equipment and structure. Where physical separation of at least 3/8
inch cannot be maintained, the edges must be fitted with suitable protection
strips or grommets. Shielded cables must have an external insulating cover.
3 Wires passing through a bulkhead must be supported at each hole by a

cable clamp. If the clearance between the wires and the edge of the hole is
less than 1/4 inch, a suitable grommet must be fitted.

CONNECTORS Part -66
1 3
Less Than 6mm
Clearance
Structure
2 Grommet
Wire Bundle
Frame Frame
Figure 187 Clamps

CONNECTORS Part -66
Clamp mounting
1 Separation of wire bundles can also be accomplished (to prevent chafing)
by clamping wire bundles and structural tubing together.
This procedure is not allowed with liquid lines.
Airbus spacing:
Wire bundles must run above or alongside piping at least 50mm (1.9 in) from
lines carrying flammable liquids such as fuel, hydraulic oil, oxygen etc.
This distance may be reduced to 15mm (0.59 in) for lines that do not carry
flammable liquids.
Maintain a 50mm (1.9 in) clearance from hot air ducts.
Boeing spacing:
Maintain a 2 in minimum clearance between wiring and:
--Fuel Lines
--Hydraulic Fluid Lines
--Oxygen Lines
--Control Cables
Maintain a 1 in minimum clearance between wiring and hot air ducts.
2 Typical cable clamp mounting hardware is illustrated below.

SWPM 20--10--11

CONNECTORS Part -66
Structural Rod
2
Figure 188 Clamp mounting

CONNECTORS Part -66
Clamp installation
Clamps should be installed in the prefferred attitude, as shown below. The
mounting screw should be above the wire bundle.
It is also desirable that the back of the clamp rest against a structural member
where practicable.

CONNECTORS Part -66
Less desireable
installation
Preffered
installation
Figure 189 Clamp Installation

CONNECTORS Part -66
Raceway clamps
Position wire bundles within raceways as specified in the cross--sectional views
shown below.
Check to ensure that no wires are trapped between the end of the clamp cush-
ion and the end of the channel.
Wire bundles passing through a raceway clamp must be parallel to the clamp
axis and must not describe a sharp bend. Sufficient slack must be present in
the wire bundles to meet these requirements.
SWPM 20--10--12

CONNECTORS Part -66
Press to remove
clamp Clamp
Compressed
0.25 in (6.4mm) min
0.375 in (9.3mm) min
Uncompressed
for Co--axial cable
0.80 in (20mm)
No wire between the end of the cush- Plastic Channel

ion and the end of the channel
Push down
Push out Screwdriver tip

Clamp
Compressed
0.25 in (6.4mm) min
Uncompressed 0.375 in (9.3mm) min
0.80 in (20mm) for Co--axial cable

Plastic channel
No wire between the end of the cush-
ion and the end of the channel
Figure 190 Raceway Clamps

CONNECTORS Part -66
Raceway with Harpoon Tie

Wire bundles are installed in the raceway housing equally around the pre-
viously installed harpoon tie.
The fairlead is inserted on the harpoon tie and held in position by the retainer.
Warning: Care must be taken to avoid damage to wire bundles when re-
moving harpoon ties.
ESPM 20--33--43 and 20--53--43


CONNECTORS Part -66
1 Raceway
2 Harpoon Tie
Cable Loom
3 Fairlead
4 Retainer
5 Fairlead
Tie Head
Insertion Tool
Raceway Detail of Retainer Installation
Maximum filling of Raceways

Figure 191 Harpoon Tie

CONNECTORS Part -66
PRESSURE SEALING
The procedures given are intended to provide absolute sealing of wire bundles
passing through pressure bulkheads.
1 It may be necessary to fill the space between wires and cables using coil
or star spacers as shown.
2 Pressure bulkhead seal assemblies are manufactured in a variety of differ-

ent forms.
3 4 Vinyl tape is normally used to create the sealant mold. Alternatively,

paper tape and masking tape may be used. The string is used to remove the
paper tape when the sealant has cured.
5 Multiple pressure bulkhead seals may be routed through a sealant plate.
ESPM 20--43--42 SWPM 20--10--20


CONNECTORS Part -66
Make a hole in
Masking tape
Paper / masking tape Seal fitting the mould for the
sealant gun
Removal string
3 4
Structure
Sealant hole
Sealant (pressure side only)
Cover plate over all
unused holes
Cover plate
Seal plate
2 5
Figure 192 Pressure bulkhead sealing

CONNECTORS Part -66
WIRE BUNDLE TIES

Wire groups and bundles are tied to provide ease of installation, maintenance
and inspection.
This ensures that the wires are neatly secured in groups and bundles to aid
compliance with wire bundle separation requirements and to avoid possible
damage from chafing or equipment operation.
Cotton, nylon or fiberglass lacing cord is used for tying. Cotton cord must be of
the waxed type to ensure moisture and fungus resistance.
When tying, observe the following precautions:

S Tie bundles tightly enough to prevent slipping, but not so tight that the cord
cuts into or deforms the insulation. This is especially applicable to coax
cable, which has a soft dielectric in between the inner and outer conductor.
S Do not place ties on wire bundles located inside conduits.
S Tie additional wires to the exterior of the bundle with ties between clamps at
approximately one foot intervals.
S It is not necessary to install the new wires under existing ties. They must
however, be installed within all the support clamps of the parent bundle and
not on the outside of plastic ties or other hard material.
S In normal applications, ties are required at approximately 8 in intervals. In

high vibration areas the interval must be decreased to 2 in maximum.
Note: do not use ties inside fuel tanks
SWPM 20--10--11

CONNECTORS Part -66
GROUP BUNDLE TIES
BUNDLE TIES
Figure 193 Bundle Ties

CONNECTORS Part -66
Knots for wire bundle ties
1 Clove hitch and square knot

Only single tying of bundles or groups is allowed and each tie has to be closed
with two counter twisted knots.
2 Optional tie
For wiring on which ties tend to slip, an optional tie may be made by passing
an initial loop through the bundle prior making the clove hitch.
3 Clove hitch and square knot to secure

Only single tying of bundles or groups is allowed and each tie has to be closed
with two counter twisted knots.
SWPM 20--10--11 ESPM 20--33--14


CONNECTORS Part -66
1 2
Figure 194 Knots for wire bundle ties

CONNECTORS Part -66
Tying to Protect wire bundles
1 Protect wires or wire group breakouts against chafing or abrasion by

installing additional ties together with sleeving or tape in order to keep
breakouts smooth.
2 If a bundle is tied to a connector single--leg backshell cable clamp, the

wire bundle must be wrapped with a minimum of 2 wraps of tape before
the bundle is tied to the clamp.
SWPM 20--10--11

CONNECTORS Part -66
Single Leg Back Shell
Tape Wraps and Tie

Figure 195 Tying to protect wire bundles

CONNECTORS Part -66
Examples of tying bundles
1 2 3
The three illustrations below show some correct and incorrect methods for wire
bundle tying in a high vibration area.
SWPM 20--10--11 ESPM 20--33--41


CONNECTORS Part -66
1 Correct Scotch Tape
2 in max
Correct
2 Incorrect
Incorrect
Figure 196 Wire bundle tying examples

CONNECTORS Part -66
Plastic wire ties or straps

Plastic wire ties or straps are available in a variety of different sizes, they must
only be installed with the correct tool. The tool for installing tywraps
NSA935401 is shown below.
Plastic wire ties must not be used in the following applications:

S On wire bundles with wire larger than10 AWG
S On wire bundles installed in unpressurised areas
S On wire bundles installed in high vibration areas
S On wire bundles in high temperature areas (higher than 85_ C (185 _F))
S On wire bundles designated ’Fly By Wire’ on engineering drawings
S With aromatic polyimide wires unless the bundle is wrapped with tape.
S With coaxial cables
SWPM 20--10--11 ESPM 20--25--51 and 20--33--44


CONNECTORS Part -66
OF THE TIE WRAP

Figure 197 Plastic wire ties

CONNECTORS Part -66
REPAIR OF WIRE AND CABLE

Conditions for repair with a splice Notes:
--Replacement of the damaged wire is is always the preferred option over the
a) Outside the pressurised area, only aircraft fluid resistant tape must be used
repair of the wire with a splice.
b) In high temperature areas, only grade D insulation tape must be used.
--The maximum number of splices allowed in a wire is 3. This does not include
ESPM 20--24--01
production splices identified in wiring diagrams.
--In a wire bundle where all the wires require repair by splicing, the splices must
be staggered. This means that the diameter of the wire bundle is increased
symmetrically, slowly and continuously so that no splices overlap.
--An engine harness wire or a fire warning wire repaired with a splice is consid-
ered an acceptable temporary repair and must be replaced when the next
maintenance is carried out.
Repair of single conductor wires

--Wires with chafed or broken insulation must repaired by splicing if possible.
--Wire lengths subject to heat damage must be replaced wherever the outside
insulation has changed colour. The replacement wire length must be the same
type and size.
--It may be necessary to change the wire routing to prevent the damage reoc-
curring.
Repair of shielded cables

--The repair technique adopted is dependant upon the type of damage.
SWPM 20--10--13 ESPM 20--53--2X
--The cable shield must be fully closed and electrically continuous around the
repaired area.

CONNECTORS Part -66
Wire tape wrapped to protect against chafing and abrasion
New wire
Existing wire Existing wire
Crimped splice Crimped splice

Staggered splice locations
Figure 198 Repair of wire and cable

CONNECTORS Part -66
Splice restrictions
--There shall not normally be more than two splices in any wire segment.
--Splices must not be used to salvage scrap lengths of wire.
--Splices must not be installed:

S inside metal or flexible tubes
S within 12 in of a termination device
S under clamps or other wire bundle support
S inside fuel tanks
S in wire harnesses that are frequently bent (hinged panels or doors)
Repair of coaxial cables

Damaged coaxial cables (shield or insulation) are usually replaced in order to
maintain the cable impedance at its original value.
If repair is absolutely necessary, a coaxial plug and receptacle must be used,

up to a maximum of 2 additional disconnects.
Repair is not permitted on the following cables due to their critical impedance: :
S Low Range Altimeter
S Glide Slope ( Antenna and tuning)
S A coaxial cable that has already been repaired
SWPM 20--10--13 ESPM 20--53--23

CONNECTORS Part -66
NEW COAX DISCONNECT
PLUG RECEPTACLE
Exist- New cable Exist-

ing ing
cable cable
PLUG RECEPT PLUG RECEPT
NEW COAX DISCONNECT NEW COAX DISCONNECT

EXPLODED VIEW OF A STANDARD BNC CONNECTOR
Figure 199 Repair of cables

CONNECTORS Part -66
CIRCUIT BREAKER TERMINAL INSULATION

The terminal connection bridges behind circuit breaker panels must insulated.
The three methods illustrated below can be used to re--insulate terminal

bridges with damaged insulation found during inspections.

CONNECTORS Part -66
0,3--0,4 inch (7 to 10 mm) 0,3--0,4 inch (7 to 10 mm)
WAXED STRING PLASTIC TIE

Figure 200 Circuit breaker terminal insulation

CONNECTORS Part -66
DEAD ENDING OF WIRES

Each undesignated wire must be dead ended with caps or sleeves.
Dead ending must be accomplished within four to six inches of connectors etc.
using the smallest possible sleeve.
The illustration below shows methods for dead ending of terminated and non--
terminated wires.
After isolation, the spare wires must be wrapped, tied and stowed near unused
termination.
Stowed wires must be visible at the outside of the bundle.
ESPM 20--52--13
SWPM 10--10--11 states the procedure for dead ending the following
configurations:
-- The free end of a wire

- The free end of a wire with an assembled contact or terminal
-- The free end of a shielded wire or a cable
-- The free end of a wire with an overall shield
-- The free end of a coax cable
-- The free end of a wire harness with an assembled connector.

CONNECTORS Part -66
1. Insulation with flexible sleeve 2. Insulation with heat shrinkable sleeve 3. Insulation with heat shrinkable sleeve
Slide flexible, heat shrink
sleeve over the terminal
Slide flexible , non--heat shrink sleeve

over the terminal Shrink sleeve in position
and pinch with pliers Slide flexible, heat shrink Shrink sleeve
sleeve over wire in position and
pinch with pliers
Fold back 1 in min
1/4 in minimum
Secure sleeve with tie
1/4 in minimum
Stow and tie all insulated spare

wires outside visible on the
outside of the wire bundle
Figure 201 Spare Wires Insulation

CONNECTORS Part -66
ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS - GENERAL

The importance of high quality, low resistance connections in electrical and
electronic systems can not be over emphasised.
A high proportion of aircraft faults are due to poor connections caused by nor-
mal wear and tear. It is therefore vitally important that tradesmen with a re-
sponsibility for creating new connections do not build in any further, future prob-
lems.
High quality electrical connections can be consistently achieved by using the

correct terminations, with the correct tool for the job, accompanied by the cor-
rect wire preparation technique.
There is a wide range of techniques available for creating electrical connec-

tions. This section will cover those which are most commonplace

CONNECTORS Part -66


CONNECTORS Part -66
STRIPPING WIRE AND CABLE

The first and one of the most important operations required before any wire can
be assembled to connectors, terminals, splices, etc. is the stripping and prepa-
ration of the wire.
The following general precautions are to be observed when stripping any type
of wire:
S When using any type of wire stripper, hold the wire so that it is perpendicu-
lar to the cutting blades.
S Adjust automatic stripping tools carefully; follow the manufacturers instruc-
tions to avoid nicking, cutting, or otherwise damaging strands.
S When using hand plier strippers, the removal of lengths of insulation longer
than 3/4 inch is easier to accomplish in two or more steps.
S Use stripping blades appropriate to the insulation thickness.
S When stripping coaxial cables with a knife, scratch the soft outer insulation
carefully without damaging the underlying shield.
S After stripping ensure that the insulation is cut cleanly with no frayed or
ragged edges.
S Make sure all insulation is removed from the stripped area .Some wire types
are supplied with a transparent layer of insulation between the conductor
and the primary insulation which can be missed during stripping.
S Where necessary, re-twist strands to restore natural lay and tightness.
In all cases, the greatest care should be exercised during wire stripping.
Always ensure stripping plier jaws are in good condition and appropriate for the
wire. e.g. Metric blades for metric cross section wires.
Wire strippers
The graphic below illustrates two common hand wire strippers.The stripmaster
on the left is a versatile automatic hand stripper. The gripper holds the wire in
position and one light squeeze of the handle severs and strips the insulation
slug up to 7/8 in.
The Superchamp tool can also be used for wire stripping.
It is strictly forbidden to use the Superchamp for crimping! SWPM 20--00--15 ESPM 20--25--11

CONNECTORS Part -66
Numbering system on blades: Crimping Forbidden

Wire Size CHANGEABLE
Imp metric
(BLADES)
24 .2
22 .4
20 .6
18 1.0
16 1,2
BLADE or DIE
Wire Stripping Allowed
Blades for thick Blades for thin

wire Insulation wire insulation
Figure 202 Wire stripping

CONNECTORS Part -66
ELECTRICAL CONNECTORS
Electrical connectors are used to facilitate maintenance when frequent discon-
nection is required.
They are categorised by type and class and in the vast majority of cases make
use of crimped contacts. Some connectors with soldered contacts still exist but
are becoming increasingly rare.
The decision on wether to install pins or sockets at a connector is decided by
establishing which side of the disconnect is live or ’hot’. The hot side will nor-
mally have socket type contacts installed in order to minimise the risk of elec-
tric shock.
Connectors generally fall into two basic groups:

--Split shell (disassembled) construction
--Assembled construction
Split shell connectors are identified by AN numbers and as stated previously

are divided by type and class with manufacturers variations in each.
There are six basic types of AN connector, which are further broken down into
the five classes indicated below:
Class A -- General purpose connector with a solid, one--piece back shell.

Class B -- Back shell separates into two parts.
Class C -- Pressurised connector, con--removeable inserts
Class D -- Moisture and vibration resistant. Wires are threaded through tight--fit-
ting holes in the back shell sealing grommet.
Class K -- Fireproof connector.
Classes A, B, C, and D -- Made of aluminium.

Class K -- Made of steel.

CONNECTORS Part -66
(Only annotated if not normal)


CONNECTORS Part -66


CONNECTORS Part -66
EXPLODED VIEW OF TWO DIFFERENT SPLIT SHELL CONNECTORS

ESPM 20--48--23
Figure 203 Split shell construction

CONNECTORS Part -66
Assembled connectors
Assembled connectors are by far the most common connector type.
They consist basically of one part, i.e.; the insert locking mechanism and insu-
lator are an integral part of the connector shell.
Only the backing clamp is separate and carries a different part number to the
connector. (This applies when ordering parts. The backing clamp does not
come with the connector!)
Assembled connector part numbers generally follow the same convention as

that of split shell connectors as illustrated in the example below.
TYPICAL PART NUMBER:
SERIES
CLASS
SHELL SIZE
insert
arrangement
INSERT ROTATION CODE POSITION

CONNECTORS Part -66
BAYONET BOLT
TRACTION RELIEF COUPLING
HOUSING
INSERT BODY
MOUNTING
MASTER KEYWAY
SOCKETS
TRACTION RELIEF CLAMP

BAYONET RIFLE
PARTNUMBER
MAIN-KEY
PINS BAYONET COUPLING NUT
Figure 204 Assembled connectors

CONNECTORS Part -66
Exploded view of MS connectors
The picture below details the component parts of a Monitor the bend radius of wire and cable
MS 3106 B connector.
Back-shell
The back-shell of any connector has to provide the wires with proper support .
At the end of the connector housing a ”follower” provides an interfacial seal as
well as sealing at wire ends.
Typical strain relief clamps :

STRAIN RELIEF LEG

CONNECTORS Part -66


CONNECTORS Part -66
Connector installation
Circular connectors, when installed with the axis in a horizontal direction,shall
be positioned so that the master key-way (main groove) is located at the top.
When installed with the axis in a vertical direction the master key-way shall be
located forward in relation to the aircraft.
1 Shell size
The shell size is denoted in 1/16 inch. The letter “S” is used for a short housing.
2 Contact groove codes

To prevent cross connection, the insert of most connectors can be rotated and
inserted into the shell.at manufacture.
3 Contact arrangement
This is a code for the contact arrangement which is sometimes equal to the
number of contacts. (For Boeing aircraft this is always the case)

CONNECTORS Part -66
1 SHELL SIZE NUMBER OF CONTACTS POSSIBLE 3
85
ORIENTATION CODE
2
NORMAL
(no letter code)
W X
Y Z
CONTACT ARRANGEMENT
Figure 205 Contact groove codes

CONNECTORS Part -66
CONTACT CONFIGURATION - NUMBERS

In modern connectors the contact configuration is usually denoted by either
letters, numbers or a combination of both.
The convention for numbered contact configurations is shown below.
Most connectors use a circle line running from inside to outside, some connec-
tors however, count from outside to in and some count in columns.
In order to establish which way a line is counting, look for the number adjacent
to the outside contact.
As an additional aid to counting, every 10th contact is circled.
SWPM 20--61--00

CONNECTORS Part -66
CONTACT CONFIGURATION
(numbers)
18/11 18/31
10 # 16 contacts 31 # 20 contacts
1 # 2 shielded contact
53
55
18/ 35
56 #22 contacts
24/61 24/79
61 # 20 contacts 79 # 22 contacts
Figure 206 Contact arrangements

CONNECTORS Part -66
CONTACT CONFIGURATION - LETTERS

Where the contact configuration is denoted in letters, the number of contacts is
often greater than the number of letters in the alphabet.
For this reason, use is made of the following order of precedence:
--Upper case letters
--Lower case letters
--Double upper case letters
The following graphic illustrates examples of this method of contact marking.
Flag notes are used for clarification.
1
Start at the outer shell, circle inside in alphabetical order.
2
After the last upper case letter ’Z’ the first lower case letter ’a’ is marked
with a circle.
3
After the last lower case letter ’z’ the next contact is ’AA’. This is also
marked with a circle.
4
.As some letters are similar to numbers and also to other letters they are
deleted to prevent confusion. Each time a letter is deleted, it is marked on the
connector by a small slash.
In Wiring Diagrams small letters can be presented in different ways. For

instance lower case ’a’ can be written as follows:

A or -- A or < A or : A or a

CONNECTORS Part -66
CONTACT MARKING
CONTACT MARKING (numbers)

PINS SOCKETS SOCKETS
(numbers & letters) 1
1 1
ARINC 600 Plug

a
1
1 1
Q missing
SOCKETS PINS PINS

VIEW AT CONNECTOR FACE

VIEW FROM
REAR OF
CONNECTOR
Figure 207 Contact marking

CONNECTORS Part -66
ENVIRONMENTAL SEALING
All connectors are environmentally sealed. The following example illustrates an
assembled connector sealed at three points.
1 This position is sealed when a contact is inserted and locked.
2 This position is sealed across the mating faces of the plug and receptacle.
3 This position is sealed when a wire or seal plug is installed.
Optimum environmental protection is achieved when all three positions are

sealed.

CONNECTORS Part -66
RECEPTACLE PLUG TRACTION NUT
3 3
Wire Seal
Contact Wire
1
Rear of the Connector
1 SLEEVE OVER WIRE IF

Insulator Rubber Grommet
GROMMET OPENING TOO LARGE
Figure 208 Environmental seals

CONNECTORS Part -66
Seal plug insertion
All unused contact holes must be fitted with nylon or Teflon seal plugs.
Unwired contacts
For crimped contact connectors outside the pressurised area, appropriate un-
wired contacts must be fitted, in conjunction with the seal plugs, in order to pro-
vide a full environmental seal.
SWPM 20--60--08
ESPM 20--48--41

CONNECTORS Part -66
SEAL PLUG INSERTION
Appr. SEAL ROD
0,1
inch
unwired contact
With unwired Contact installed

(UNPRESSURIZED AREA)
Appr.
No Contact installed
(PRESSURIZED AREA)
Figure 209 Seal Plug insertion

CONNECTORS Part -66
CONNECTOR ALTERNATIVES
As well as the standard connector part numbers, a number of alternative part
numbers and manufacturers are listed in the standard practices manuals.
Some examples are listed below.
SWPM 20--61--11

CONNECTORS Part -66
INTERCHANGEABLE WITH ZZ; MS 24266

Figure 210 Examples of part numbers

CONNECTORS Part -66
COAXIAL CONNECTORS
Coaxial cables and connectors are used to interconnect the components in cir-
cuits transporting high frequency signals.
Soldered coaxial connectors

This description covers the BNC, C, HN, and LN series:
1. Place nut, washer and gasket over cable. Remove outer jacket of shield.
2. Unbraid and comb out shield. Cut dielectric and conductor to given dimen-
sions. Tin center conductor.
3. Slide shield clamp over the shield and butt against cable jacket.
4. Fold shield strands back over clamp. Trim braid ends to dimension shown.
5. Place contact on conductor and solder with minimum heat.
Crimped coaxial shelf connector

This type of crimped coaxial connector is used inside shelf receptacles.
S Fig. 1
-- Prepare the cable as shown, and slide the sealing boot and outer ferrule
over the cable.
S Fig. 2
-- Insert the stripped wire into center contact, so that the conductor is vis-
ible through the inspection hole.
-- Select an appropriate crimp tool and locator and crimp contact.
-- Maximum allowable gap between the insulation and the end of the con-
ductor is 0,030 to 0,060 inch.
S Fig. 3
-- Hold the shielded cable behind the primer-coated area. Insert the contact
wire assembly into the shielded contact body. A properly inserted contact
cannot be removed.
ESPM 20--44--31 20--48--31/32

SWPM 20--53--05 20--71--11

CONNECTORS Part -66
Soldered coax connector Crimped coax connector
WASHER
NUT GASKET Figure 1
COAX CABLE #1
TYPICAL RECEPTACLE
DIELECTRIC
COAX CABLE #2
Figure 2
CONDUCTOR
SHIELD
SHIELD CLAMP
COAX CABLE #3 SHELF K-GRIP ( CRIMPED) Figure 3

RECEPTACLE
SHIELD CLAMP
COAX CABLE #4
CONTACT
SNAP RING INNER K-GRIP
SLEEVE
CAP SHIELD OUTER K-GRIP

SLEEVE
CONDUCTOR SHIELD INSULATION
COAX HOUSING CONTACT INSULATOR
Figure 211 Coax connector process

CONNECTORS Part -66
POLARISATION KEYS
Most computer shelf receptacles are equipped with polarisation keys to prevent
the wrong computer being inserted into a shelf.
Three posts can be rotated into six different positions so that the shelf and the
computer polarisation keys must match before the computer can be inserted.
The keying code also forms the last two digits of the connector part number.
The shaded area indicates the solid portion of the post.

The un--shaded area indicates the open portion of post.
POSITIONS
ARINC 600 Rack Connector

SWPM 20--71--11 (-12, -14)

ESPM 20--44--21

CONNECTORS Part -66
EXAMPLE:
AIRCRAFT EQUIPMENT LIST

FIN PLUG RECEPTACLE
Equip. Part Number (P/N)
No. MALE SHELL FEMALE SHELL
D 235 DPX2 -33 ( ...... ..... ...... ...... ) - 10
POLARISATION
KEY CODE
RECEPTACLE HOUSING IN
COMPUTER
PLUG HOUSING IN SHELF
Figure 212 Polarisation keys

CONNECTORS Part -66
Polarisation coding
The table below illustrates the complete list of polarisation codes for three post
polarisation keys.

CONNECTORS Part -66
PLUG SHELL POST RECEPTACLE SHELL KEY

Figure 213 Polarisation coding

CONNECTORS Part -66
CONNECTOR TOOLS
CONTACT INSERT & REMOVAL

General
Great care must be taken when inserting and removing connector contacts.
The internal mechanism of the connector is easily damaged and can only be
repaired by connector replacement.
All connector contacts are inserted from the rear. There are however two gen-
eral systems for removal of connector contacts:
The Rear release system and
The Front release system
The graphic below illustrates the rear release system

Rear release contact insertion
1. Press the wire into the coloured slot with the thumb.
2. Under this pressure the slot will open to accept the wire.
3. Hold the connector in one hand and insert the contact into its cavity,push-
ing with tool perpendicular to the insulator face. When contact is in place a
metallic click is audible.
4. Remove tool to the rear. Check that contact is firmly in position by pulling
gently.
Rear release contact removal

1. Slip the white removal tool around the wire of the contact to be extracted.
2. Slide the tool along the wire into the insulator until it buts against the shoul-
der of contact.
3. Remove wire and tool rearwards.
ESPM 20--25--41; 20--53--51

SWPM 20--61--17; 20--63--00

CONNECTORS Part -66
Incorrectly Locked Contact
Rear release insertion
REMOVAL
Rear release removal
Figure 214 Rear release contacts

CONNECTORS Part -66
Front release contact insertion
--Slip insertion tool over the wire and butt it against the contact shoulder
--Align tool and contact axially with the grommet
--Guide contact carefully through grommet hole, pushing tool axially to grommet
--Remove tool and check that contact is firmly in position by pulling gently.
Front release contact removal
--Align tool squarely with insert face.

--Push tool squarely into insert hole until it butts against insert face.
--Holding the tool firmly, advance the slider knob so that the contact is ejected
from its seated position.
--The contact may than be pulled free of the grommet by hand.
SWPM 20--61--11; 20--61--16 (-19)


CONNECTORS Part -66
FRONT RELEASE CONTACT INSERTION
FRONT RELEASE CONTACT REMOVAL

WIRE
CONTACT
TUBE
TOOL
PUSH
Incorrect Correct SLIDER
HANDLE
Figure 215 Front release contacts

CONNECTORS Part -66
CONNECTOR CONTACT CRIMPING-TOOL

Crimping tool MS3191--1
Crimping tool MS 3191--1 is a precision tool used to crimp standard contacts
size 12, 16 and 20.
Each contact size uses its own colour coded locator which must be inserted
prior to crimping.
The locator is needed to position the contact in the correct position for crimping
so that no additional setting of the tool is required.
The handle ratchet mechanism will open automatically after crimping when the
handle is fully depressed.
Crimping tool MS3191--4 All crimping tools must be inspected and cer-
tified at a regular interval.
This tool is similar in construction to the MS3191--1. The major difference is that
it has one, multiple locator turret secured by two allen screws instead of three sep-
arate turrets.
Prior to crimping with this tool the following set up must be carried out:
--Rotate the multi--locator turret to the correct colour coded position.and push in
to engage.
--Select the appropriate wire size on the selector knob.
--The crimping operation is completed as for MS3191--1.
ESPM 20--25--21 (-22)

SWPM 20--00--12
ESPM 20--25--21

CONNECTORS Part -66
CONTACT WIRE
LOCATOR
SIZE SIZE
LOCATOR
COLOUR P/N
CODE
RED Positioners
R, B, Y
BLUE
YELLOW
COLOR CODE DATAPLATE

Figure 216 Crimping Tool

CONNECTORS Part -66
CRIMPING OF CONTACTS
As previously specified, for a good crimping result it is first necessary to pre-
pare the wire correctly.
The pictures below give a general idea of the wire stripping lengths required for
connector contacts. For exact stripping lengths appropriate to each contact
type, refer to the SWPM and ESPM.
In almost all cases the wire insulation must have no direct contact with the end
of the crimp barrel. Adherence to the correct stripping length dimensions will
ensure that a small gap exists to provide flexibility.
The illustration below shows some correct and incorrect examples of connector
contact crimping.
In all cases, ensure that:
-- All the strands of the conductor are in the crimp barrel
-- The end of each conductor is bottomed in the crimp barrel
-- The conductors are visible in the inspection hole.
Filler wires can be used to increase conductor outside diameter for larger con-
tact sizes. Cut filler wires flush with rear of crimp barrel taking care not to dam-
age the strands of the primary wire.
Assembling the back-shell

With the contacts inserted, screw the back-shell onto the body of the connec-
tor. Tighten the back-shell nut using the plug wrench as necessary until it is
mechanically tight.
ESPM 20--25--11 (-21)

SWPM 20--61--00

CONNECTORS Part -66
INCORRECT
NO SPACE BETWEEN INSULATION
AND CONTACT
WIRE NOT BOTTOMED
CORRECT
LOCATION OF FILLER STRANDS
PRIMARY WIRE FILLER WIRE CUT HERE

FILLER WIRE
SPACE BETWEEN INSULATION AND CONTACT
INSPECTION HOLE
WIRE BOTTOMED
PLUG WRENCH
Plastic Inserts
Connector
Clamp
Figure 217 Crimping check

CONNECTORS Part -66
SOLDERING
SOLDERING WIRES INTO CONTACTS
Two types of solder are available:
Tin lead alloy -- also known as soft solder, permits the use of lower soldering
temperatures due to its lower melting point. This is the recommended solder for
electrical and electronic applications.
Most tin--lead solders enter the plastic state at 358 °F and become wholly liquid
at various temperatures, dependent upon the individual composition.
Silver solder -- also known as hard solder is used where a joint of greater
strength is required.
Fluxes
The purpose of a flux is to remove the oxide from the surfaces to be soldered
and to promote a good flow of solder in the joint.
Most solders are ’self fluxing’ with the flux built into the solder core as shown
below.
Solder station
A well equipped soldering station is conducive to a good soldering result.

CONNECTORS Part -66
All strands completely inserted
Soldering station
Space between all strands filled with solder
VIEW A-A
solder flux
This area free of solder Single core Tri--core Perforated core Multi--core
Self fluxing solder. Solder in cores

Correct contact soldering
Figure 218 Soldering

CONNECTORS Part -66
Recommendations for soldering
S Arrange the contacts so that the solder buckets are facing upwards.
S Clean the contacts with spirit and allow to dry.
S Place the tip of the iron below the contact and place the end of conductor
into the bucket.
S Flow solder into the bucket until the level of solder is correct as indicated
below.
S Hold the conductor in position until the solder has set, movement at this
stage can create a poor ’dry’ joint.
S Check, as far as possible, that the solder has flowed between the conductor
strands.
S Ensure that no strands are outside the solder bucket.
S Ensure that there is no excess solder on the outside of the bucket
S Check that the joint has a shiny appearance. A dull appearance is another
indication of a dry joint.
Note: If any evidence of a dry joint is present, the joint must be remade. Dry
joints are fragile and have high resistance.

CONNECTORS Part -66
INCORRECT SOLDERING
CORRECT SOLDERING
VIEW A-A
VIEW A-A
B
Figure 219 Solder contacts

CONNECTORS Part -66
SOLDER SLEEVE PIGTAIL

The solder sleeve pigtail is the most common method for attaching a shield
ground wire to shielded cables.
The solder sleeve is equipped with two sealing rings on the inner ends of the
sleeve and a band of solder in the center.
1 The shield ground wire and the cable shield must be stripped to the cor-
rect dimensions.
2 The solder sleeve slides into position over the wire with the solder band
centered over the stripped area of outer insulation and the shield ground
wire. It should be noted that one end of the solder sleeve is slightly wider
than the other. The wider end should be toward the shield ground wire.
3 The heatshrink gun is then used to shrink the sleeve into position and
enable the solder in the sleeve to run. This creates an electrical connec-
tion between the ground wire and the cable shield.
Post shrinking inspection:

--Solder sleeves exhibiting dark areas or slight discoloration are acceptable,
provided that the solder can be inspected and the solder sleeve is not rup-
tured or split.
--Ensure that the seal rings have melted and provide an environmental seal.
--Ensure that the solder band has melted fully around the pigtail and shield
braid.
ESPM 20--42--21; 20--48--21

SWPM 20 10--15

CONNECTORS Part -66
Solder sleeve pigtail

1
Seal Ring Seal Ring
Solder Ring
3
Heat Shrink Gun
Correct stripping of shield

and ground wire insulation
Two Shield Ground Wires
Figure 220 Solder sleeve pigtails

CONNECTORS Part -66
CRIMPED BREAKOUT SLEEVES (K-GRIP)

This technique represents a mechanical crimped alternative to the solder
sleeve pigtail for attaching ground wire to cable shields.
The tool for crimping a grounding wire to a shield is the T&B WT--440.
The illustration below shows the preparation and crimping process.
ESPM 20--25--22
SWPM 20--10--15

CONNECTORS Part -66
1
Outer Sleeve GSC
Inner Sleeve GSB
Shield Ground Wire
4
Figure 221 Crimped breakout

CONNECTORS Part -66
PRE INSULATED DIAMOND GRIP (PIDG) TERMINALS AND SPLICES

In this range of terminals and splices, the insulation is part of the terminal and
splice construction. It extends beyond its barrel so that it will cover a portion of
the wire insulation, making the use of an insulating sleeve unnecessary.
In addition, pre-insulated terminal lugs contain an insulation grip ( a metal rein-

forcing sleeve) beneath the insulation for extra grip on the wire insulation. Pre-
insulated terminals accommodate more than one wire size, the insulation is
colour coded to identify the wire sizes that can be crimped in each lug or splice.
WIRE SIZE COLOR CODE

26--24 YELLOW 0,1 - 0,4 mm2
22--18 RED 0,25 - 1,6 mm2
16--14 BLUE 1,0 - 2,6 mm2
12--10 YELLOW 2,7 - 6,6 mm2
ESPM 20--48--00

CONNECTORS Part -66
TINPLATED COPPER TONGUE

INSULATION GRIP
COLOR CODED
COPPER SLEEVE
WIRE STRANDS COPPER SLEEVE INSULATION

SERRATIONS FUNNEL RAMP ENTRY
Figure 222 PIDG Terminals & Splices

CONNECTORS Part -66
CRIMPING OF PIDG TERMINALS AND SPLICES

The picture below illustrates a typical AMP crimping tool for PIDG terminals
and splices.
The crimp tool has an Insulation grip position selector which sets the insulation
crimp, appropriate to the insulation thickness.
After the crimping operation is complete, the quality check described below
must be carried out.
Video: Introduction to Crimping Basics
The following video gives a general overview of the crimping process for AMP
PIDG terminals and splices.

CONNECTORS Part -66
AMP ’T’ HEAD CRIMPING TOOL
INSULATION CRIMP SETTING
LOCATOR
COLOR CODE INFO TABLE

QUALITY CHECK:
TOUCH
LEVER a) strands must be visible
b) dots must be present
RATCHET
Figure 223 Crimping of Terminals

CONNECTORS Part -66
CRIMPING OF PIDG SPLICES MOISTURE PROOF SPLICES

As stated previously, in most cases the same crimping tool is used for crimping Several different types of moisture proof splice are available for applications
PIDG terminals and splices of the same colour code. The procedure for crimp- where a full environmental seal is required. Although different tooling methods
ing splices is outlined as follows; are used, the principle is basically the same.
-For both wires, place the splice under the locator, from the side ,with the
tool locator in the inspection window. The splice kit consists of an inner crimp ferrule and an outer. heatshrink sealing
-When crimping the second wire in the splice, take care that the crimp die is sleeve, impregnated at the ends with sealant, which when heated provides a
centered on the wire barrel. full environmental seal.
-For the second crimp, ensure that the locator remains properly positioned
as shown, so that it does not slip toward the flattened area of the first crimp.
Note: In all cases , the termination should be positioned in the tool, before in-
serting the prepared wire.
MOISTURE PROOF SPLICE

After the crimping operation is complete, the quality check described below
ESPM 20--43--11
SWPM 20--30--12

CONNECTORS Part -66
QUALITY CHECK
a) strands must be visible
b) dots must be present
WIRE
( ALREADY CRIMPED )
Figure 224 Crimping of splices

CONNECTORS Part -66
AMP STRATOTHERM TERMINALS AND SPLICES

This range of terminals and splices fall into two broad categories:
Insulated
These terminals and splices consist of a precision formed metal wire barrel and
a support sleeve insulated with TFE.
Insulated stratotherm terminals and splices can be divided into two further sub-
categories:
-The pre-insulated type has a copper body, plated with nickel or gold over
nickel. The metallic sleeve is nickel plated copper.
-The post-insulated type has a copper body plated with gold over nickel,
silver or nickel. The ring is made of aluminium or copper plated with nickel.
The bushing is made of TFE.
Un-insulated
These terminals and splices consist of a precision formed metal wire barrel with
or without a support sleeve.
Un insulated stratotherm terminals and splices can be divided into two further
sub-categories:
-Solistrand terminals and splices have a heat resistant nickel plated copper
body or a high temperature nickel body.
-Diamond Grip terminals and splices have a heat resistant nickel plated
copper body or a high temperature nickel, chromel or alumel body. The me-
tallic sleeve is made of nickel silver.

CONNECTORS Part -66
Figure 225 Strato-therm Pre-insulated Terminals

CONNECTORS Part -66
CRIMPING OF POST INSULATED TERMINALS AND SPLICES

Post-insulated terminals and splices are crimped with single action double action
(SADA) crimping tools.
Each tool features a head assembly with a stationary (anvil) die, moving (in-
denter) die and locator.
When closed, the dies form two crimping chambers. The dies apply the ’W’
crimp to the wire barrel and ’O’ crimp to the insulation barrel of the terminal or
splice.
The locator assists in positioning the terminal or splice between the dies.
When the crimping operation is complete, the quality inspection detailed below

CONNECTORS Part -66
Figure 226 Crimping post-insulated splce

CONNECTORS Part -66
CLOSED END SPLICES

The use of closed end splices is possible where it is specified in the aircraft
wiring diagram manual chapter 91.
The length of the breakout is limited to 21/2 in max, unless further limited by
the bundle assembly drawing.
The correct splice size is determined by the cross sectional area of the all the
wires to be inserted.
After crimping, the closed end splices may be placed side by side in an upright
position within 30 degrees of eachother.
The illustration shows the unsealed variant. Sealed, moisture resistant versions
are also available which are supplied with a crimp ferrule and insulating sleeve.
SWPM 20--30--12

CONNECTORS Part -66
45_
Crimp Tool to to 45_
1
45_ 45_
1 to to
Figure 227 Closed End Splice

CONNECTORS Part -66
SPARE WIRE CAPS

The same conditions apply for spare wire caps that were previously described
for dead ending of wires, i.e.
-Spare wire caps must be installed within four to six inches of connectors.
-After installation of wire caps, the spare wires must be wrapped, tied and
stowed near the unused termination.
-Stowed wires must be visible at the outside of the bundle.
A typical wire cap crimping tool is shown below.
Note: Only one un-stripped wire allowed per end cap.


CONNECTORS Part -66
Figure 228 Crimping spare wire caps

CONNECTORS Part -66
MULTIPLE CONDUCTOR CRIMPING

Circular Area Units (CAU)
Crimping multiple conductors in one terminal As well as being illustrated in table 1, the CAU can be calculated using the
equation below if the circular mil area (CMA) of the conductor is known.
Conductor and crimp barrel compatibility is determined using tables based on
circular area units (CAU).
-- Table 1 contains conductor CAU

wIRE SIZE CIRCULAR AREA UNITS
CONDUCTOR OUTSIDE DIAMETER ( max inch)
20 0,038 12 SUMMARY
18 0,046 19
OF Table 1
16 0,059 24 ,
-- Table 2 cotains termination CAU
VENDOR WIRE SIZE CIRCULAR AREA UNITS
BUTT SPLICE MIN: MAX:
INSULATED SUMMARY
NAS 1388 AMP 16-- 14 15 51 ,
AMP 12-- 10 43 138 OF Table 2
The CAU of the conductors must fall within the CAU range of the termination.
S Example 1 see below:

S A 16 AWG wire and two 18 AWG wires are to be spliced together in a NAS
1388 butt splice.
The CAU of the 16 AWG wire is 24 , doubled = 48.
The CAU of the 18 AWG wire is 19 doubled = 38.

The NAS 1388 splice 16 to14 is correct with a CAU range from 15 to 51.
S Example 2 see below:

An 18 AWG wire and three 20 AWG wires are spliced together in a
NAS 1388 butt splice.
Note: only one conductor double back and one stub is permitted in any one
termination build up.
SWPM 20--30--22

CONNECTORS Part -66
AWG to CAU Conversion AWG to CAU Conversion

MULTIPLE CONDUCTOR CRIMPING Circular Circular
Wire Size Wire Size
AWG Area Units AWG Area Units
CAU CAU
SPLICE 16--14 = 15 to 51 CAU Table 1
26 3
1 24 5 10 99
16 AWG 18/18 AWG 22 8 8 70
24 CAU 18 AWG 20 12 6 268
18 19 4 426
DOUBLED 48 CAU 19 CAU
16 24 2 665
DOUBLED = 36 CAU
14 38 1 837
12 59 1/0 1045
SPLICE 16--14 = 15 to 51 CAU

Insulated Butt Splices Table 4
2
CAU Range Wire Size Crimp Barrel Part Number Insulation
18 AWG 20/20/20 AWG min max AWG Size Color
19 CAU 12 CAU 26
24 22 - 18 NAS 1388--5 YELLOW
DOUBLED BACK = 36 CAU TRIPLED = 36 CAU 3 8
22
24
7 24 22 22 - 18 NAS 1388--1 RED
20
18
DOUBLED BACK 16
15 51 16 - 14 NAS 1388--2 BLUE
14
12
43 138 12 - 10 NAS 1388--3 YELLOW
10
FILLER WIRE
INSULATION CAP 132 208 8 8 NAS 1389--1 RED
209 331 6 6 NAS 1389--4 BLUE
FILLER WIRE STUB
332 526 4 4 NAS 1389--7 YELLOW
527 837 2 2 NAS 1389--10 RED
838 1195 1/0 1/0 NAS 1389--13 BLUE
Figure 229 Multiple wire crimping

CONNECTORS Part -66
CRIMPING-INSPECTIONS
CORRECT INCORRECT
1 wire properly inserted 1 Wire not properly inserted or incorrect stripping length
2 Crimping in center of crimp abrrel. 2 Wire incorrectly inserted in the terminal.
3 Correct colour codes.

3 Number of dots incorrect.
4 Wire size corresponds to marking on terminal. 4 Wire size does not correspond to marking on terminal..
5 Conductor strands visible.

5 Conductor strands not visible.
6 Conductor strands visible in window. 6 No strands visible in window.
7 Insulation correctly crimped.

7 Insulation crimping incorrect .
8 Both ends crimped on upper side. 8 Both ends not crimped on upper side.

CONNECTORS Part -66
CORRECT INCORRECT
MAX WIRE SIZE
PRINTED HERE
TOOL TURNED 180 DEGREES

INSULATION CRIMPED ON WRONG SIDE
SPLICE INCORRECTLY MAX WIRE SIZE

POSITIONED PRINTED HERE
Figure 230 Crimping inspections

CONNECTORS Part -66
PHASE IDENTIFICATION OF THREE PHASE POWER WIRES

The phase potential of the three phase power wires that are attached to a
single equipment item must be identified and the following conditions apply:
-Unless the wire is too short for two sleeves, both ends must be identified.
-On wires smaller than 10AWG the end of the sleeve must extend a maxi-
mum of 1/16 in past the end of the terminal insulation.
-On wires 8 AWG and larger the sleeve must be installed and tied over the
TFE terminal sleeve.

CONNECTORS Part -66
Wire
Insulation removal length
Wire
( 26mm)
( 2mm)
Wire
Insulated Lugs
Wire
( 6 -2 mm )
Insulated Lug
SWPM 20--30--11
Figure 231 Phase coding

CONNECTORS Part -66
TERMINAL STRIPS, BLOCKS & MODULES

Terminal strips
Install terminal strips as indicated on the illustration below.
Note: The maximum number of terminals on one stud is four.

SWPM 20--30--00

CONNECTORS Part -66
Figure 232 Terminal strips

CONNECTORS Part -66
Terminal bending
Un-insulated and pre-insulated terminals can be bent:
-A maximum of 90 degrees for installation in restricted spaces.
-A maximum of 30 degrees for installation on a terminal block.
Caution: A terminal can only be bent once. Do not use terminals that have been
bent before.
Circuit breaker connections
The correct installation of terminals on circuit breakers is also illustrated below.


CONNECTORS Part -66
MAXIMUM BENDING OF TERMINALS CIRCUIT BREAKER CONNECTIONS
the correct Installation of terminals and bus-bars on circuit Breakers is shown

below.
BEND A TERMINAL ONLY ONCE

SWPM 20--30--00 SWPM 20--30--00
Figure 233 Terminal installation and bending

CONNECTORS Part -66
TERMINAL BLOCKS
The left upper picture on the following page illustrates the different terminal
block configurations which are available.
The left lower picture shows the proper method for installing the terminal blocks
on the tracks.
The installation method above right is an alternate method for inserting or

changing a single block on the track.
The completed block installation below right details how connections are pre-
sented on wiring diagrams.
The two upper contacts are both labeled - A. The two lower contacts are both
labeled - X.
In some installations the contacts are labeled A, B, C and D.
Different bussing configurations are also possible:
A--Type - One block, 8 sockets, four busses, two contacts per bus.
D--Type - One Block 8 sockets, two busses, four contacts per bus.
C--Type - One Block 8 sockets, one bus, eight common contacts.


CONNECTORS Part -66
“A”
“C”
“D”
eg.: eg.:
eg.:
Figure 234 Terminal blocks

CONNECTORS Part -66
Terminal block contact replacement
The process for contact preparation, insertion and extraction is described on
the illustration below.

CONNECTORS Part -66
Figure 235 Crimping terminal block contacts

CONNECTORS Part -66
Terminal modules
Terminal modules can accomodate either ten or twenty one contacts.
The main differences between terminal modules and blocks are:
--Each module has its own number mounted on top of the module.
--Many different combinations are used with different wire size contacts in the
same module.
--All unused positions can be environmentally sealed by the insertion of a seal

plug.
Typical module configuration and identification is illustrated below.

ESPM 20--44--51

CONNECTORS Part -66
TYPICAL COMBINATIONS
PRINTED ON WIRING VIEW ON BLOCK
A F
B G
C H
D J
E K
BLOCK NUMBER
BLOCK NUMBER
Figure 236 Terminal modules

CONNECTORS Part -66
BONDING
An aircraft can become highly charged with static electricity whilst in flight.
Aircraft electrical bonding is the process of obtaining the necessary electrical
conductivity between the component metallic parts of the aircraft.
Bonding also provides the low resistance return path for single wire electrical
systems.
This low resistance return path also aids the effectiveness of shielding and pro-
vides a means of bringing the entire aircraft to the earth’s potential when it is on
the ground.
The reasons for bonding may be summed up as follows:
1. To minimise radio and radar interference.

2. To eliminate fire hazard by preventing a spark between two metallic com-
ponents at different potentials.
3. To minimise the damage to the aircraft and its passengers from lightning
strikes .
4. To provide a low resistance return path for single wire electrical systems.
5. To aid in the effectiveness of the shielding.
The illustrations below show some typical bonding techniques.

ESPM 20--51--22
SWPM 20--20--00

CONNECTORS Part -66
Structure Black box mounting
Bonding
Tank
Bonding
Anti- vib
mounting
Surface
Structure
Bonding
metal clamp
Junction box
Bearing
Metal conduit
Bonding - metal clamp
Bonding
Figure 237 Bonding

CONNECTORS Part -66
BONDING RESISTANCE
Measurement of bonding resistance
To ensure a low resistance connection for bonding leads, non conducting paint
and anodizing films must be removed from the surfaces to which the bonding
terminals are to be attached.
If this process is done correctly, measurements not higher than 0.025Ω can be
obtained.
Values for bonding are detailed in the aircraft maintenance manual.
The illustration below shows methods for measuring bonding resistance.

SWPM 20--20--00
ESPM 20--51--22

CONNECTORS Part -66
Bonding Meter
Ω Test leads
Bonding
Structural Interface
Basic Structure
Figure 238 Bonding resistance measurement

CONNECTORS Part -66
GROUNDING
GENERAL
The aircraft metallic structure is used as a conductor for current returns for the
single wire electrical systems.
Grounding is the process of connecting these systems and the shields of

shielded cables to the aircraft metallic structure at pre-designated points.
Grounding must be effected with particular care by means of good quality con-
tacts.
Grounding points must be of sufficient dimensions in order to allow the required

current flow, including fault current, without generating heat.
When installing grounds, the following conditions apply:

-Grounds must be seperated; AC, DC and shields.
-There must be no more than four terminals on one stud.
-In fuel vapour area (see right) dual grounds must be installed.

CONNECTORS Part -66
TYPICAL GROUND STUD IN FUEL VAPOUR AREAS TYPICAL COMMON GROUND
TERMINALS
SAFETY NUT
ADDITIONAL GROUND WIRE

with same wire siza or one size
larger
SWPM 20--20--00 ESPM 20--44--71
Figure 239 Grounds

CONNECTORS Part -66
MEASUREMENT OF GROUNDING
Ground measurement
After installation of a ground, the proper function of the ground is checked by
measuring the resistance between the ground and the aircraft structure.
Before measuring, ensure good contact between the test probe and the struc-
ture.
If a dual ground is installed both terminals must be measured.
Test results can vary, dependant on the system. The aircraft maintenance
manual details the correct values.
As a general rule these values should not be higher than 0.0025Ω. Some fuel
pumps only allow values as low as 0.0002Ω.
Grounding measurements are usually taken after:

--Modification at ground stud
--Modification of ground wires
--Removal of a ground stud nut.

CONNECTORS Part -66
GROUND MEASUREMENT
SWPM 20--20--00
ESPM 20--51--25
Figure 240 Measurement of grounding

CONNECTORS Part -66
INSULATION RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT

Carry out tests prior to installation where possible.
The insulation resistance is measured between individual wires (wire to wire)

and between individual wires and the aircraft structure (wire to ground).
The usual test voltages are 250V or 500V.
Insulation resistance testing should only be carried out on wires disconnected

from their systems at both ends.
General overview of insulation-resistance measurement values.

Summary of British Civil Airworthiness Requirements Chap. EEL/4--1, Page 9.
A ) Wires for accessories:

Engine cowlings, landing gear, wheels, etc.: 2MΩ
Galleys, lighting, service systems 5MΩ
Other service systems 10MΩ
B) Wires without accessories terminals, plugs, contacts etc:
Between terminals 100MΩ
Between terminals and grounds 200MΩ
C) Wires for other systems :
Instruments, computers etc. 5MΩ
NOTE: Exact values are given in the Aircraft Maintenance Manual

CONNECTORS Part -66
2 INSULATION RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT
INSULATION ERROR
MEASUREMENT OF INSULATION RE-

SISTANCE WIRE TO WIRE
INSULATION ERROR
MEASUREMENT OF INSULATION RE-

SISTANCE WIRE TO GROUND
ESPM 20--52--24
Figure 241 Measurement of insulation resistance

CONNECTORS Part -66
CONTINUITY TESTING
Testing continuity is the process whereby an ohmmeter or multimeter is used to
determine if a circuit has a complete (continuous) current path.
Continuity testing must only be performed on circuits with no power applied.To

use an ohmmeter or multimeter as a continuity tester it is necessary merely to
contact the end terminals of the circuit being tested with the test probes of the
meter.

CONNECTORS Part -66
Connect the
probe tips across
the protion of
the circuit to be
measured
Turn off power
to the circuit
Select resistance
View reading
Plug the black test

lead into the COM
input jack. Plug the
red test lead into
the ohms input jack
Figure 242 Continuity testing

CONNECTORS Part -66
COAX CABLE TESTING

General
Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR ) is a measurement concept that is begin-
ning to find great usefulness in the analysis of wideband systems.
Principle
The TDR sends an electrical pulse down the coax cable and detects any reflec-
tions made by discontinuities.
The TDR is sensitive to impedance changes. Problems in the cable will be de-
tected and displayed as changes in impedance along the cable. These will be
displayed as hills and valleys in the reflected pulse. The TDR is capable of find-
ing shorts, opens, defect shield, foreign substances in the cable ( water, etc.),
kinks and more.
The reflected pulse form will give an idea of the incident:

-Any short will reflect a negative pulse (picture 2b).
-Any open coax cable will reflect an positive pulse (picture 2c).
ESPM 20--52--23

CONNECTORS Part -66
TIME DOMAIN REFLECTOMETER TYPICAL CABLE PROBLEMS
IMPULSE ZV ZE
GENERATOR
OSCILLOSCOPE
TESTED COAX CABLE ZM

Z = TERMINATION
RESISTOR
FRAYED CABLE OPEN CABLE
8% IMPEDANCE CHANGE, POSITIVE IMPULSE
PICTURE 1 CORROSION MAY OCCUR LATER
REFLECTED IMPULSES
DENTED CABLE SHORTED CABLE

4% IMPEDANCE CHANGE. IMPULSE SHORTED TO THE CENTER
IS OPPOSITE TO FRAYED CABLE CONDUCTOR.THE IMPULSE IS
OPPOSITE TO OPEN CABLE.
PICTURE 2 PICTURE 3
Figure 243 Coax Cable Testing

CONNECTORS Part -66


M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
M7.8 RIVETING

M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
INTRODUCTION Material
Aircraft structure consists of various components manufactured separately and Aircraft structure is made up of many materials, including steel and titanium.
subsequently joined together. The designer must consider various factors (weight, heat, load etc) when de-
ciding which material to use, only sacrificing weight when it is necessary.
Joining Methods For its excellent strength-to-weight ratio, the most common material used in an
Modern materials, particularly composites, use adhesive to form a permanent aircraft structure is aluminium alloy.
bond. This section will concentrate on aluminium alloy solid rivets (as opposed to
Traditionally, aluminium alloy (and other metal) parts are joined using rivets. steel and titanium, which are rarely encountered).
Rivets To prevent dissimilar metal corrosion and other stresses, rivets are composed
of the same alloys as the structures they are joining together.
A rivet is a metal pin with a formed head at one end; either protruding or coun-
tersunk. As covered in Module 6, aluminium is alloyed with various other elements, de-
pending on where it is fitted and what loads it is subjected to.
A hole is drilled through the parts to be joined, the rivet is inserted into the hole
and the end opposite the head is hammered to hold the components together. Heat Treatment
As the rivet tail is hammered down, its cross-sectional area increases together D-, DD- and E-rivets are very hard and brittle and must be annealed (softened)
with its bearing and shearing strengths (its resistance to the force of the com- prior to fitting to prevent them cracking.
ponents trying to slide apart). This process creates a union betwen the parts at Once this heat-treatment (also known as ’solution treatment’) and subsequent
least as strong as the individual parts. quenching has been carried out, the rivets must be installed within 2 hours.
Because weight is an important factor when constructing aircraft, the solid- One further ’cook’ is permissable if time runs out, but then the rivets must be
shank rivet is the most preferred method when joining metal parts together. discarded.
Sizes Hardening
The most common diameters of solid rivets fitted in aircraft are: Annealed rivets regain their full strength and hardness after several hours
S 3/32in (2.4mm) (’age hardening’).
S 1/8in (3.2mm) This process can be delayed by storing the annealed rivets (within 15 minutes
S 5/32in (4.0mm) of quenching) in a freezer.
S 3/16in (4.8mm) The storage life varies depending on the temperature:
Storage Temperature (oC) Storage Time (Hours)
Different lengths are available in 1/16“ increments.

0 48
Types
-6 72
There are essentially two types of rivet head; one that protrudes and one that
sits flush with the material. These are known as universal and countersunk -15 150
heads. The most common countersink angle is 100o. -40 Infinite

M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
AMS Aeronautical Material Specifications
AN Air Force Navy A 47 A 4 -

AND Air Force Navy Design
N 0 D 5
Airforce Navy
AS Aeronautical Standard
Universal Head
ASA American Standards Association Plain Raised 2 raised
2117T4 Alloy cross dashes
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials Raised Raised
Dimple
4/32in Diameter dot ring
MS Military Standard
NAF Naval Aircraft Factory 5/16in Length
NAS National Aerospace Standard Rivet part numbers indicate head

style, material and size.
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
1100 A 2117 5056 B 2017 D 2024 7050 E
AD DD
Abbreviations for Common Aircraft Hardware Standards/Specifications
The aluminum industry uses a four--digit index system 470 (Universal) 426 (Countersunk)
for the designation of its wrought and cast aluminum
alloys, and this is carried across to rivet coding. Countersink
Angle (100o)
Wrought Alloys
Alloy Number Major Identifying Elements
1XXX 99.00 % minimum aluminium

Length of 1.5D
2XXX Copper
.5D
3XXX Manganese Rivet
1.5D
4XXX Silicon
5XXX Magnesium
6XXX Magnesium and Silicon Shank Di- Shank Di- Hole is normally drilled 0.1mm larger in diameter than rivet
7XXX Zinc ameter ameter shank diameter.
8XXX Other elements When driven, rivet swells to diameter of hole.
9XXX Unused series Length measurements correspond to grip length. Exact dimensions are given in aircraft SRM.
Rivets also have a letter assignation which is commonly

used for quick identification, as well as head markings.
Figure 244 Solid Rivets

M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
RIVETED JOINTS
Layout
When a sheet metal repair is to be done, there are certain minimums that must
be attained for rivet spacing, edge margin and fastener diameter.
P
The fastener spacing and margin data applicable to metallic and composite
SP P
structures are given in the Structural Repair Manual (SRM) Chapter 51.
SP EM
Pitch
The bolt and pin hole pitch values are from the centre of one fastener hole to
the centre of the next fastener hole in a row and are quoted in terms of the ST
fastener nominal shank diameter ‘D’. For example, factor 4.0 x ‘D’ = pitch.
Edge Distance RD EM -- Edge Material
The bolt and pin hole edge distance values are from the centre of one fastener RD -- Rivet Diameter
hole to the nearest edge of the component. SP -- Spacing
ST -- Skin Thickness
The edge distance values applicable to the protruding head fasteners for the P -- Pitch
wing structure are quoted in terms of the fastener nominal shank diameter ‘D’.
Fastener Pattern Terminology
For example, factor 2.0 x ‘D’ = edge distance .
The edge distance values applicable to protruding and countersunk head fas-
teners are given in the repair instructions provided by the SRM.
Edge Margin
Use 2 to 2.5 D as a rule of thumb.
Spacing
Spacing is the distance between fastener rows, taken from the hole centres.
0.5D
Use 4 to 5 D as a rule of thumb.
1.3D to 1.5D
Sphere of Influence
The area of sheet metal over which a rivet will achieve a water-tight joint (typi-
cally 5D).
Allowance
The amount of protrusion of the rivet shank that is sufficient to form the shop 1.1D to 1.5D 0.6D to 0.75D
1.6D to 1.7D
head (’tail’).
Allowance

M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
Extract from Airbus

SRM
Figure 245 Fastener Edge Distance

M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
Extract from Boeing

737--300 SRM
Figure 246 Dimensions for Driving Non-Fluid-Tight Solid Rivets (Boeing)

M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
Extract from Boeing

737--300 SRM
Figure 247 Grip Ranges/Recommended Lengths: Standard Aluminium Alloy Rivets (Boeing)
M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
Extract from Boeing

737--300 SRM
Figure 248 Dimensions for Driving Non-Fluid-Tight Solid Rivets (Boeing)
M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
Drive to Fill Countersink NACA Method

Driven Head BACD 2027 Type II Countersink
Driven Head
Extract from Boeing

737--300 SRM
Figure 249 Dimensions for Driving Fluid-Tight Solid Rivets (Boeing)
M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Because the aircraft engineer will encounter both metric and Imperial units of
measurement (particularly when carrying out structural repair work), a pocket-
sized manual (such as the Zeus book) is an invaluable aid for quick conversion
work.

M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
Figure 250 Standard Drill Sizes & Decimal Equivalents

M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
INTER-RIVET BUCKLING
Pressurised Fuselage
To prevent skin plates buckling, the maximum permissable rivet spacing of a
pressurised fuselage should be 6D or 18t (whichever is the smaller).
Wing Structure
Maximum rivet spacing of the wing structure is deemed to be 3.75D (solid rivet)
or 4.5D (or 10t, whichever is smaller) for a Hi-Lok rivet.

M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
Figure 251 Fuel Tank Fastener Spacing

M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
DIMPLING
Introduction
If skin is too thin to cut-countersink, it is shaped (dented) to accept the head of
a countersunk fastener by dimpling.
There are three methods of dimpling.
S Coin Dimpling. A male die fits through the rivet hole and the coining ram in
the female exerts a controlled pressure on the underside of the hole whilst
the male is forced into the upper side.
The pressure on the dies forges the edges of the hole to exactly fit the
shape of the dies.
Coin dimpling gives the hole sharply-defined edges that closely resemble
machine dimpling. The top and bottom of the dimple are formed to a 100o
angle, enabling dimpled skins to be stacked (or ’nested’).
S Radius Dimpling. The pilot on the male die passes through the hole in the
material and presses into the female die. The dimple formed does not have
parallel sides as the lower side has an angle greater than 100o, therefore
these dimples cannot be nested.
Radius dimpling equipment is smaller than that used for coin dimpling and
can be used in locations too tight for coin dimpling.
S Hot Dimpling. Magnesium and some of the harder aluminium alloys (such
as 7075) cannot be successfully cold-dimpled, as the material is so brittle
that cracks will form during the process.
To prevent this cracking, the material is heated during the process.
The equipment is similar to that used for coin or radius dimpling except that
the dies are heated.
The material is put in place and heat and pressure applied. The metal soft-
ens under the heat and the pressure then increased to form the dimple.
The amount of heat and duration it is applied is carefully controlled to pre-
vent the temper condition of the metal being destroyed.

M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
Punch
Male Die Coin Dimple

Pilot Tip
Sharp Break
Movable Coining Ram

Female Die
100o
100o
100o
Setting
100o Block
Radius Dimpling
Coin Dimpling
Hot Dimpling Machine
Figure 252 Dimpling

M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
TOOLS USED FOR SOLID RIVETING

Riveting Methods
For the installation of rivets, the following methods can be employed:
S pneumatic rivet gun
S hand hammering
S continuous squeeze-riveting.
Gun Riveting
The rivet gun, used with a back-up dolly (bucking bar), forms the upset head.
This is known as reaction riveting.
A correctly-shaped rivet set (rivet snap) is held in the gun and located on the
manufactured head end of the rivet. At the same time the dolly is held against
the end of the rivet to be upset.
When the gun operates, the dolly reaction to the pneumatic hammering of the
gun forms the upset head.

M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
Rivetset
SafetySpring
Trigger
WOODPLATE
Rivet Gun Capacity (Boeing -- assembler / installer manual)
Adjusting of Force
Figure 253 Rivet Guns

M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
Hand Riveting
Hand hammering (also known as ’percussion riveting’) is the basic method
used to make the upset head of a rivet. For this method follow these steps:
1. Support the manufactured head with a correctly-shaped rivet set
2. Hold a dolly against the end of the rivet and hit it until the upset head has
achieved the correct shape.
NOTE: MAKE SURE THAT THE HAMMER BLOWS ARE HEAVY AND AS
FEW AS POSSIBLE BECAUSE A LARGE NUMBER OF LIGHT
BLOWS WORK-HARDEN THE RIVET. THIS CAN RESULT IN
CRACKS IN THE UPSET HEAD.
Make sure that the tools are sufficiently large to quickly form the upset head.
The subsequent times for the formation of the upset head are recommended:
S three or four seconds is the optimum time,
S seven seconds is the maximum time.
Hold the back-up dolly in position until the rivet is fully installed.
Before you install rivets in the aircraft structure, make some test pieces to
check the rivet and tool precision. These test pieces must be the same type of
material and thickness as the parts to be riveted, and the rivets must be the
same type of material, length and diameter as the rivets to be used.
Visually check rivets before they are installed. If a rivet appears defective (eg
deep scores or indication of wire drawing) reject it. Some apparent defects (eg
isolated nicks, abrasions, die marks or fins) are acceptable up to a maximum
depth of 0.10mm (0.004 in).
Rivets made from 2017 and 2024 materials must be kept in a refrigerator after
they have been heat-treated.

M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
Reworked Rivet Set

Rivet Set for Universal Head Straight Rivet Snap (for stringer area)
Rivet Set for Flush (Countersunk) Head Curved Rivet Snap Upset Rivet Set
(for frame area)
Figure 254 Rivet Sets

M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
Squeeze Riveting
The continuous squeeze method is the preferred method for riveting, but if this
method is not available then pneumatic hammering is the next recommended
method.
The hand hammering method is used primarily for small repairs that include
very few rivets. It can also be used if other methods are not available.
A squeeze riveting tool makes the upset head of a rivet in a single continuous
action. Tools to perform this are either hydraulically or pneumatically operated.
Static and portable types of tools are available.

M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
Guard
Trigger
CP351 Alligator-
C
Type Squeeze X
G C
B X
Y
D Y
Air Supply M G
S
Guard
Trigger A. ’C’ Yoke Squeeze B. Alligator Squeeze

CP351 C-Type With trigger pulled, add With jaws closed so the die
Squeeze enough snap die length so the seats are parallel to each other
total distance between die (surfaces B & D) and jaw faces
faces (’C’ dimension) equals T E & F form a straight line, add
+A enough snap die length so that
the ’C’ dimension equals T + A
Air Supply
A A - desired rivet button thickness
Guard C - T + A (opening left after full travel
T
of piston)
G - steel washer (die length adjust-

C. Installed Rivet ment option)
MS - maximum stroke
T - material thickness
CP214 C Rivet X & Y - snap dies. If X & Y length must
Squeeze Die be adjusted, use a steel washer.
Figure 255 Rivet Squeezers

M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
HOLE PREPARATION
Introduction Flush Rivets
The dimensions of a fastener hole have an important relation to the strength of The use of a countersunk fastener requires a countersunk recess in the sur-
the fastened joint. face of the material. The countersunk recess receives the head of the fastener
CLearance fit, transition fit or interference fit fasteners are used depending on and therefore gives a smooth surface.
the loading. The tools, used to produce the countersunk recess, are of various types:
Deburr the hole using a suitable deburring tool. S a countersink bit with an integral pilot pin, a cutting edge to produce the re-
NOTE: A twist--drill is not permitted for this step. quired internal corner radius and an adapter for use with a drilling machine,
S a countersink bit with a replaceable pilot pin and an adapter for use with a
Hole Diameter - Solid Rivets drilling machine,
S an adjustable countersink tool with an integral pilot pin and a cutting edge to
Extract from Airbus SRM produce the required internal corner radius,
S an adjustable countersink tool with a replaceable pilot pin.
Hole Diameter
Rivet Diameter NOTE: The diameter of the pilot pin must fit the diameter of the fastener hole.
Maximum Minimum The diameter of the countersink bit must be larger than the maximum diameter
mm in mm in mm in of the required countersunk recess.
Before countersinking, observe the minimum part thickness (see table oppo-
2.4 3/32 2.57 0.101 2.46 0.097
site).
2.8 7/64 2.97 0.117 2.85 0.113
3.2 1/8 3.35 0.132 3.25 0.128
3.6 9/64 3.76 0.148 3.66 0.144
4.0 5/32 4.17 0.164 4.06 0.160
4.4 11/64 4.57 0.180 4.47 0.176
4.8 3/16 4.95 0.195 4.85 0.191
5.2 13/64 5.36 0.211 5.26 0.207
5.6 7/32 5.77 0.227 5.66 0.223 Stop
6.0 15/64 6.17 0.243 6.07 0.239

Countersink Bit
6.4 1/4 6.55 0.258 6.45 0.254
6.8 17/64 6.96 0.274 6.83 0.269 Replaceable Pilot-Pin
Adjuster
Typical Microstop Countersinking Tool

M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
Extract from Airbus SRM
Figure 256 Minimum Part Thickness for 100o Countersinking

M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
Flush Rivets (Cont’d)
CAUTION: CARE SHOULD BE TAKEN THROUGHOUT THIS PROCEDURE
TO ENSURE THAT THE COUNTERSINK PRODUCED IS NOT TO DEEP.
Obtain a piece of scrap metal to use as a test piece, similar in type and thick-
ness to the material that is to be used for the repair . Also obtain a fastener of
the same type and diameter as the ones to be installed.
Drill several holes to the required diameter in the test piece.
Adjust the micro stop on the countersinking tool to give a minimum countersink.
Make a countersink on the test piece. Gradually increase the amount of coun-
tersink by adjusting the micro stop until the required depth is obtained. Check
the depth with the correct fastener. Refer to Chapter 51--10--00 of the SRM for
the required Aerodynamic Smoothness for the type of fastener.
When the required depth of countersink has been obtained, check that the re-
maining parallel portion (excluding the de--burred area) of the hole is at least
0.2 mm (0.008 in.) long.
Complete the test by fully installing a fastener in the test piece and check for
correctness.
NOTE: When using a micro-adjustable countersinking tool, ensure that the stop
on the tool does not rotate when countersinking. Rotation of the stop can cause
damage to the surface of the material around the countersink.
NOTE: If a large number of countersinks are to be made, the adjustment of the
tool must be checked from time to time.
To achieve adequate seating of the fastener, the edge of the countersunk re-
cess/hole must be chamfered (see opposite).
Some countersinking tools produce a chamfer (radius) in a one--step operation
with the countersinking. If the produced radius has the correct dimension for
the required fastener (refer to Chapter 51--44--11), no further chamfering is nec-
essary.

M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
Applicable to plain holes for protruding-head fasteners.
Applicable to 100o countersink-head fasteners.

Figure 257 Underhead Radius/Chamfer Limits

M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
INSTALLATION PROCEDURE
Select the required rivet. If, for any reason, the dimensions of the required rivet
are not known, proceed as follows:
1. Accurately measure the diameter of the hole. If the diameter of the hole is
within the tolerances for a standard rivet (Refer to SRM 51--40--40), select
a rivet of this diameter. If the diameter of the hole is not within the toler-
ances, increase the diameter of the hole to suit an oversize rivet if applica-
ble, or the next standard size.
2. To find the required rivet length, accurately measure the total thickness of
the materials to be joined. Refer to rivet length data tables to find the cor-
rect length that is relevant to the rivet diameter found above.
NOTE: If necessary, the rivet can be shortened to the required length.
This does not apply to titanium rivets.
3. Get the correct rivet set and back--up dolly for the rivet type and dimen-
sions.
4. Make sure that the hole, and if applicable, the countersunk portion is in a
satisfactory condition. This includes clean and free from burrs.
5. Clean the parts as necessary. Apply sealant or jointing compound if it is
called for in the related repair drawing, assembly drawing or is normally
used in the area concerned.
NOTE: Install the rivets before the pot-life of the sealant or jointing compound
ends.
6. Make sure that the contact surfaces of the parts are fully together and that
there are no gaps between them. Gaps will prevent the correct forming of
the rivet and reduce the joint strength.
7. Align the holes as necessary and attach the parts together temporarily.
Take care not to cause damage to the local area with tools.
8. Put the rivet fully in the hole. For this operation make sure that the parts
are correctly supported where necessary.
9. Form the upset head. To do this, use one of the methods given in the gen-
eral section. Hold the tools perpendicular to the surfaces and do not com-
press the rivet too much. If the upset head is over-compressed, it is pos-
sible for the material to crack.

M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
Figure 258 Bucking Bars - Details

M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
INSPECTION AND PERMITTED LIMITS

General
Inspect rivets after they have been installed. This is necessary to make sure
that the joint is tight, and that the rivets are fully seated and correctly formed.
Make sure that the adjacent area has no damage or distortion.
The acceptance limits given in the following tables are applicable to those riv-
ets that become part of the structural strength after installation. For example,
rivets that fasten skin or formed and extruded sections.
A large number of cracks found in a high percentage of installed rivets indi-
cates that the rivets have not been correctly heat-treated. It can also mean that
the installation time allowed for heat--treated rivets has been exceeded. It is
necessary to scrap and replace all of these rivets (including those which are
not used) from the batch concerned, or have them heat--treated again.
Deformation or buckling of the plating is only permitted within the limits given in
SRM Chapter 51--10--30. This type of damage is a result of:
S too much tool pressure
S rivets expanded between the sheets
S trapped foreign material.
Make sure that the head of a countersunk rivet is level with or slightly above
the surface of the material. Refer to SRM Chapter 51 for the rivet head protru-
sion limits.

M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
Figure 259 Upset Rivet Dimension (Airbus)

M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
ECCENTRICITY
PERMITTED NOT PERMITTED

(RIVET SHANK VISIBLE)
MALFORMATION
PERMITTED IF IN UPSET PERMITTED IF IN UPSET

HEAD HEIGHT LIMITS HEAD HEIGHT LIMITS
Figure 260 Formed Head Defects and Limits (Airbus) 1

M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
TOOL IMPACT DAMAGE
MAX 5% OF TOTAL
PLATE THICKNESS RAD 0.3mm
(O.012in)
MAX 30% OF CIR-

CUMFERENCE
Figure 261 Formed Head Defects and Limits (Airbus) 2

M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
Acceptable Limits
Ovality of the upset head is permitted if the dimensions are within the upset
diameter limits. These limits, together with the applicable rivet material, are
given in the following tables.
Eccentricity of the upset head is permitted if the rivet shank cannot be seen.
Malformation of the upset head is permitted if the shape is within the dimension
limits given in upset rivet dimension tables.
Tool impact damage around the two heads is permitted within the limits given in
sketch.
Cracks in the upset head of aluminium alloy 2017 and 2024 rivets are permitted
within the limits given in the table/sketch. Cracks in the upset head of other alu-
minium alloy rivets are not permitted. Cracks in the structure material under
either head are not permitted.
NOTE: Cracks in the heads of titanium and monel rivets are not permitted.
Lack of head/material abutment (seating) is permitted within the limits given in
the SRM.

M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
Figure 262 Acceptable Limits for Cracks (Airbus)

M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
Vertical cracks due to laps in

the material is satisfactory.

Vertical cracks in CRES alloy, nickel- Vertical cracks due to overheating during
heat-treatment is unsatisfactory.
copper alloy and titanium rivets.
Extract from Boeing

737--300 SRM
Figure 263 Cracks Analysis: Shop Head (Boeing)

M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
Extract from Boeing

737--300 SRM
Figure 264 Cracks Analysis: Non-Fluid-Tight Rivets (Boeing)

M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66

Satisfactory - no dis-
placed metal or gaps.

Unsatisfactory - displaced metal or cracks with

an intersection on the flat surface.
Extract from Boeing
737--300 SRM
Figure 265 Cracks Analysis: Fluid-Tight Rivets (Boeing)

M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
Length is optional.
Shim is wedged and Shim touches the shank or
does not move freely head-to-shank fillet and
in this direction. moves freely in this direction.
W = 0.5 in
nominal. R = 0.25 in
nominal.
Gap Inspection 0.002 in

Shim nominal. Shim
Shim
Exposed area of counter-

sink is not permitted.
Shim is wedged.
Protruding Head Gap Inspection
A light force is
Method
necessary to re-
60% of the head
move the shim.
must not have a gap Shim stops sud-
that a shim can find. denly when it
No measurable No measurable
touches the shank
gap is allowed. gap is allowed.
and is not wedged.
Shim is wedged and does not Shim touches the shank or
move freely in this direction.
moves freely in this direction. Shim

Shim
Shim Shim
Gap Inspection Method for Flush-Head
Non-Fluid-Tight Rivets
Extract from Boeing
737--300 SRM
Figure 266 Gap Analysis: Rivet Heads/Tails (Boeing)
M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
SOLID RIVET REMOVAL

Caution
Fastener holes are one of the main sources of structural fatigue and failure. It
is vital that they are not damaged during the rivet removal process.
You cannot automatically increase a rivet size if holes are enlarged. In certain
areas, the SRM cannot authorise this and the aircraft’s design department
must be approached for a concession, incurring delays and expense.
Fasteners will not form correctly in enlarged holes, thus reducing their effective-
ness.
Therefore, great care should be taken during this operation.
Safety
S As with all operations involving drills, wear eye protection.
S Check whether there is anything behind the rivet (wire loom, pipes etc).
S Warn anyone in the vicinity you are about to drill.
S Rivet removal generates a lot of debris. Prevent, as far as possible, this en-
tering cavities.
S Be scrupulous in cleaning your work area.
Method
1. If the head type is protruding and its centre cannot be accurately estab-
lished (covered in sealant or paint), file it slightly to produce a flat.
2. Centre-punch the head as a guide for the drill-bit.
NB Alternatively, to prevent undue stress by centre-punching, position the
drill-bit and turn the chuck by hand to create a start for the drill-bit.
3. Carefully drill (using a bit of the same size as the rivet shank diameter) just
to the bottom of the rivet head. To prevent damage to the structure, do
NOT be tempted to chisel off the head. Provided you have drilled centrally,
the head will part easily during the last part of this operation.
4. Support the structure on the reverse side. Using a parallel pin-punch of the
rivet shank diameter, drift out the rivet tail.

M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66
File
Centre
Punch Drill
Manufactured
head
Step 1 Back-Up Step 3

File a flat area on the Support CAUTION: to prevent cracked dimples or damaged un-
manufactured head with a file. Step 2 derstructure when removing rivets from dimpled holes,
Centre-punch the centre of the manufactured head. drill a hole into the rivet shank before driving it out.
For both flush and non-flush rivets use a block of
wood or a bucking bar as a back-up support. Drill through the head of the rivet so that the drill does not
damage the skin or cut the sides of the rivet hole.
NOTE: start the drill by hand. Use a drill-bit 1/32“ diame-

ter smaller than the rivet shank.
Drift
Drift
Punch
Punch
Step 4 Back-Up
Insert a drift punch into the hole Support
drilled in the rivet and tilt the punch
to break off the rivet head.
Step 5
Drive out the rivet shank with a drift
punch and hammer. Use a block of wood
or a bucking bar as a back-up support.
Extract from Boeing
737--300 SRM
Support the struc-
Figure 267 Solid Rivet Removal
M7.8 RIVETING
Part -66


M7.9 PIPES AND HOSES
Part -66


Part -66
TUBES AND PIPES / TUBE ASSEMBLIES

General
A tube assembly consists of the tube and both tube fittings. Tube assemblies At the same time, the lines must be able to connect to the connections exactly
are differentiated according to their use as low, medium and high pressure tube matching the axis and be free of tension so that they maintain the necessary
assemblies. seal over longer operating periods.
Extruded tube material of various non-corrosive steels, aluminium and titanium
Cleaning and Pressure-Testing
alloys is available.
A manufactured pipe assembly must be cleaned out internally with compressed
Their dimensions are determined by the ”nominal diameter”, the ”external diam-
air (blown from both directions alternately) and then proof-tested (normally at
eter” and the ”wall thickness”.
1 1/2 times working pressure) by capping one end.
The higher the quality of material that is selected for a line, the easier it is to
achieve the same operational pressure with reduction of the wall thickness and CAUTION: PRESSURE TESTING IS NORMALLY THE RESPONSIBILITY
thus less flow resistance due to the larger inner diameter. OF SPECIALISTS. A PIPE THAT BURSTS UNDER PRES-
SURE CAN CAUSE SERIOUS OR EVEN FATAL INJURIES.
Steel lines are increasingly being used as pressure lines, even if this could be
accomplished with aluminium lines. The reason for this is the greater operating
safety and the longer life expectancy.
S At pressures of over 1500 PSI (105 bar) we speak of high pressure lines,
S under 1500 PSI (105 bar) medium pressure lines
S suction and return lines we speak of low pressure lines.
Medium and low pressure lines are preferably made of aluminium alloys for
weight-saving.
Lines in the engine area, where there is danger of fire, and in the landing gear
area, where there is danger of being hit by stones, must principally be made of
steel. Titanium lines are still the exception; they can be used due to reasons of
weight or as ”flexible metal pipes” instead of hoses.
Installation
Tube assemblies are laid in a manner so that they can yield along their length if
there is movement and vibration, so that there is no significant additional stress

on the fittings. This is achieved by providing suitable bends in the tubing.
For the same reason the vibration of the line itself must also be reduced to a
minimum. This is achieved by clamping at short regular intervals.
The proximity of lines to each other must also be observed to prevent them
damaging each other through contact.
The smallest permitted bend radius for the tube assembly is dependent on the
tube material, the wall thickness and the outer diameter.

Part -66
Bulkhead Bulkhead Fitting

Figure 268 Correct Tube Alignment

Part -66
CLAMPS
Introduction
For appearance’ sake and ease of attachment, all fluid lines should follow
structural members of the aircraft and be secured with appropriate clamps; ie
all fuel lines must be bonded to the structure with integrally bonded line support
clamps.
It is important that no fluid line be allowed to chafe against any control cable or
aircraft structure, electrical wiring bundles or conduit-carrying electrical wires.
Furthermore, you should avoid routing fluid lines through passenger compart-
ments. If, however, this is unavoidable, it must be supported and protected
against damage and installed in such a way that it cannot be used as a hand-
hold.
Support Clamps
Support clamps are used to secure fluid lines to the aircraft structure or to as-
semblies in the engine nacelle.
In addition to providing support, these clamps prevent chafing and reduce
stress.
The two clamps most commonly-encountered are the rubber cushioned
clamp and the plain clamp.
The rubber cushioned clamp secures lines which are subject to vibration. It re-
duces the transmission of vibrations to the line and prevents chafing.
In areas subject to contamination by fuel or hydraulic fluid, cushioned clamps
utilizing Teflon are used, which are highly-resistant to deterioration.
Bonded Clamps
A bonded clamp is used to secure metal fuel, oil or hydraulic lines. It has an
electrical lead connected to the aircraft structure to ground the line.

CAUTION: WHEN INSTALLING A BONDED CLAMP, ENSURE ANY
PAINT OR ANODIZING IS REMOVED FROM THE LINE
WHERE THE CLAMP IS FITTED FOR ELECTRICAL CONTI-
NUITY.

Part -66
Plain Clamp Cushioned Clamp

Figure 269 Clamp Types

Part -66
TUBE FITTINGS
General
The tube fittings or tube connections form the transition to the fittings on the
units, branches or to other tubes.
In this way they must fit to the various types of tubing and nominal diameters
on the one side and to the various threads and fittings (flared or ball--bush fit-
tings) on the other side.
There are tube fittings for the various pressure ranges in aluminium and tita-
nium alloys respectively and in cadmium-plated or stainless steel versions.

Part -66
Figure 270 Connection Examples

Part -66
FLARELESS FITTING
The illustrations show versions of the ”flareless tube fittings” now widely in use
which usually achieve their seal by the ”ball--bush principle”.
MS Fitting
The sleeve or O--ring of malleable steel is shaped by pre-stressing in such a
way that its inner cutting edge is pushed over the pipe to seal it. At the same
time the lip of the seal is pushed into the cone of the fitting and forms a seal
line. During this the tube must, in principle, be on the stop support.
Harrison Fitting
The sleeve of solid steel has a ball--bush fitting as a seal and is not moulded.
The tube is moulded, in that it is swaged in the sleeve from inside so that it is
sealed tightly. With this type of fitting, the tube is not allowed to touch the end
of the fitting.
The advantage of this type of fitting is ease of handling, as well as the simple
tool required for installation.

Part -66
Fitting
Sleeve
Tube
Seal edge Sleeve

Cutting Edge Tube
Figure 271 Flareless Fitting

Part -66
FLARE-TYPE FITTING
Introduction Types of Flare
With a flare-type fitting a special tool is required to make the flare. There are two types of flare used in aircraft tubing systems:
By tightening the union nut, a sleeve is pulled against a conical fitting, whereby S Single Flare
the tube is pressed between the fitting and the sleeve. The close fit between S Double Flare.
the inside of the flared tube and the flare cone of the fitting provides the actual
seal, therefore surfaces must be scrupulously clean and free of cracks, Single Flare
scratches and nicks etc. A single flare is formed with either an impact-type flaring tool or one having a
The sleeve provides added strength and suports the tube to prevent vibration flaring cone with a rolling action.
concentrating on the flare. S Impact-Type
This fitting is relatively complicated to manufacture, but has proved its worth for This method involves the tubing being clamped in flaring blocks (the ’grip
use in engines because it is relatively vibration-resistant. die’) whilst a plunger is driven into the end of the tube using light hammer
blows whilst rotating the plunger.
Flare Angle
S Roll-Type
Aircraft flared fittings have a standard flare angle of 37o and are not inter- This is the preferred method, involving an entirely self-contained unit pro-
changeable with vehicle-type flares, which are 45o. ducing a good flare.
The tube is clamped and the flaring cone is turned into the tube end, ex-
Leak Inspection
panding the flare until it reaches the edges of the die. No hammering is re-
If a leak is apparent from a correctly-tightened joint, it should be dismantled quired.
and mating surfaces thoroughly inspected for debris or damage.
Dimensions
CAUTION: DO NOT OVER-TIGHTEN THE JOINT IN ATTEMPTING TO
CURE A LEAK. THIS MAY RESULT IN FAILURE OF A COM- See next page.
PONENT.

Part -66
Flaring Tool Plunger Grip Die

shown in vice
Yoke
Tubing
Grip Die
TOP
VIEW
Grip Die Steel Pilots
Tubing SIDE
VIEW
Fitting Nut Impact-Type Flaring Tool

Sleeve
Tube
Roll-Type Flaring Tool
Figure 272 Single Flare Fittings and Tools

Part -66
Single Flare (Cont’d)
Dimensions Dimensions for Single-Flare Tubing

Single flares must be manufactured to certain tolerances to ensure a strong,
leak-free joint.
External Sleeve Diameter B Radius
Tube OD (in)
Steel or Aluminium Alloy Tubing (in) +0.010 (in)
+0.000
1/8 0.032
0.200 -0.010
37o
+0.000
3/16 0.032
0.302 -0.010
+0.000
1/4 0.032
B
0.359 -0.010
Sleeve Sleeve +0.000
External External 5/16 0.032
Diameter Diameter 0.421 -0.010
+0.000
Flare Flare
3/8 0.046
0.484 -0.010
+0.000
1/2 0.062
0.656 -0.010
Maximum Minimum +0.000
Flare Flare 5/8 0.062
0.781 -0.010
+0.000
3/4 0.078
0.937 -0.010
+0.000
1 0.093
1.187 -0.015

Part -66
AN910 Coupling AN911 Nipple AN912 Bushing
AN821 AN824 AN913 Plug AN914 Elbow
Elbow Tee
AN915 Elbow AN916 Elbow AN917 Tee
Tapered Pipe Thread Fittings

AN827 AN832 AN833 AN AC
Cross Union Elbow
AN Feature AC
37o Angle 35o
Body Length
Recess
Body Length
Coarser Threads Finer
Blue Grey or
AN938 AN939 AN941 or Colour yellow

Tee Elbow Elbow black
Longer Body Length Shorter

Common Aircraft Pipe Fittings
Flared fitting part numbers are either ’AN’ or ’MS’. Some older types (’AC’) still exist. It is impor-
tant to be aware of this and note that there are a number of physical differences that mean they
are NOT interchangeable.
Figure 273 Flared Fitting Types

Part -66
Double Flare
Soft aluminium tubing with an outside diameter of 3/8 in or smaller can be
double-flared to provide a stronger connection.
A double flare is smoother and more concentric than a single flare and thus
provides a better seal. It is also more durable and resistant to the shearing ef-
fect of torque.
Procedure
S The tubing is inserted into the flaring die to a depth determined by the stop-
pin and then clamped.
S The upsetting tool is inserted and, with as few blows as possible, the initila
upset is formed.
S The upsetting tool is then substituted for the flaring tool and then hammered
to form the double flare.

Part -66
37o
B
1. Position tubing against stop
Tube
Size
Tube Size A Diameter B Radius

(Nominal Exter- +0.010 -0.010 +0.010
2. Form initial upset nal Diameter)
1/8 0.224 0.032

3/16 0.302 0.032
1/4 0.359 0.032
5/16 0.421 0.032
3/8 0.484 0.046
3. Complete flare
Dimensions for Double-Flare Tubing
Figure 274 Double Flare

Part -66
SWAGE FITTING/HARRISON TYPE

For this type of connection, you also need a special tool, which moulds a
sleeve by widening the pipe. The tool can be compared to a thorn that expands
in the tube by a mechanical process.
This type of connection is well suited for thin-walled tubes and is almost totally
vibration-resistant.

Part -66
Sleeve
Figure 275 Harrison-Type Fitting

Part -66
PERMASWAGE FITTING
With this type of connection, a steel sleeve is squeezed onto the prepared pipe
end with a hydraulically driven tool.
The advantage of this type of fitting is that is can be made quickly in situ, it is
light, and gives a good seal.
The great disadvantage of this fitting is that is cannot be separated, which can
be very problematic at disassembly.

Part -66
Figure 276 Permaswage Fitting

Part -66
BENDING TUBES
Tools
Care must be taken to ensure that the correct tool is used for bending tubes.
The choice of tool depends on the diameter of the tube. Thickness
Nominal
The swivel handle of the larger tube benders has an angled slot. The whole Diameter Stainless Steel Light Alloy Titanium
swivel handle can slide outwards so that the tube can be laid in the guide 21.6.9 6061.T6 Ti 3AL 2.5V
groove. in mm in mm in mm in mm
After this the swivel handle is pushed down again and the tube clamp is placed
1/4 6.35 0.016 0.41 0.035 0.89 0.016 0.40
around the tube. The left side of the swivel handle is now on the zero marking
of the scale. 3/8 9.53 0.020 0.51 0.035 0.89 0.019 0.48
It is recommended to lightly lubricate the tube at the bend point before bending. 1/2 12.70 0.026 0.66 0.035 0.89 0.026 0.66
To bend the tube, secure the tube bender with the form wheel handle in a vice. 5/8 15.88 0.033 0.84 0.035 0.89 0.032 0.81
The tube is bent by pulling both levers together. With steel tubes, you usually 3/4 19.05 0.039 0.99 0.035 0.89 0.039 0.99
arc the bend a little further than the marking on the scale, as the tube springs 1 25.40 0.052 1.32 0.048 1.22 0.051 1.30
back a little after bending.
1 1/4 31.75 0.024 0.61
This is hardly ever the case with light metal tubes.
1 1/2 38.10 0.024 0.61 0.035 0.89
After bending, the swivel handle is pushed up over the slot again, the tube
clamp moved back and the tube removed.
Pipe Material/Diameter/Thickness Table

Part -66
Figure 277 Tube Bender

Part -66
Tools (cont.)
Tube benders for small tube diameters have no slot in the swivel handle;
instead, it is on the reverse side of the lug.
When you open the swivel handle with the lug, the tube can easily be inserted
here too.
With both of these tube benders you are not limited to making 180° bends, you
can also make any open bend to your required angle.

Part -66
Swivel Handle
Guide
Tube Clamp
Tube 3/8“
Form Wheel
Form Wheel Handle
Figure 278 Tube Bender

Part -66
TUBE BENDING COMING UP TO REQUESTED DIMENSIONS

With an open tube bend, you must ensure that the dimension (X) from the
middle of the tube to the middle of the tube at the desired point is marked ex-
actly.
First, you bend the right bend to 90°, during which the tube must be held so
that the right marking on the tube covers the marking (L) on the form wheel
(see Figure 207).
Then the tube is pushed further right in the tube bender until the left marking on
the tube covers the marking (R) on the form wheel. Now the second 90° bend
can be made.

Part -66
Swivel Handle
X
Guide
Tube Clamp
Tube 3/8“
Form Wheel
Form Wheel Handle
Figure 279 Bending

Part -66
It is often very advantageous to fabricate the tube bend at the installation site
to ensure that it fits exactly.
Tube bends must be made in such a way that the tubes can be installed totally
tension free with no tension in the clamps and fittings.
Some tube assemblies must be bent with very exact measurements due to the
aircraft structure. This is especially so at an S--bend that must run parallel, i.e.
it is very important at an offset.
First, the required measurement (Y) from tube centre to tube centre must be
determined. You can bend any offset angle.
The tube is bent as widely as possible when a small offset is required. In the
example below, a 15, 30 or 45° angle is shown on the left. Sharper angles of
60, 75 or 90° can easily be used with a larger (Y) measurement.
The manufacturer recommends that a 45° angle is bent where possible.
A table, which you can use to determine the correct dimension of an offset,
comes with the tube bender.

Part -66
Figure 280 Tube Bending to Requested Dimension 1

Part -66
To carry out an offset, you can draw and bend at a certain point according to
the table, using the measurements (X) and (Y).
As an example, assume a required dimension of 2 ½ inches at Y (from tube
centre to tube centre).
If we want to bend an offset of 45° we see from the table, under the offset
angle 45°, that the measurement (Y) of 2 ½ inches is next to the measurement
(X) of 3 17/32 inches.

Part -66

Part -66
On the straight tube, the measurement (X) is therefore drawn at 3 17/32 inches
at the place where the offset shall be.
To bend a 45° offset, we must bring the first marking on the tube to the 45° line
marking on the tube bender (shoe). Then, we bend an angle of 45°.
Now the tube is repositioned and we bring the second marking on the tube to
the 45° line marking on the tube bender (shoe).
Double-check you are set for the correct bend direction. Then an angle of 45°
is bent again.

Part -66
Shoe Handle
Shoe
Latch
Tube 3/8“
Bending Form
Form Handle

Part -66
TUBING REPAIR
Permissable Damage and Defects (precis from Airbus AMM) d. Round--bottomed traces of impact:
NOTE: not applicable to engine tubes (refer to engine manufacturer). -- maximum: 2 % of tube nominal diameter.
1. Permissible Repair NOTE : Length or width of trace of impact must not be more
Generally you repair a tube with a tube made of the same material, but if a tube than 5 mm (0.1968 in.). When there is a surface defect with a
made of the same material is not available, you may repair tubes as follows: sign of dent, do an analysis of each type of damage.
S aluminum alloy (6061--T6) tubes with CRES (21.6.9) or Titanium alloy
(Ti A3V 2.5) tubes.
S CRES (21.6.9) tubes with Titanium alloy (TI A3V 2.5) tubes (except in the
pylon). in 1/4 3/8 1/2 5/8 3/4 1 1 1/2
Outer Diameter
S Titanium alloy (Ti A3V 2.5) tubes with CRES (21.6.9) tubes. mm 6.350 9.525 12.70 15.875 19.05 25.40 38.10
OD
NOTE : If you repair aluminum alloy or Titanium alloy tubes with CRES -4 -6 -8 -10 -12 -16 -24
tubes, consider the weight penalty.
in 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.048 0.035
2. Permissible Damage and Defects Thickness T
NOTE : When damage or defects on tubing is more than the permissible limits mm 0.889 0.889 0.889 0.889 0.889 1.219 0.889
given below, tubing shall be discarded or repaired as specified in this topic. Operating PSI 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 80
A. Permissible limits for traces of impact and surface defects. Pressure Bar 70 70 70 70 70 70 5.5
NOTE : Surface defects are discontinuities such as: in 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002
Sharp-Bottomed
-- nicks Defect B
-- scratches mm 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.044
-- cracks and forging laps Round-Bottomed in 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.005 0.004
-- scores Defect B mm 0.089 0.089 0.089 0.089 0.089 0.122 0.089
-- bends
-- corrosion pits. Round-Bottomed in 0.005 0.007 0.010 0.012 0.015 0.020 0.030
a. Sharp--bottomed surface defects: Impact C mm 0.127 0.191 0.254 0.318 0.381 0.508 0.762
-- maximum: 5 % of tube wall thickness. A < 5% T B < 10% T C < 2% OD
b. Round--bottomed surface defects:

-- maximum: 10 % of tube wall thickness. Permissable Tube Defect Depth - Light Alloy Tube Material 6061--T6
NOTE : Sharp--bottomed surface defects and traces of impact
are damage with a 90 degrees or less angle at the bottom. All
others are round--bottomed.
c. Sharp--bottomed traces of impact:
-- not permitted.

Part -66
in 1/4 3/8 1/2 5/8 3/4 1 1 1/4 1 1/2

Outer Diameter
mm 6.350 9.525 12.70 15.875 19.05 25.40 31.75 38.10
OD
-4 -6 -8 -10 -12 -16 -20 -24
in 0.016 0.019 0.026 0.032 0.039 0.051 0.024 0.024
Thickness T
mm 0.406 0.508 0.660 0.838 0.991 1.321 0.609 0.609
Operating PSI 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 80 80
Pressure Bar 206 206 206 206 206 206 5.5 5.5
Sharp-Bottomed in 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.001 0.001
Defect B mm 0.020 0.025 0.033 0.042 0.050 0.066 0.030 0.030
Round-Bottomed in 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.002 0.002
Defect B mm 0.041 0.051 0.066 0.084 0.099 0.132 0.061 0.061
Round-Bottomed in 0.005 0.007 0.010 0.013 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030
Impact C mm 0.127 0.191 0.254 0.318 0.381 0.508 0.635 0.762
A < 5% T B < 10% T C < 2% OD in 1/4 3/8 1/2 5/8 3/4 1
Permissable Tube Defect Depth - Stainless Steel Tube Material 21.6.9 Outer Diameter
mm 6.350 9.525 12.70 15.875 19.05 25.40
OD
-4 -6 -8 -10 -12 -16
in 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.048
Thickness T
mm 0.889 0.889 0.889 0.889 0.889 1.219
Operating PSI 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
Pressure Bar 70 70 70 70 70 70
Sharp-Bottomed in 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002
Defect B mm 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.044

Round-Bottomed in 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.005
Defect B mm 0.089 0.089 0.089 0.089 0.089 0.122
Round-Bottomed in 0.005 0.007 0.010 0.012 0.015 0.020
Impact C mm 0.127 0.191 0.254 0.318 0.381 0.508
A < 5% T B < 10% T C < 2% OD
Permissable Tube Defect Depth - Titanium Alloy Tube Material Ti A3V 2.5

Part -66
HOSES
General Construction
Hoses (including fittings) are produced mainly by a manufacturer. It is unusual Hoses are built up from layers.
to fabricate hose assemblies. S The inner layer carries the fluid and therefore must be compatible (chemi-
Fitted hoses must meet the following requirements: cally) with the fluid being transported and have the minimum amount of po-
S there must be a certain amount of slack between both fittings because rosity.
hoses reduce their length by between 2% and 4% and expand in diameter The four main compounds used to construct inner liners are
when under pressure. Tensile stress on the fittings is unsafe and therefore Neoprene (for petroleum-based fluids)
not permitted. Buna-N (better suited for petroleum-based fluids)
Butyl (phosphate ester-base hydraulic fluid (Skydrol))
S they must not twist when the end-fittings are tightened. Twisted hoses have
Teflon (compatible with almost every fluid carried).
a shortened life and can be damaged or buckle when there is movement.
End-fittings can loosen off. S Reinforcement layers cover the inner liner and determine the hose’s
strength.
Why hoses? Common materials used for reinforcement layers are
Flexible hoses are used extensively on aircraft to connect stationary to mov- cotton
ing parts and in areas of high vibration. rayon
polyester fabric
Applications carbon-steel wire
There are essentially three types of hose ratings: stainless steel wire braid.
S Low pressure ................. up to 600 pounds per square inch (psi) Diligent design of reinforcement layers can minimise the dimensional
changes of hoses under pressure.
S Medium pressure .......... up to 3000 psi
S The protective outer cover is usually made of rubber-impregnated fabric or
S high pressure ................. 3000 psi + stainless steel braid. It is put over the reinforcement to protect from physical
Lay Lines damage or heat.
Lay lines run along the length of a hose. They are yellow, red or white stripes, Inspection
incorporating MIL-SPEC numbers and various other manufacturers’ informa- At designated intervals, hoses should be inspected for deterioration. Particular
tion. attention should be paid to indications of leakage and mechanical damage
Besides identifying the hose, it serves to indicate whether the assembly is (braid separation from the covering or broken wire braids).
twisted when installed. Damage limits will be found in the SRM.

Part -66
A lay-line is a visual indicator for twisting
Low pressure
Swaged fittings require special machinery to assemble and
cannot be reused.
Medium pressure
Hose length
Assembly length
High pressure
Figure 283 Flexible Hoses

Part -66
Reusable Fittings
It is possible to re-manufacture certain hose assemblies by re-using the end-fit-
tings (the socket, nut and nipple).
Prior to this, however, it is important to thoroughly inspect the salvaged fittings
for wear or other damage.
If any doubt exists as to the item’s serviceability, it is to be discarded.
Method
Determine the length of hose required (usually using old assembly as pat-
tern).
Protect the outer covering by wrapping with tape, then cut the hose to length
with a fine-tooth saw, ensuring both ends are square-cut.
1. With the socket held firmly in a vice (using suitable protection for its sur-
face) and the tape removed, screw the hose into it. Having bottomed the
hose in the socket, back it off approximately half a turn.
2. With the socket still held firmly in the vice, force the lubricated end of the
assembly tool into the hose sufficiently far for the nipple to be inserted.
3. Using the assembly tool, the nipple is then screwed into the socket,
squeezing the hose tightly between socket and nipple.
4. Finally, back off the nipple to leave a gap, permitting the nut to turn freely.
Cleaning and Pressure-Testing
The completed hose assembly must be cleaned out internally with compressed
air (blown from both directions alternately) and then proof-tested (normally at
1 1/2 times working pressure) by capping one end.
CAUTION: PRESSURE TESTING IS NORMALLY THE RESPONSIBILITY
OF SPECIALISTS. A HOSE THAT BURSTS UNDER PRES-
SURE CAN CAUSE SERIOUS OR EVEN FATAL INJURIES.

Part -66
1. With socket held in vice, 3. Nipple is screwed into

screw hose into socket. socket with assembly tool.
Use wrench
on hex
Hose Vice Nipple Nut
Jaws
Hose Shoulder
of Socket
Assembly
Tool Adaptor
Socket
2. Lubricate assembly tool and
Nut force into hose to open inner liner. 4. After installation there should be clear-
ance between nut and socket to permit
Nipple nut to turn freely.
Vice
Jaws Socket 1/32 to 1/16 inch clearance
Hose
Breakdown of Reusable
Shoulder
Hose Fitting
of Socket Assembly
Swivel Type
Tool
Figure 284 Reusable Hose Fittings

Part -66
Hose Installation
There are a number of checks to carry out prior to installing a flexible hose.
Inspect the hose for:
S applicability
S length
S cleanliness
S damage.
Check the hose identification tag for:
S part number
S cure date (within limits)
S assembly date (within limits)
When fitting a hose assembly, it is important:
S not to twist it, thereby placing it under undue strain. Check the lay line
printed along the hose length
S that it is subjected to the minimum of flexing during operation
S that it is supported at least every 24 inches
S that it is not stretched tightly between its fittings
S that the minimum bend radius is observed.

Part -66

Flexure
Clamp
Flexure

Prevent twisting
Figure 285 Installation Example 1

Part -66
Hose Installation (Cont’d)
It is possible to replace a short bend radius with an elbow fitting, but the largest
possible bend radius is still preferred.
The minimum permissable bend radius is determined by the operating pres-
sure, the type of hose and the nominal size. The bend radius required in-
creases when the hose has to carry out movements in the operating condition.
If they can move and become twisted, they are to be fixed with clamps to pre-
vent this.
Clamps are also necessary where there is a danger to the hoses due to vibra-
tion, long lengths or sharp edges.
Protective Sleeves
There are areas on an aircraft that produce wear (from abrasion) or extreme
heat.
Flexible hoses must be protected from these dangers with suitable sleeving.
Sleeving is available in a variety of materials, including
S heat shrink
S nylon spiral wrap
S Teflon.
CAUTION: TAKE CARE WHEN REMOVING FIRE SLEEVES; EARLY
PRODUCTS CONTAINED ASBESTOS.

Part -66

Chafe marks
Clamp too big Chafe marks
Bend radius too small

Figure 286 Installation Example 2

Part -66
TIGHTENING PRACTICES - HYDRAULIC CONNECTIONS

Introduction B. Assembly
To ensure that pipe and hose assemblies do not leak due to loose connections NOTE : Connection on straight plug--in fitting or bulkhead fittings:
or deform because of over-tightening, specific torque figures are published in Straight plug--in fittings.
the relevant AMM and must be adhered to.
S You must install and torque the straight plug--in fitting to the applicable
Additionally, parts must be clean and free from defects prior to assembly. torque value before you connect the pipe.
Straight bulkhead fittings.
The following is a precis of the hydraulic tightening practices procedure for an
S You must install the straight bulkhead fittings and torque the locknut to the
Airbus aircraft.
applicable value before you connect the pipe.
Visual Inspection Before Assembly Swivel bulkhead fittings.
1. Make sure that the parts you assemble are clean and free of contamina- S You must connect and torque to the applicable value the pipe sleeve nuts
tion. (at each end of the fitting) before you torque the locknut of the swivel bulk-
2. Make sure that the parts you assemble are not damaged. Specially, inspect head fitting to the applicable value.
the sealing surfaces (on fittings and pipe ends) and the threads of the fit- 1. Position the pipe and make sure that:
tings. S the pipe you install is not too short or too long
S NOTE : Reject any part that shows signs of damage (scratches, nicks, de- S the pipe you install can be positioned without too much force on the clamp
formation). blocks
Procedure S the pipe alignment at unions is correct.
A. Lubrication NOTE : The force necessary to correct the alignment must not be more than
light finger pressure (1 daN (2.2480 lbf)).
CAUTION : ONLY USE THE SPECIFIED LUBRICANT TO LUBRICATE THE
FITTING THREADS AND THE SHOULDER OF THE SLEEVE. 2. Align the pipe and the fitting and insert tube end. The sleeve must be fully
bottomed against the mating surface of the fitting.
CAUTION : ONLY USE HYDRAULIC FLUID MATERIAL NO. 02--003 TO LU-
BRICATE THE O--RING AND THE THREAD (O--RING SIDE) ON PLUG--IN 3. Tighten the sleeve nut with your hand until it bottoms against sleeve shoul-
FITTINGS. OTHER LUBRICANTS CAN CAUSE DAMAGE TO THE O--RING. der.
1. Lightly lubricate with HYDRAULIC FLUIDS (Material No. 02--003) or COM- NOTE : the nut must turn freely on the thread. This shows that the tube ends
MON GREASE (Material No. 04--015): are correctly aligned.
S the thread on the male fitting NOTE : You must connect and tighten with your hand all the ends of the pipe
before you apply the tightening torque on one end.
S the shoulder of the sleeve (when possible).
NOTE : When you install a pipe on a tee or a cross, you must connect and
NOTE : Lubricate the thread on the male fitting to get the highest possible load
tighten with your hand all the connections of the tee or the cross before you
on the contact surfaces. Do not apply lubricant on the female thread.
apply the tightening torque on one end.
Do not apply lubricant on the contact surfaces between the sleeve and the
NOTE : When you connect a flexible hose, make sure that you do not twist the
sealing surface of the fitting. Lubricant can cause a rotation of the pipe when
hose during the assembly.
you torque the sleeve nut.
4. Attach the clamp blocks without tightening.
2. Remove excess of lubricant with a clean, dry lint--free cloth.

Part -66
Do not lubricate the Lubricate the sleeve

nut thread shoulder (when possible)
Fitting Nut
Sleeve
Tube
Lubricate the male Do not lubricate this area (contact

fitting thread surface between the sleeve and the

sealing surface of the fitting)
Figure 287 Lubrication of Hydraulic Connections

Part -66
C. Tightening Torque Application
S CAUTION : WHEN YOU TORQUE THE NUT, ALWAYS USE A SECOND Sleeve
Hold
WRENCH TO APPLY A COUNTERTORQUE TO THE FITTING.
Nut
1. Find the correct torque value.
S NOTE : To find the correct torque value, you must know the material and
the size of the parts you assemble. If the connection has different materials,
you must use the torque value for the weakest material.
2. Get the applicable torque wrench and the applicable wrench adapter for the
nut and an applicable second wrench to apply the countertorque to the fit-
ting.
3. Set the torque wrench to the applicable value. When you use a wrench
adapter, you must adjust the value.
4. Position the torque wrench on the sleeve nut and the countertorque wrench Union swaged on
on the fitting the tube Tighten
S NOTE : We recommend that you install the wrench adapter in the same
axis as the torque wrench.
S NOTE : The torque wrench must always be installed on the nut (female Removable union or in-line
part) and the countertorque wrench on the fitting (male part). Tighten check valve
5. Apply a slow and continous force on the torque wrench until you reach the
set torque value. Sleeve Nut
S NOTE : Always pull (or push) at right angles to the handle of the torque
wrench. Try to apply load to the center of the hand grip of the torque
wrench. Pull with fingers only. Do not grasp the hand grip.
Sleeve Nut
Hold Tighten
Hold the union with a second wrench to apply a

counter torque and tighten the sleeve nut to the
applicable torque value.

Part -66
B
Crowsfoot Wrench
Adaptor
Torque Wrench
B
Open-Ended
Wrench Adaptor
A B
When using a wrench adaptor, the torque value must be adjusted.

Use the following formula:
T1 = T x A
A + B
T1 = new torque value (adjusted) to be set on the torque wrench.

T = specified torque value (applied on the connection).
Figure 288 Adjustment of Torque Value (Hydraulic Fittings)

Part -66
TIGHTENING TORQUES - HYDRAULIC FITTINGS

The torque figures for hydraulic fittings can be found in the AMM.
The following tables are just two samples, taken from the Airbus A340 AMM.
Tightening Torques Tightening Torques

Item Outer Diameter Steel Item Outer Diameter CRES and Titanium Tubes
Code Minimum Maximum Code Minimum Maximum
In mm m daN lbf in m daN lbf in In mm m daN lbf in m daN lbf in
3 3/16 4.76 1.07 95 1.18 105 3 3/16 4.76 1.1 97 1.2 106
4 1/4 6.35 1.52 135 1.63 145 4 1/4 6.35 1.5 133 1.7 150
5 5/16 7.93 1.92 170 2.15 190 5 5/16 7.93 2.0 177 2.3 204
6 3/8 9.52 2.43 215 2.76 245 6 3/8 9.52 2.9 257 3.2 283
8 1/2 12.70 4.86 430 5.31 470 8 1/2 12.70 5.4 478 5.9 522
10 5/8 15.87 7.00 620 7.68 680 10 5/8 15.87 7.5 664 8.3 735
12 3/4 19.05 9.66 855 10.68 945 12 3/4 19.05 9.7 859 10.07 947
16 1 25.40 12.90 1140 14.20 1260 16 1 25.40 12.90 1142 14.20 1257
20 1 1/4 31.75 17.20 1520 19.00 1680 20 1 1/4 31.75 17.20 1522 19.00 1682
24 1 1/2 38.10 21.50 1900 23.70 2100 24 1 1/2 38.10 21.50 1903 23.70 2098
Tightening Torques for Flexible Hoses (Both Constituents Made of Steel) Tightening Torques for Hydraulic Unions and In-Line Check Valves
(Both Constituents Made of Steel or Steel and Titanium)

Part -66
Union Sleeve Nut Sleeve
Tube Red Paint Tube
Manifold
Plug-In Union Sleeve Nut Sleeve
Tube
Red Paint
Once an hydraulic fitting has been torqued, a witness mark is applied with red paint 2 - 4 mm wide.
If the component is subsequently disturbed, the original witness mark must be removed and a fresh one applied post-torqueing.
Figure 289 Torque Witness Marking

Part -66


M7.10 SPRINGS
Part -66
M7.10 SPRINGS
HAM US/F5 KrC Dec.2005 Page: 607

M7.10 SPRINGS
Part -66
Definition
Springs are any of several elastic devices used variously to store and to furnish 5. Ensure that the spring eye--ends at the side--stay end are correctly
energy, to absorb shock, to sustain the pressure between contacting surfaces, attached to the inner retainer spring.
and to resist tensional or compressional stress. 6. Ensure that the cotter pins (2) and (3) are serviceable and correctly
Springs are made of an elastic material, eg specially formulated steel alloys or installed.
certain types of rubber or plastic. A torsion spring that stores energy, eg for 7. Look at the points D. Ensure that the tension springs (1) do not touch the
operating a watch, is a metal strip wound spirally around a fixed centre. edges of the side stay.
For reducing concussion in some heavy trucks and railroad cars, helical (or
coil) springs are used. Coil springs are commonly used for the same purpose in
motor cars, as are leaf springs that consist of flat bars clamped together. These
have been replaced in some vehicles by torsion bars that absorb stresses by
twisting.
The helical--coil compression spring provides the force to keep the operating
surfaces together in the friction clutch.
The extension spring is employed for a spring balance; the distance through
which it is extended depends on the weight suspended from it.
The disk spring, which consists of a laminated series of convex discs, is widely
employed for heavy loads.
EXAMPLE
Airbus A340 Main Landing Gear Lock Springs - Inspection
1. Ensure that the tension springs (1) are correctly attached to the sidestay
and the lockstay.
2. Examine the tension springs (1) for:
A. impact damage
B. distortion
C. scores
D. corrosion.
3. Examine the end fittings of the tension springs (1) for:
A. damage
B. cracks
C. corrosion.
4. Move the tension springs (1) around their longitudinal axis. This will ensure
that the tension springs (1) are free to move in their end bearings.

M7.10 SPRINGS
Part -66
Lock Stay
Side Stay
Lock Stay Lower
Connector Link
Side Stay
Figure 290 Airbus A340 Main Landing Gear Lock Springs

M7.10 SPRINGS
Part -66


M7.11 BEARINGS
Part -66
M 7.11 BEARINGS

M7.11 BEARINGS
Part -66
BEARINGS (GENERAL) LUBRICATION

Bearings are used to support the journals of shafts and axles. Correct lubrication is vital in all kinds of bearings. It provides a film that sepa-
Bearings for supporting journals, which are designed to accept forces at right- rates the bearing’s moving parts, carries away heat and protects bearing sur-
angles to the drilling axis, are called journal bearings or roller bearings. faces from corrosion.
Bearings for pivot journals, which are designed to accept forces in a longitudi- As a bearing rotates, the mating surfaces of its components create a lubricant
nal direction, are called pivot bearings or axial bearings. These are different film in the bearing that separates components, preventing metal-to-metal con-
to sliding bearings or anti-friction bearings. tact. This action reduces friction and prevents wear and corrosion.
Bearings are protected with a preservative coating during storage and ship-
SLIDING BEARINGS ment.This is NOT a lubricant. However, it IS compatible with the relevant lubri-
The journal of a sliding bearing operates in a bearing box, a bearing bushing cant and need not be washed off prior to installation, but it is essential to lubri-
or directly in the bearing body. cate the bearing at installation.
Bearings for large journal diameters and bearings that cannot be pushed over Grease is one of the most popular lubricants. It should be packed into the bear-
the shafts during assembly (eg crankshafts) must be two-part bearings. ing so that it will coat between the rollers and cage. In the case of a tapered
bearing, forcing grease through the bearing from the large to the small end will
To decrease friction between journal and bearing, a continuous lubrication film ensure correct distribution. Any excess grease should be smeared on the out-
has to exist. For this, bearing play is necessary. side of the rollers.
The amount of bearing play depends on the demands the bearing is subjected It is important not to over-grease bearings. Too much grease in the housing will
to and the lubricant. cause excess churning and generate extremely high temperatures; potentially
Sliding bearings are resistant to push forces, they operate with little noise and a fire hazard.
they are suitable for both slow and fast rotational journal speeds.
Their high starting resistance, however, is disadvantageous. They also require
continuous maintenance.
ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS
There are five basic types of anti--friction bearings:
S tapered, needle, ball, spherical and cylindrical.
Each is named for the type of rolling element it employs.

M7.11 BEARINGS
Part -66
Ball
Cylindrical Rollers
Needle Rollers
Spherical Rollers
Tapered Rollers
Figure 291 Common Anti-Friction Bearing Types

M7.11 BEARINGS
Part -66
BEARING DEFECTS AND THEIR CAUSES

Excessive Loads True Brinelling
Excessive loads usually cause premature fatigue. Brinelling occurs when loads exceed the elastic limit of the ring material. Brinell
Tight fits, brinelling and improper preloading can also bring about early fatigue marks show as indentations in the raceways which increase bearing vibration
failure. (noise).
This type of failure looks the same as normal fatigue, although heavy ball wear Severe brinell marks can cause premature fatigue failure.
paths, evidence of overheating and a more widespread spalling (fatigue area) Any static overload or severe impact can cause brinelling.
are usually evident with a shortened life. Examples include:
The solution is to reduce the load or redesign using a bearing with greater ca- S Using hammers to remove or install bearings
pacity.
S dropping or striking assembled equipment, and
Overheating S pressing a bearing onto a shaft by applying force only to the ring being
Symptoms are discolouration of the rings, balls and cages from gold to blue. press-fitted, ie do not push the outer ring to force the inner ring onto a shaft.
Temperatures in excess of 400oF can anneal the ring and ball materials. The Normal Fatigue Failure
resulting loss in hardness reduces the bearing capacity causing early failure.
Fatigue failure (usually referred to as spalling) is the fracture of the running sur-
In extreme cases, balls and rings will deform. The temperature rise can also faces and subsequent removal of small, discrete particles of material.
degrade or destroy lubricant.
Spalling can occur on the inner ring, outer ring or balls. This type of failure is
Common culprits are heavy electrical heat loads, inadequate heat paths and progressive and, once initiated, will spread as a result of further operation. It
insufficient cooling or lubrication when loads and speeds are excessive. will always be accompanied by a marked increase in vibration, indicating an
Thermal or overload controls, adequate heat paths and supplemental cooling abnormality.
are effective cures. The remedy is to replace the bearing or consider redesigning to use a bearing
having a greater calculated fatigue life.
False Brinelling
False brinelling (elliptical wear marks in an axial direction at each ball position Reverse Loading
with a bright finish and sharp demarcation, often surrounded by a ring of brown Angular contact bearings are designed to accept an axial load in one direction
debris) indicates excessive external vibration. only. When loaded in the opposite direction, the elliptical contact area on the
A small relative motion between balls and raceways occurs in non-rotating ball outer ring is truncated by the lower shoulder on that side of the outer ring. The
bearings that are subject to external vibration. result is excessive stress and an increase in temperature, followed by in-
When the bearing isn’t turning, an oil film cannot be formed to prevent raceway creased vibration and early failure.
wear. Wear debris oxidizes and accelerates the wear process. Failure mode is very similar to that of heavy interference (tight) fits. The balls
Correct by isolating bearings from external vibration and using greases contain- will show a grooved wera band caused by the ball riding over the outer edge of
ing antiwear additives (such as molybdenum disulphide) when bearings only the raceway.
oscillate or reverse rapidly, as in actuator motors. Corrective action is to simply install the bearing correctly. Angular contact bear-
ings must be installed with the resultant thrust on the wide face (which is
marked “thrust“) of the outer ring and the opposite face of the inner ring.

M7.11 BEARINGS
Part -66
Ball path
Blue/black
Spalled
area
False brinell marks

Ball path
Silver/gold
EXCESSIVE LOADS OVERHEATING FALSE BRINELLING
Ball path
Ball path
Thrust
Spalled area
Thrust
Ball band caused by ball

Brinell marks ball spaced riding over edge of raceway
TRUE BRINELLING NORMAL FATIGUE FAILURE REVERSE LOADING
Figure 292 Bearing Defects 1

M7.11 BEARINGS
Part -66
Contamination Misalignment
Contamination is one of the leading causes of bearing failure. Contamination Misalignment can be detected on the raceway of the non-rotating ring by a ball
symptoms are denting of the bearing raceways and balls, resulting in high wear path that is not parallel to the raceway edges. If misalignment exceeds
vibration and wear. 0.001in/in you can expect an abnormal temperature rise in the bearing and/or
Contaminants include airborne dust, dirt or any abrasive substance that finds housing and heavy wear in the cage ball-pockets.
its way into the bearing. Principle sources are dirty tools, contaminated work The most prevalent causes of misalignment are:
areas, dirty hands and foreign matter in lubricants or cleaning solutions. S bent shafts
Clean work areas, tools, fixtures and hands help reduce contamination failures. S burrs or dirt on shaft or housing shoulders
Keep grinding operations away from bearing assembly areas and keep bear-
S shaft threads that are not square with shaft seats, and
ings in their original packaging until you are ready to install them.
S locking nuts with faces that are not square to the thread axis.
Seals are critical - damaged or inoperative seals cannot protect bearings from
contamination. The maximum allowable misalignment varies greatly with different applications,
decreasing, for example, with speed. Appropriate corrective action includes:
Lubricant Failure S inspecting shafts and housings for runout of shoulders and bearing seats
Discoloured (blue/brown) ball tracks and balls are symptoms of lubricant fail- S use of single point-turned or ground threads on non-hardened shafts and
ure. Excessive wear of balls, ring and cages will follow, resulting in overheating ground threads only on hardened shafts, and
and subsequent catastrophic failure.
S using precision grade locknuts.
Ball bearings depend on the continuous presence of a very thin - millionths of
an inch - film of lubricant between balls and races, and between the cage, Loose Fits
bearing rings and balls. Loose fits can cause relative motion between mating parts. If the relative mo-
Failures are typically caused by restricted lubricant flow or excessive tempera- tion between mating parts is slight but continuous, fretting occurs. Fretting is
tures that degrade the lubricant’s properties. the generation of fine metal particles which oxidize, leaving a distinctive brown
Any steps taken to correct improper fit, control preload better and cool the colour. This material is abrasive and will aggravate the looseness.
shafts and housings will reduce bearing temperatures and improve lubricant If the looseness is enough to allow considerable movement of the inner or
life. outer ring, the mounting surfaces (bores, outer diameters, faces) will wear and
heat, causing noise and runout problems.
Corrosion
Red/brown areas on balls, cages or bands of ball bearings are symptoms of Tight Fits
corrosion. This condition results from exposing bearings to corrosive fluids or a A heavy ball wear path in the bottom of the raceway around the entire circum-
corrosive atmosphere. The usual result is increased vibration followed by wear, ference of the inner ring and outer ring indicates a tight fit. Where interference
with subsequent increase in radial clearance or loss of preload. In extreme fits exceed the radial clearance at operating temperature, the balls will become
cases, corrosion can initiate early fatigue failures. excessively loaded. This will result in a rapid temperature rise accompanied by
Correct by diverting corrosive fluids away from bearing areas and use integrally high torque. Continued operation can lead to rapid wear and fatigue.
sealed bearings whenever possible. If the environment is particularly hostile, Corrective action includes a decrease in total interference - better matching of
the use of external seals in addition to integral seals should be considered. bearings to shafts and housings - taking into consideration the differences in
The use of stainless steel bearings is also helpful. materials and operating temperatures. Increased radial clearance will also in-
crease bearing life under the above conditions.

M7.11 BEARINGS
Part -66
Irregular dents or material Silver / gold

embedded in raceways Ball path
Balls wll be also be blue / black Red / brown stains

Balls wll be similarly
dented, dull or scratched or deposits on rings
Blue / black raceways

CONTAMINATION LUBRICANT FAILURE CORROSION
Wide ball path on inner raceway
Outer ring slippage caused

by improper housing fits
Non-parallel ball path on Discoloured, wide ball path

outer raceway at bottom of raceways
LOOSE FITS
MISALIGNMENT TIGHT FITS
Figure 293 Bearing Defects 2

M7.11 BEARINGS
Part -66
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
Installation and removal of Boeing aircraft bearings is described in the Boeing
Process Specification BAC 5435.
REMOVAL OF BEARINGS
when removing bearings, the following basic rules must be observed:
S Use the correct removal tools
S Avoid damage to the structure when using the circular cutting guide
S The circular cutting guide must have an exterior diameter which is suffi-
ciently large so that only the flange will be cut
S The lower and upper tool must be equipped with adequate bushing guides
or guide pins
S If possible, use a column-type drilling machine as the drive. After the flange
has been cut free, the bearing has to be squeezed out with an ejection tool.
INSTALLATION OF BEARINGS
When installing bearings, the following basic rules have to be observed:
S Check drilling surface and bearings for satisfactory condition
S Apply surface protection
S Install bearing with a drawing die and make sure that the projecting length is
central
S Roll the bearing with tools
S Check flange
S Test the bearing with testing load - if necessary seal gap.

M7.11 BEARINGS
Part -66
Single-Drum Tool
Bushing
Pressure Plate
Figure 294 Bearing Installation Tooling

M7.11 BEARINGS
Part -66
INSTALLATION OF ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS

When installing anti-friction bearings in components and aircraft controls NOTE: DO NOT TOUCH THE BEARINGS WITH BARE HANDS DURING
(elevator, aileron and rudder), the following instructions must be observed un- CLEANING, DRYING AND GREASING. USE RUBBER GLOVES OR
less otherwise defined in special instructions (refer to process specification). TONGS.
BEARINGS THAT CANNOT BE DISASSEMBLED AFTER DRYING, THE BEARING HAS TO BE HALF-FILLED WITH
Check bearings manually for smooth operation; bearings that are considered GREASE MIL G-3278+Z. USE A NIROSTA SPATULA.
satisfactory may be installed. Bearings that don’t operate smoothly or show
signs of jamming are not suitable for installation. BEARINGS HAVE TO BE GREASED WITHIN TWO HOURS OF
THE FINAL RINSE.
BEARINGS THAT CAN BE DISASSEMBLED
TREAT THE OUTER BEARING WITH A THIN FILM OF THE SAME
Check bearings manually for smooth operation. Bearings that are considered GREASE THAT WAS USED FOR FILLING. RE-INSTALL COVER
as satisfactory may be installed. Bearings that do not operate smoothly or PLATES AND CLAMPING RINGS.
show signs of jamming must be disassembled and subjected to visual inspec-
tion and greasing according to the following instructions:
S The following treatment of bearings has to be performed in a well-ventilated,
dust-free room with a constant temperature (20o C). Optimum cleanliness
during the entire treatment is essential.
-- Remove clamping rings and cover plates carefully. Rinse the bearings
manually in a container filled with Inhibisol until all grease and other resi-
due has been removed.
-- Rinse the cleaned bearings in a second container filled with the same
cleaning solution, and then rinse for a third time in another container with
the same cleaning solution.
-- Cleaning fluids which are used for cleaning and rinsing have to be re-
newed depending on the number of bearings to be treated, but a mini-
mum of one change per day must be carried out.
-- In the case of filtering used cleaning fluids for reuse, filter systems that
will remove 98% of all foreign material larger than 10 microns must be
used.
-- Dry the completely clean bearings with a gentle stream of air. The bear-
ing should not be allowed to rotate.

M7.11 BEARINGS
Part -66
Typical bearing lubrication device
Bearings are protected with a preservative coating during

storage and shipment.
This is NOT a lubricant. It is essential to lubricate the bearing

at installation.
Figure 295 Bearing Lubrication

M7.11 BEARINGS
Part -66


M12 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66
M7.12 TRANSMISSIONS

M12 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66
CONTROL CHAINS, CHAIN WHEELS AND PULLEYS

Introduction
Chains provide strong, flexible and positive connections and are generally used
wherever it becomes necessary to change the direction of control runs in sys-
tems where considerable force is exerted.
The change of direction is achieved by the use of chain wheels or pulleys.
Chains may be found in
S control column installations
S aileron and elevator controls
S trim control systems.
Chains may be used solely in control runs or in conjunction with cable assem-
blies.
Incorrect assembly of chains should be rendered impossible by the use of non-
reversible chains in conjunction with the appropriate types of wheels, guards
and connectors.
Specifications
Chains used for aircraft purposes are generally of the simple roller type to Brit-
ish Standard 228.
Chain assemblies are produced to standards prepared by the Society of British
Aircraft Constructors (SBAC). These standards provide a range of chains built
up in various combinations with standard fittings, eg end connectors with inter-
nal or external threads, bi-planer blocks for changing the articulation of a chain
through 90o and cable spools for connecting chains to cables having eye-
splices.

M12 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66
Figure 296 Standard Chain Fittings

M12 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66
Chain Assemblies
A simple roller chain consists of outer and inner plates, rollers, bearing pins
and bushes.
The chain has three principle dimensions (known as gearing dimensions):
S pitch
S width between inner plates
S roller diameter.
The pitch of the chain is the distance between the centres of the rollers.
For aircraft purposes, four sizes of chain are standardised by the SBAC.
The proof-load for a chain should be 1/3rd of the minimum breaking load.
Chain BS Minimum Proof

Pitch Number Breaking Load Load
8mm 1 800 lb 267 lb
0.375 in 2 1900 lb 634 lb
0.50 in 4 1800 lb 600 lb
0.50 in 6 3500 lb 1166 lb
WARNING: 1. NO ATTEMPT SHOULD BE MADE TO BREAK AND

REASSEMBLE RIVETED LINKS OR ATTACHMENTS. IF IT IS
NECESSARY TO DISCONNECT A CHAIN, THIS SHOULD BE
UNDERTAKEN ONLY AT THE BOLTED OR SCREWED
ATTACHMENTS.
2. THE USE OF CRANKED LINKS FOR THE ATTACHMENT
OF THE CHAIN TO END FITTINGS, ETC, IS NOT PER-
MITTED. THUS WHERE A CHAIN IS REQUIRED TO TER-

MINATE IN A SIMILAR MANNER AT EACH END, THE
LENGTH SHOULD BE AN ODD NUMBER OF PITCHES. FOR
THE SAME REASON, AN ENDLESS CHAIN SHOULD HAVE
AN EVEN NUMBER OF PITCHES.
3. THE USE OF SPRING CLIP CONNECTING LINKS IS
PROHIBITED AND THE ATTACHMENT OF CHAINS TO
OTHER PARTS OF THE SYSTEM SHOULD BE EFFECTED
BY POSITIVE METHODS SUCH AS PRE-RIVETED OR
BOLTED JOINTS.

M12 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66
Pitch
Outer Plate
Bearing Pin
Inner Plate
Width between
Roller inner plates
Bush
Outer Plate
Roller Diameter
Typical Chain End Assembly
Figure 297 Chain Details

M12 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66
Installation of Chain Assemblies
The figure opposite illustrates typical arrangements of chain assemblies.
(a) shows the simple transfer of straight-line to rotary motion.
(b) illustrates how a change of direction of straight-line motion is obtained.
(c) shows a change of direction of motion in two planes by the use of a bi-
planer block.
A range of non-interchangeable end fittings is available as a safeguard against
the crossing of controls. However, these connectors do not always prevent the
possibility of reversing the chain end to end on its wheel. Neither do they pre-
vent the possibility of the chain being assembled to gear on the wrong face
where two wheels are operated by the same chain.
Such contingencies can be overcome by the use of non-reversible chains.
Installation of Chain Wheels and Pulleys
During installation, chain wheels and pulleys should be checked to ensure that
they are attached in the manner and method specified by the relevant draw-
ings.
The correct positioning of chain wheels is of particular importance when non-
reversible chains are used.
During maintenance, chain wheels should be checked for security and wear on
the teeth. Pulleys should be checked for damage and excessive wear on the
walls and on the chain guide section.
The continued efficiency of ball races should also be ascertained.

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Part -66
(a)
End-Connector
(b)
End-Connector (c) Bi-Planer Block

End-Connectors
End-Connector
Figure 298 Typical Chain Assembly Arrangements

M12 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66
Non-Reversible Chains Inspection after Assembly
Non-reversible chains are similar to standard chains except that every second After installation in the aircraft, the chain should be examined for freedom from
outer plate is extended in one direction in order to break up the symmetry of twist, particularly in instances where the attachment is made to threaded rods
the chain. by means of screwed end connectors or where a twist may inadvertently be
The complete system of non-reversibility involves the use of five features: applied to the chain during the locking of the assembly.
S the non-reversible chain Care should also be taken to ensure that the chain is not pulled out of line by
the chain wheel; the chain should engage smoothly and evenly with the wheel
S the shroud on the wheel
teeth and there should be no tendency for the chain to ride up the teeth.
S correct positioning of the wheel on its shaft
The pre-tensioning of chains should not be excessive, as this will cause friction,
S the chain guard but should be just sufficient to prevent any backlash in the system.
S non-reversible connectors. The guarding should be checked to ensure that jamming cannot occur and that
By providing a shroud on one side of the wheel and making use of the chain the chain will not come off the wheel should it become slack.
guard (see illustration opposite), the reversing of the chain end-to-end on its The security of end connections should be checked, care being taken to ensure
wheel is not possible. that split-pins in the chain connecting bolts are correctly locked.
NOTE: A SPECIAL FEATURE, SUCH AS AN ATTACHMENT COLLAR, KEY The lubricant present on new chains should not be removed and the chains
OR FLAT ON THE SHAFT IN CONJUNCTION WITH A SPECIALLY- should be further lubricated after assembly by brushing all over (particularly on
SHAPED HOLE IS INCORPORATED IN THE WHEEL MOUNTING link edges) with lubricant complying with DTD 417A (unless otherwise speci-
TO ENSURE THAT IT CAN BE ASSEMBLED ON ITS SHAFT IN fied).
ONE DEFINITE POSITION ONLY. The wheel or pulley mountings should be examined to ensure that
(See lower illustration opposite) this is an instance where the use of jockeys is S the wheels or pulleys are firmly secured to the shafts or spindles
necessary or where contra-rotation of the wheels is required.
S that they are correctly located and
It can be seen that the feature of non-reversibility does not affect the ability of
S are running freely.
the chain to gear on both sides.

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Part -66
Guard
Connectors
non-interchangeable
Incorrect Assembly Correct Assembly
Mounting on Wheel Y
Stop Piece
Guard
Y
Connectors
non-interchangeable
Guard
Incorrect Correct
Non-Reversible Chain with Jockey Pulley
Figure 299 Non-Reversible Chain Assemblies

M12 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66
Maintenance Inspection Checking Elongation. If elongation through wear is suspected, the following
Chain assemblies should be inspected for serviceability at the periods specified procedure is to be followed:
in the relevant Maintenance Schedule. 1. The chains should be cleaned by immersion in clean paraffin and brushed
Recommended methods for checking chains is as follows: with a stiff brush. After cleaning, they should be immediately dried by hot
air to ensure that no paraffin remains, otherwise corrosion will occur. The
S The continued smoothness of operation between the chain and the chain
chains should be measured when clean but before any oil is applied.
wheel or pulley should be checked. If the chain does not pass freely round
the wheel or pulley, it should be removed and checked (see ’Inspection of 2. The chains should be placed on a flat surface and stretched by the applica-
Chain Assemblies’). tion of a tensile load (see table). The length should then be measured be-
tween the centres of the bearing pins, elongation being calculated by the
S The chain should be checked for wear. If it is worn so that the links are
formula given in the next paragraph.
loose and can be lifted away from the wheel teeth, it should be removed
and checked for excessive elongation (see ’Inspection of Chain Assem-
Chain BS Tensile
blies’).
S The chain should be checked for damage, cleanliness, adequacy of lubrica- Pitch Number Load
tion and freedom from corrosion. If the inspection reveals the chain to be 8mm 1 12 lb
corroded or otherwise defective, it should be replaced.
0.375 in 2 16 lb
S In instances where it becomes necessary to adjust the tension of the chain
in systems incorporating turnbuckles or screwed end connectors, care 0.50 in 4 28 lb
should be taken to ensure that the chain itself is not twisted during adjust- 0.50 in 6 28 lb
ment. The connectors should be held firmly while the locknuts are being
slackened or tightened.
3. The percentage extension over the nominal length should be calculated by
Inspection of Chain Assemblies the following formula:-
General. Chain assemblies should be removed from the aircraft for complete Percentage extension = M - (X x P) x100
inspection at the periods specified in the appropriate Maintenance Schedule. XxP
Removal. When it is necessary to disconnect the chains, the assemblies must M = Measured length under load in inches
be removed at design breakdown points.
X = Number of pitches measured
Checking Articulation. The chain should be checked for tight joints by articu-
P = Pitch of chain in inches.
lating each link through approximately 180o.
4. If the extension is in excess of 2% on any section of the chain the whole
Checking for Deterioration. The chain should be examined for damage, run should be replaced.
cracks and wear to plates and rollers and for evidence of corrosion and pitting.
5. If kinks or twists exist the chain should be rejected.
Proof-Loading. It is not necessary to proof-load a chain after removal for rou-
tine examination. However, if it is desired to replace a portion only of the as- Protection and Storage. After the chain has been cleaned, inspected and
sembly, proof-loading of the complete assembly is necessary. found to be acceptable, it should be thoroughly soaked in an appropriate oil,
time being allowed fro the lubricant to penetrate to the bearing surfaces.
The proof-load table should be evenly applied and, unless this can be assured,
it is considered preferable to fit a complete new assembly. If not required for immediate use, the chain should be laid on a flat surface,
carefully coiled and wrapped in greaseproof paper, care being taken to ensure
the exclusion of dirt and the prevention of distortion, during storage.

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Part -66


M12 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66
INSPECTION OF BELTS, CHAINS AND CABLES (EXAMPLE)

A340 Detailed Visual Inspection of the Trimmable Horizontal Stabilizer
(THS) Mechanical Control Loop.
Inspection
Background
The following is a precis from the Aircraft Maintenance Manual detailing the
The Airbus A340 has a Trimmable Horizontal Stabilizer (THS), which has two inspection of the system belts, chains and cables.
elevators for pitch trim control.The elevators are attached to the trailing edge of
the THS.The THS is attached to the rear fuselage and moves about an axis to 1. Ensure that the following components of the mechanical pitch--trim control
permit pitch trim. loop are in the correct condition:
The hydromechanical operation system of the THS (referred to as THS actua- A. pitch--trim control mechanism
tor) is controlled electrically (by the Flight Control Primary Computers (FCPC)) B. chains and gears of the pitch--trim control mechanism and of the THS
and mechanically. actuator
The THS has a mechanical control system which has the function of a standby C. pulleys
system.The pilots can use two control wheels,which are installed in the cockpit D. cable tension regulator
centre pedestal, to operate the THS mechanically. E. control cables
Cables transmit the mechanical commands from the control wheels to the me- F. THS input shaft.
chanical input shaft of the THS actuator. An override mechanism ensures that
the mechanical pitch trim commands cancel the electronic pitch trim com- WARNING: ENSURE THAT THE FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES ARE
mands. CLEAR; MOVEMENT OF FLIGHT CONTROLS CAN CAUSE
DAMAGE AND/OR PERSONAL INJURY.
2. In the cockpit, slowly turn the pitch trim control wheels from one stop to the
opposite stop.
3. In the avionics compartment, ensure that the toothed belts (View B) have
no cracks, delamination of teeth and no wear marks over the full length.
4. Ensure that the chain and the cable can move freely.

M12 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66
Control
mechanism
Drive
belt
Fwd
THS
control
chain
Figure 300 Location of THS Drive Belts

M12 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66
INSPECTION OF SCREWJACKS (EXAMPLE)

B737 Stabilizer Ball Nut and Jackscrew Inspection.
Examine the parts for wear, using a micrometer or a vernier caliper.
Compare the dimensions with the permitted dimensions shown in Fig. 601.
Replace the parts that are out of tolerance.

M12 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66
Screwjack
Ball nut
Upper
gimbal
Screwjack
gearbox
See view (right)
Lower
gimbal
1. Yoke/bushing
(2 locations) 2. Fitting/pin
(2 locations)
3. Bushing/pin
(2 locations)
Figure 301 B737 Stabilizer Ball Nut and Jackscrew Inspection

M12 TRANSMISSIONS
Part -66
INSPECTION OF GEARS, BACKLASH

Introduction
Backlash is
S the amount by which the width of a tooth space exceeds the thickness of
the engaging tooth on the pitch circles
S the play between mating tooth surfaces at the tightest point of mesh in a B
direction normal to the tooth surface when the gears are mounted in their
specified positions.
The amount of backlash in a pair of mating gears can be affected by:
S changes in centre distance
D
S variance in tooth thickness
S temperature ranges causing differential expansion of the gears and mount- Backlash (B) between two gears
ings.
Definitions
Minimum backlash: occurs when all tolerances give the shortest centre dis-
tance and the thickest teeth at the highest point of pitch line runout.
Maximum backlash: occurs when all tolerances give the greatest centre dis-
tance and the thinnest teeth at the lowest point of pitch line runout.
Backlash Tolerance: the allowable amount of backlash.
Backlash Variation: the difference between the maximum and minimum back-
lash occurring in a whole revolution of the larger of a mating pair of gears.
Purpose of Backlash
The general purpose of backlash is to prevent gears from jamming and making
contact on both sides of their teeth simultaneously. A small amount of backlash
is also desirable to provide for lubricant space and differential expansion be-
tween the gear components and the housing.

On the other hand, excessive backlash is objectionable, particularly if the drive
is frequently reversing or if there is an overrunning load.
Backlash Checks
Checks of backlash are normally carried out in the workshop on components
once they have been removed from the aircraft.

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Part -66
Bevel gears are pri- Spur gears are the most

marily used to transfer commonly used gear type.
power between inter- They are characterized by
secting shafts. teeth which are perpen-
dicular to the face of the
Bevel Gear gear.
Spur Gear
Helical gears are similar

to the spur gear except
that the teeth are at an Worm gears are spe-
angle to the shaft, rather cial gears that re-
than parallel to it as in a semble screws, and

spur gear. can be used to drive
Helical gears may be spur gears or helical
used to mesh two shafts gears.
Helical Gear
that are not parallel, al-
though they are still pri- Worm Gear
marily use in parallel shaft
applications.
Figure 302 Types of Gear

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Part -66


M7.13 CONTROL CABLES
Part -66
M 7.13 CONTROL CABLES


Part -66
CABLE LINES (GENERAL)
Cable lines have advantages over other mechanical actuators, such as

linkages, shafts and chains, predominantly weight-saving.
Cable lines are used in many applications and can be routed into almost every
space via guiding pulleys or deflector rolls.
Handling, checking, adjustment and stretching are relatively easy.
Cables used in airplane construction normally consist of individual cable wires
with a minimum tensile strength of 1200N/mm2 at a breaking elongation of 2 or
7%.
The steel wires are twisted into strands and these are twisted into cables. Nor-
mally the wires are twisted in one direction and strands the opposite.
The number of steel wires in one strand and the number of strands in one
cable are the result of the following calculation:
S 3/32 - 7x7
or
S 1/8 - 7x19
In this calculation the fractional numbers stand for the diameter of the cable
(inch).
The first figure tells you that the cable consists of 7 strands and the last figure
tells you how many steel wires there are in a strand.

Part -66
Figure 303 Build-Up of Cables

Part -66
INSPECTION OF CABLES
All cables in an aircraft, especially control cables, require careful inspection at Note: the number of permissible worn wires in a same one--inch (25.4 mm)
regular intervals in order to ensure their satisfactory function and serviceability length of cable is decreased by one wire for every broken wire.
at all times. A maximum of two one--inch (25.4 mm) lengths of cable with wear (within the
(Extract from Airbus A340 AMM) limits specified above) is permissible on the total length of the cable (between
the two cable terminals) on the condition that the wear is not on two consecu-
Check of Control Cables and Pulleys tive one--inch (25.4 mm) lengths of cable.
If a wire is worn to more than 60 % of its diameter, you must call it a broken
WARNING: WEAR GLOVES WHEN YOU TOUCH THE CABLES.
wire.
BROKEN STRANDS CAN INJURE YOU.
3. Internal cable wear.
1. Check for broken wires.
A. In some areas (for example around pulleys and quadrants) the cable
A. The very important areas where the wires can break are the lengths of
can wear internally more than it wears externally. To find such wear,
the cable that go through fairleads and around pulleys.
move the strands apart to examine the cable internally.
B. Examine the cables. Ensure that there are no broken wires. To do this:
4. Corrosion.
-- move a cloth along the cable, in two directions.
Note: Corrosion of cables specially occurs in these areas:
-- If the cloth catches on the cable:
S battery compartments
S make a visual inspection to find the broken wires.
S toilets
-- The permitted limits for the cables with broken wires are:
S landing gear wells
S for class 7 x 19 cable, 6 broken wires in a same one--inch (25.4 mm)
S other areas where fumes, vapours and liquids that can cause corrosion can
length of cable with not more than 3 broken wires for each strand.
collect.
S for class 7 x 7 cable, 3 broken wires in a same one--inch (25.4 mm)
A. If a cable has a broken wire in a length that does not touch airframe
length of cable with not more than 2 broken wires for each strand.
components which can make it wear (pulleys, fairleads etc):
Note: there must not be broken wires in two consecutive one--inch (25.4 mm)
-- carefully examine the cable. Ensure that it has no corrosion.
lengths of cable.
For the lengths of cables which can touch pulleys or go through fairleads and -- If necessary, remove the cable. Bend the cable to make sure that the
pressure seals, not more than 3 broken wires is permitted. internal strands do not have corrosion.
2. Check of the external wear of the cable. B. If you find surface corrosion:
A. Make a visual inspection of the cables, especially the lengths that can -- loosen the cable,
touch pulleys, fairleads or pressure seals. Ensure that they are not -- make a full inspection of the inner strands.
worn. C. Discard the cable if you find corrosion on the inner strands.
-- The permitted wear limits in a same one--inch (25.4 mm) length of cable D. If you find light surface corrosion, remove it and protect the cable again.
are:
S for class 7 x 19 cable, a maximum of 6 wires worn to 50% or more of
their diameter
S for class 7 x 7 cable, a maximum of 3 wires worn to 50% or more of
their diameter, if there are no broken wires.

Part -66
Individual outer wires worn more than 50%
Individual outer wires worn 40--50%

(note blending of worn areas)
Individual outer wires worn less than 40%

(worn areas individually distinguishable)
Figure 304 Cable Inspection (A320)

Part -66
INSPECTION OF PULLEYS
(Extract from Airbus A340 AMM)
1. Examine pulleys for cracked edges, signs of incorrect wear in the bottom of
the groove, cracked hub, excessive play.
2. Examine the pulleys while in operation:
S ensure that the pulleys turn freely
S ensure that the cable does not skid in the groove.
3. Ensure that the eccentricity agrees with the values shown in this table:
Max. Eccentricity Max. Eccentricity

Pulley Small Diameter
at Top of Groove at Bottom of Groove
Less than or equal to

0.011 in.(0.30 mm) 0.005 in.(0.15 mm)
1.181 in.(30 mm)
From 30 mm to less
0.015 in.(0.40 mm) 0.007 in.(0.20 mm)
than 3.149 in. (80 mm)
More than or equal to

0.019 in.(0.50 mm) 0.007 in.(0.20 mm)
3.149 in.(80 mm)
4. Inspection of pulley wobble

A. Do a wobble check at each turn of the pulley.
S For pulley with a diameter less than 80 mm (3.1496 in.), the wobble must
not be more than 0.25 mm (0.0098 in.).

S For pulleys with a diameter of 80 mm (3.1496 in.) or more, the wobble must
not be more than 0.30 mm (0.0118 in.).

Part -66
Pulley flanges
Cable tension too high Badly-aligned pulleys
Pulley flange
Pulley too big for the cable diameter Badly-aligned cable

Jammed pulley Normal pulley wear
Figure 305 Pulley Inspection (AMM A320)

Part -66
ROLLING ON TERMINALS
Description of Tools
Equipment for rolling on terminals consists of
S Several sets of rolling discs
S Several sets of “Swaging Rolls“ for balls
S A caliper gauge for terminals
S A caliper gauge for balls
S Allen key for the screws of the rolling disc mountings.
Rolling discs for terminals and balls are made for several cable diameters and
are marked accordingly.
“LOWER“ is the designation for the rolling disc with two pins.
“UPPER“ is the designation for the rolling disk with two holes.
When the expanding machine is placed on the two shanks, the “LOWER“ disc
is down and the “UPPER“ disc is up.
NOTE: IT IS IMPORTANT TO POSITION THESE DISCS CORRECTLY.
TRANSPOSING THEM WILL RESULT IN THE TRANSITION AT
THE SLEEVE OF THE TERMINAL BEING SHARP-EDGED, WHICH
IS NOT PERMITTED UNDER ANY CIRCUMSTANCES.
After the rolling discs have been installed on the support shaft of the expanding
machine, they are mounted with discs and bolts.
The rolling disc with two pins can only be turned counter--clockwise. When the
shanks of the machine are moved away from each other, the rolling discs will
not turn.
When the shanks are pressed together, the rolling discs move in opposite di-
rections via a pair of gear wheels with a ratchet.
The shanks are opened and closed until the sleeve of the terminal has rounded
the circumference of the rolling disc.

Part -66
Figure 306 Hand-Operated Rolling Tool

Part -66
ROLLING OF SLEEVE TERMINALS

Roll on a sleeve terminal as follows:
S Check the sleeve diameter of the terminal using the caliper gauge. The ter-
minal sleeve must fit into the respective test hole of the gauge marked
“SLEEVES“. The ball must fit into the test hole marked “BALLS“. The cable
diameters are marked on the gauge at the respective holes.
S Select and clean the rolling discs suitable for the respective cable diameter.
S Install the rolling disc with the two pins and the inscription “LOWER“ in the
lower support shaft, and the rolling disc with the inscription “UPPER“ and
the two holes in the upper support shaft of the expanding machine. Fix both
discs with the washers and screws.
S Install the guide.
S Make sure that the correct adapter for the cable diameter is installed.
NOTE: THE CABLE DIAMETER IS INDICATED AT THE FRONT OF THE
ADAPTER. MOVE A SHORT PART OF THE CABLE INTO THE
TERMINAL AND BEND IT. THE END OF THE CABLE WILL BE
TIGHT WHEN COMPLETELY PUSHED INTO THE TERMINAL.

Part -66
Figure 307 Inserting Cable in Terminal

Part -66
S Mark the cable which has been completely inserted into the terminal at the
end of the sleeve of the terminal with chalk or tape in order to indicate if the
cable slips out.
S Turn the rolling discs into the starting position, using the two pins.
S Press the terminal against the conical guide of the adapter and clamp the
cable into the clip at the guiding-device.
S Push the guiding device with the terminal into the starting position for the
rolling procedure.
S Turn the rolling discs using the two pins until the terminal is clamped.
CAUTION: IT IS NOT PERMITTED TO PERFORM MORE THAN FOUR
ROLLING SEQUENCES. EXCESSIVE ROLLING CAUSES
BRITTLENESS AND HARDENING OF THE MATERIAL OF
THE TERMINAL.
S Perform the rolling procedure quickly.
S After the first operational sequence, a rolling mark will appear on the sleeve
of the terminal. Turn the terminal about 90o to compensate for this rolling
mark and perform a second operational sequence as described. After the
second operational sequence, the terminal sleeve must not show deep im-
pressions.
S Check the diameter of the terminal sleeve with the caliper gauge as de-
scribed. A slight rolling mark is permitted. The diameter of this rolling mark
must not exceed the sleeve diameter by more than 0.010 in.
S If the diameter of the sleeve terminal has not been tapered sufficiently, a
third operation sequence must be carried out. For this you must rotate the
terminal through 90o.
S In case a fourth operation sequence is necessary, the terminal must be
turned about 90o again.

Part -66
Figure 308 Gauging Terminal Shank After Swaging

Part -66
INSPECTION OF MANUFACTURED CABLE LINES

Tools: Cable Terminal Pull Tester AT520CT Cable Terminal Pull Tester
Check manufactured cable lines according to the following instructions: Rolled-on balls and terminals are checked for sufficient tensile strength by us-
S Check final dimensions ing the Cable Terminal Pull Tester.
S Check terminals for specified diameters (use caliper gauge of the terminal The Pull Tester consists of a vice with steel cheeks with inserted copper
expanding machine) cheeks and a gauge. When, for instance, a 1/8“ cable and terminal are
checked, you must first select the correct copper cheeks. These must then be
S Visual check of the terminals
inserted into the steel cheeks.
S Use magnifying glass (6x magnification). There must be no cracks, notches
The correct swivel for the terminal must be selected. The cable with the swivel
or abrupt changes in cross-section.
is attached to the test device. The copper cheeks are tightened with two clamp-
S Check satisfactory stability of connection. ing screws to the extent that the cable cannot slacken under the test load.
All connections between cable and terminal must be subjected to a test of their By turning a hexagon head screw, the cable is tightened with hydraulic power.
tensile strength. In this check, you must evenly apply the respective test pull
The scale of the indicating device shows the load in pounds. The scale has
force (given in a table), observing the specific speed with which the tension
load marks for the respective cable diameter. If not, you must refer to a test
may be increased.
table.
You must also observe the duration over which the full test pull force is allowed
After one or two minutes the pointer has to be returned to the load mark. The
to be applied.
full test load should be applied for 5 seconds. Then take off the tension slowly
Note: If a slippage between cable and terminal is indicated during this test (by and evenly.
means of marks that have been applied to the cable before the test), the con-
nection is not stable enough. This cable line has to be either discarded or the
cable can be used for shorter cable lines after the terminals have been cut off.
If the test is performed without slippage, the connection is considered as satis-
factory.

Part -66
Figure 309 Pull Tester AT520CT

Part -66
CABLE TIGHTENING AND MEASURING TENSION CABLE TENSIOMETER

Installed cable lines have to be tightened to a certain tension depending on The cable tensiometer is a precision instrument designed for rigging control
their location and purpose. A newly-manufactured cable that is delivered by the cables.
meter, coiled on a reel, would increase its length under load. This is the reason The entire operation of testing cable tension can be done with one hand. The
why it is necessary to preload the cables before they are made into cable lines. size of the instrument permits entry through small openings, so that cables in
The pre-stretch load equals the test load and can be found in the respective confined areas can be tested and its tension read.
table of the manual. The tension applied has to be done with a steady speed. The tensiometer must be handled as a precision instrument, and calibrated
The load must be applied for 5 minutes. annually to ensure that the indications are correct.
The cable is only allowed to be preloaded when it is not bent. In the case of CAUTION:
cables longer than 30m, the cable may be preloaded over a movable guide
Before the tensiometer is used, be sure the correct riser is mounted on the in-
pulley.
strument for the size cable to be tested.
Correct tension is essential because loose cables cannot transfer control sig-
This information is given on the calibration card in the instrument carrying case.
nals. Loose cables can also lock and thus endanger the airplane and occu-
pants. The tensiometer should be operated as follows :
Cables with excessive tension are also undesirable in airplanes. They can S Move the trigger away from the case as far as possible and place the instru-
damage pulleys and support structure etc. ment on the cable with sectors resting against the cable. Tension should not
be taken next to a terminal end or turnbuckle, as an inaccurate reading
When the cable tension is adjusted, the ambient temperature is important. In
could result.
flight, temperatures may vary to a high extent between the ground temperature
at the departure airport, the ambient temperatures during flight and the temper- S Close the trigger with the fingers of the hand in which the instrument is held.
ature at the destination. Do not twist or pull; this may cause a false reading. Do not let the trigger
snap against the case, as this may also give a false reading. The tension
Large differences in tensions are created, because the airplane is manufac-
should be checked three or four times, moving the instrument slightly along
tured from aluminium alloy and the cables are made from steel. The tension
the cable.
values to be adjusted for the individual aircraft types are therefore specified in
the respective AMMs. If the dial is visible, take the reading and then disengage the instrument by
moving the trigger away from the case.
The cable is tightened by turning a turnbuckle. A spring wire clip has to be in-
serted into the barrel hole of the terminals to prevent the terminals from turning If the dial cannot be seen, the pointer is locked in position by pushing the small
with the cable. The side of the left-hand thread of the turnbuckle is marked by a brake lever rod at the top left of the case forward. The pointer is unlocked by
groove. returning the brake rod to its original position.
CAUTION: NEVER LOCK THE BRAKE LEVER ROD UNTIL THE

INSTRUMENT IS CLAMPED ON THE CABLE OR A FALSE
READING MAY RESULT.
The gauge is not marked in specific units. Convert the dial reading to ten-
sion in pounds by referring to the calibration chart attached to the lid of the car-
rying case. For example, the dial reads 59 on the 1/16 inch cable and is con-
verted to 150 pound tension by referring to the calibration chart.

Part -66
Figure 310 Cable Tensionmeter Reading

Part -66
CONTROL CABLES
Introduction
Manually-operated remote controls are installed in aircraft to operate, from the
flight deck, such components as trim tabs, brake control valves and engine
controls.
They can also be adapted for other uses such as the indication of landing gear
movements, position of flaps etc.
Remote Control Methods
Chains, sprockets, pulleys, cable, levers and rods are used for remote control,
but advantage may be gained by the use of a cable and conduit since the con-
trol can be bent to pass through the structure.
Cable and Conduit
Cable and conduit is relatively lightweight and installation is simple compared
with other methods of remote control.
Teleflex and Bowden are typical methods of cable and conduit control, in
which each system consists primarily of a cable passing through a covering
(conduit) fitted with appropriate end fittings.
In principle, if the conduit is bent, a pull on the cable will tend to straighten the
conduit, but because of the natural stiffness and the fact that the ends of the
conduit are fixed, straightening is prevented.

Part -66
Straight-Lead
Single-Entry Junction Box 90o Double-Entry
Unit
Unit Unit
Rotary Movement
Not Exceeding 90o Anti-Torsion
Tube
Clamp Block
Nipple-Type Con-
Swivel Joint nector
Sliding End
Quick-Break
Fitting
Unit
Spent Travel Tube

Clamp-Type Con-
180o Double-
nector
Entry Unit
Teleflex
Figure 311 Typical Remote Control System

Part -66
TELEFLEX CONTROLS
Cables Conduits
The cable consists of a tension wire wound either with a continuous left- or The rigid conduits normally used in aircraft are of light alloy, although steel and
right-hand helix winding which engages with the teeth of gear wheels at the tungum conduits are used for special purposes. It may be bent in smooth
transmitting and receiving ends of the control run. curves to radii of not less than 3 inches.
The helix winding may also be used as a thread by which various end fittings Where there is relative movement between conduit and component, flexible
can be attached to the cable. conduit may be fitted, but to avoid backlash only the minimum length should be
The cable is designed for transmitting both pull and push. used. Flexible conduit may be bent to a radius of not less than 9 inches.
There are two types of cable in use: NOTE: SUPPORT MUST BE GIVEN TO BENT PORTIONS OF THE CON-
1. No 2 Cable. This cable is built up from a high-tensile steel wire which is DUIT, BUT CLAMP BLOCKS, SPACED 3 FT APART, SHOULD BE
wound with a compression winding. The latter is wound with a left-hand USED TO SECURE STRAIGHT PORTIONS TO THE AIRFRAME.
helix winding which is pitch-spaced by a spacer winding. The cable is 3/16“
Sliding End Fittings
diameter.
These are used where it is not necessary to convert the pull-push movement of
2. No 380 Cable. This cable is built up from a high-tensile steel wire which is
the cable into a rotary movement; they are used in lieu of wheel units.
wound direct with a right-hand helix winding and spacer winding. In this
method of construction there is improved efficiency and a reduction in back- Various types of sliding end fitting are available, each comprising a guide tube
lash, particularly when the cable is under compression. The cable is 3/16“ terminating in a fork, eye, ball joint or an internal or external threaded fitting.
diameter. The cable is attached to the end fitting by means of a special collet attachment
or by means of a lock spring and plug.
NOTE: BECAUSE OF THE DIFFERENCE IN THE LAY OF THE CABLES
(LEFT-HAND AND RIGHT-HAND) THEY ARE NOT INTERCHANGE-
ABLE.
EG A No 2 CABLE MUST BE USED WITH A No 2 TRANSMITTING
UNIT.

Part -66
Ball Ends
Compression Helix Spacer

Winding Winding Winding
End screwed
to take fitting
Tension Spacer Tension Helix

Wire Winding Wire Winding
Ball and
socket end
No 2 Cable No 380 Cable
Eye end
(fork joint)
Fork end
Figure 312 Types of Teleflex Cable and Typical Sliding End Fittings
Part -66
End Fittings 5. Junction Box Unit. These are installed where it is necessary to reverse
The transmitting end of a control is usually fitted with a wheel unit consisting of the direction of travel of the control cables, or to branch a run of cable so
a hand-operated gear wheel enclosed in a casing. as to operate two components (eg on both port and starboard sides of the
aircraft).
Alternatively, where the control loading is light and the control run fairly straight,
In one type the box contains a gear wheel and provision is made for two
a pull-push operating handle can be used.
cables to pass through the box, one on either side of the gear wheel. The
At the remote end, the cable operates an appropriate wheel unit or is coupled, gear wheel may be rotated to move both cables, or one cable may operate
by means of a sliding end fitting, direct to the actuating mechanism on the com- the gear wheel which in turn operates the other cable.
ponent being controlled.
6. Swivel Joints. This can be installed where rotary movement of the control
Swivel joints are also provided to take up the angular movement of an actaut- lever at the receiving end does not exceed 90o. This type of joint consists
ing lever at the end of a control run. of a ball and socket connection inside a housing attached to the end of the
1. Single-Entry Unit. In this wheel unit the cable enters the unit by means of rigid conduit. The housing must be rigidly secured to the aircraft structure.
a conduit connector and is led into a slot in the gear wheel. The rotary The ball is welded to a length of tubing of the same size as the conduit. A
travel of the unit is limited to 270o of travel of the gear wheel and a mini- suitable sliding end fitting is attached to the end of the control cable so that
mum of 40o engagement must be maintained at all times between the gear the guide tube slides freely over the swivel joint tube.
wheel teeth and the cable.
2. Double-Entry Unit. Where greater travel than can be obtained with a
single-entry unit is required, a double-entry unit may be used. In this wheel
unit the cable enters the unit by means of a conduit connector and, after
wrapping round the gear wheel, emerges via another conduit connector at
a point 90o, 120o or 180o from the point of entry.
The end of the cable that emerges from the unit may be accommodated in
a short length of conduit known as a spent travel tube.
3. Anti-Torsion Tube. It is sometimes necessary to prevent the control cable
from turning in the conduit and so altering the relative adjustment. This is
done by installing an oval-sectioned anti-torsion tube in place of a spent
travel tube. This tube serves as a guide to an oval ferrule secured to the
spent travel end of the cable.
4. Straight-Lead Unit. In this unit the cable passes straight through and con-
sequently engages on only a few teeth of the gear wheel. Therefore, these
units are not suitable for heavily-loaded controls. It can be interposed in a
control run or fitted at the transmitting or receiving ends of a control.

Part -66
Gear
Cable
Wheel
Cable
Lock
Conduit
Nut
Conduit
Connector
Attachment Coil Return Spring

(Lock Spring) (Optional)
Single-Entry Double-Entry Pull-Push

Unit Unit Control Unit
Conduit Ball End

Connector (welded to
Conduit
Nipple conduit)
Body Bearing
Spring Circlip
Swivel Joint
Straight Lead Junction Box
Unit Unit
Figure 313 Teleflex System Components

Part -66
End Fittings (cont’d)
7. Torsion Drive. In certain installations the final linear movement of the con-
trol is converted to rotary action by the use of a distributor box coupled, via
a torsion drive, to the component to be operated. The torsion drive is simi-
lar to a normal flexible drive.
8. Distributor Box. This is similar in construction to a receiver unit with a
gear wheel attached to the face of the cable gear wheel. The attached gear
wheel drives a pinion on a cross shaft which engages with one or two
tongue ends of the torsion drive cable.
To convert the rotary motion of the torsion drive to the linear movement of a
trimming tab, a sprocket-driven screw jack may be used.
To prevent vibration from affecting the setting of a wheel unit control, or to
lock the control in any position, a damping device may be fitted. This device
consists of a spring-loaded friction plate pressed against the gear wheel.

Part -66
Cable
Distributor Screw
Box Jack
Torsion
Drive
Figure 314 Teleflex Distributor Box and Torsion Drive

Part -66
Conduit Connectors Servicing
Some conduit connectors are similar in construction to all-metal pipe couplings Servicing of the control system consists of checking its operation, examining
without an olive. The standard nipple-type connector consists of a screwed for wear and damage, renewing defective parts and periodical lubrication.
nipple that is threaded onto a rigid conduit, before the conduit is flared. The Stiff control movement may be caused by the following:
nipple is then screwed into a wheel unit or conduit connector body, thus retain-
ing the conduit secure against a shoulder in the internally-threaded connection
hole.
Probable Cause Remedy
Another type of conduit connector, termed a clamp connector, consists of a
split block bored out to house the unflared ends of a conduit. The conduit is (a) Flexible type - renew complete
gripped by tightening two clamping bolts, and is located by two bifurcated pins. conduit.
Damaged conduit.
(b) Rigid type - cut out damaged
Quick-Break Units portion and renew.
Quick-break units of various types are installed in control runs to facilitate re- Kinked cable. Renew cable.
moval of components without disturbing the control. The cable joining fittings
are similar in all types of quick-break unit and consists of rods machined with Dismantle end fittings and remove
interlocking slotted ends attached to the ends of the cables. the cable from the conduit.
Lack of lubricant in conduit.
Smear the cable with high-altitude
grease and re-assemble.
Remove sliding tube from end of
cable and test for freedom.
Bent sliding end fitting. If stiff, fit new parts.
Check alignment of swivel joint (if
fitted).
Fouling between end fitting and
Renew damaged parts and reset the
airframe due to damage or faulty
assembly.
installation.
Worn wheel unit gear wheel, allowing
Renew wheel unit.
cable to override.
Dismantle, clean, assemble and test.

Jammed swivel joint.
If unsatisfactory, renew swivel joint.

Part -66
Conduit Tecalemit Lock Pins

Conduit Conduit
Connector Nipple
Connector Clamp
Nipple Nipple
Conduit Body Conduit
Clamp Connector Bolts

Nipple-Type Connector
Clamp-Type Connector
Conduit Conduit Connector

Cover Plate
Interlocking Rods Body
Typical Quick-Break Unit
Figure 315 Teleflex Conduit Connectors

Part -66
Teleflex System Installation
1. Conduit. Rigid conduit must be clean, free from dents and deformations 4. Cable. The cable must be kept clean, free from kinks and well lubricated. If
and reasonably straight. When renewing a conduit, never use conduit that dirty, it may be cleaned in kerosine, wiped dry with a non--fluffy cloth and re
has been previously bent for some other part of the system. After fitting the lubricated. A cable that has been damaged, strained or over heated, must
cable in the conduit, it should be possible to work the cable backwards and be renewed.
forwards by hand. If this is not possible, the run of conduit has not been The method of fitting a new cable is as follows:
installed properly. A. Assemble the conduit in position.
Damage to rigid conduit may be repaired by inserting a new length of con-
B. Cut the cable 2 inches in excess of requirements.
duit and making the connection by use of a connector. Bending, if neces-
sary, should be done by use of a bending machine, or by using a special C. Fit the cable into the unit and engage with the transmitting end fitting.
hand bender. Flexible conduit, if damaged, must be completely renewed. D. Assemble the receiving end fitting and mark the required length of
2. Conduit Connectors. When tightening a nipple type connector, two span- cable.
ners should be used to prevent twisting of the conduit. If there is any end E. Remove the cable from the conduit and cut to length.
play between the conduit and the body of the connector after tightening, F. Replace the cable and, at the same time, smear the cable with high alti-
dismantle the connection and check the flare on the conduit; flaring of a tude grease as it enters the conduit.
conduit should be done only with the special flaring tool provided.
G. Connect the cable to the end fittings and check for freedom of move-
When fitting a clamp type connector, the ends of the two lengths of conduit
ment and range of movement.
must be square and unflared. To fit the connector, remove the locking pins
and slacken off the clamping bolts. Slide the two lengths of conduit into the H. Ensure that all fittings are in safety and correctly locked. Lubricate, as
connector and ensure that the ends butt centrally in the transverse slot, necessary.
then tighten up the clamping bolts. Insert a drill of the correct size through 5. Sliding End Fitting. To attach the cable to a sliding end fitting, unscrew
the locking pin holes. Operate the drill which will cut half way through the the hexagon plug, screw the locknut right back and pass the cable through
wall of the conduit. Insert the bifurcated locking pins and open out their the plug, then proceed as follows:
legs. The correct size drill is 3/32 in dia for No. 2 and No. 3 conduits. A. Screw the lock spring on to the end of the cable, so that about 3/16 in
3. Wheel Units. To fit the cable into the single entry unit, tuck it into the slot in (two threads) of cable projects through the spring.
the gear wheel and ensure that the cable helix engages with the gear wheel B. Insert the cable end, with its lock spring, into the bore of the end fitting
teeth to give a wrap of at least 40o. On double entry units, the cable should and screw the plug tight down. During this operation the end fitting must
engage with the gear wheel correctly and project through the lead out hole be prevented from rotating.
throughout the travel of the control. Ensure that the cable end, when fully
C. Check that the free end of the cable is beyond the inspection hole, but
extended, does not foul the blanked end of the spent travel tube. All wheel
not beyond the fork gap (fork end fittings only). If satisfactory, position
units should be packed with high altitude grease.
the tab washer, tighten the locknut and lock with the tab washer.
D. Check the distance from the face of the bore to the sliding tube which
should not exceed 0.45 inches. This ensures that the lock spring is
tightly compressed.

Part -66
Cable
Inspection Hole Tabwasher

Lockspring Swivel Tube
Locknut
Outer Sliding
Tube
Plug Permanently Secured to Tube
Forked-End Type
Figure 316 Assembly of Teleflex Sliding End Fitting

Part -66
BOWDEN CONTROLS
Cable
This short run, lightly--loaded type of control has a cable made of non corrod-
ible steel wire, which. is designed for ”pull” operation only. The return action is
provided by a spring.
Conduit
The conduit consists of a close coil wire, covered with cotton braiding and fin-
ished with a black waterproof coating. Caps are fitted on each end of the con-
duit to prevent the braiding from unravelling and to reinforce the end of the con-
duit. On some installations, rigid conduit is used to house the cable over
straight runs.
Cable Nipples
When a control assembly is made up, the ends of the cable are threaded
through brass nipples which are soldered or swaged to the cable.
End Fittings
Various types of end fitting and connector are provided, each installation being
designed to meet a specific requirement. Normally, the transmitting end of a
control is fitted with a hand lever which engages with the nipple on one end of
the cable. At the remote end, the cable passes through an adjustable stop and
is connected to the component operating lever. To return the hand lever to the
normal position after operation, the system is spring loaded either at the trans-
mitting or receiving end of the control run.
Hand Lever
A typical hand lever is illustrated. If it is necessary to dismantle an existing con-
trol or to fit a new cable, unscrew the adjustment to slacken the cable, then
rotate the nipple and slide the nipple and cable sideways to pass the cable
through the end fitting slot.

Part -66
Trunnion Plain
Waterproofing Cotton Braiding Coiled Wire Spherical
Cap Cable
Cable and Conduit
Types of Nipple
Spade Grip Hand Lever
Nipple
Cable
Stop Cap
Conduit
Parking Catch
Typical Hand Lever
Figure 317 Bowden Control Components 1

Part -66
Adjustment Stop
The remote end of the cable usually passes through a plain stop and is at-
tached to the component by the cable nipple. The plain stops, which may be
fitted to both ends of the conduit, consist of hexagon headed screws drilled to
allow the cable to pass through. The head of each screw is counterbored to
receive the protective cap fitted over the end of the conduit.
When the stop is fitted to the remote end of the conduit, it is mounted in a Tee
barrel, which must be securely fixed to a rigid member of the airframe. Where it
is inconvenient to fit plain stops at the ends of the conduit, a double ended stop
may be fitted in the length of the conduit.
The stops also enable the length of the conduit to be adjusted, thus altering the
tension of the cable.
Connectors
Two types of connector are used. The cable connector is used for joining two
cables only and cannot be employed where a conduit is fitted. It is also used
for joining a length of Bowden cable to a cable of a different type, such as may
be used for long straight runs. The control connector is used for joining two
Bowden controls, as illustrated.
Junction Box
A junction box is used for connecting a single cable to two others where there
are two components to be operated by a single control or where one compo-
nent is operated by two controls.

Part -66
Locknut
Adjustment Stop Tee-Barrel
Adjustment End Safety Hole Cap Cable
Locknut Note: thread of adjustment Conduit

end must cover safety hole
Double-Ended Stop
Adjustable Stop
and Tee-Barrel
Cable Con-
nector
Barrel Connecting Conduits Slider Connecting Cables
Cap
One cable entering operates two cables
leaving (for spring-return controls)
Typical Junction Box Cable

Conduit
Control
Connector
Figure 318 Bowden Control Components 2

Part -66
Installation
1. Conduit.The conduit must be clean, free from kinks or distortion and not 4. Renewing a Control. When a cable or conduit is to be renewed, the faulty
damaged. If damaged, the conduit must be renewed. Any bends in the con- component should be used as a guide to the length required for the new
duit should be as large as possible. The minimum radius of bend is twelve part. The conduit may be cut to the exact length required, but it is advisable
times the diameter of the conduit. to leave the cable rather longer than necessary, because it simplifies the
Where the cable is connected to a lever, the alignment should be such that fitting of the cable.
the centre line of the conduit is in a straight line through the mid position of The method of fitting a new cable is as follows:
the rise and fall of the arc of travel of the lever. A. a nipple to one end of the cable. Lubricate the cable.
If this adjustment is not made, the cable may rub on the edge of the stop
B. Thread the adjustable stop over the cable and slide on the conduit mak-
and be worn away.
ing sure that the protective caps are fitted at each end. If required,
When the conduit has been correctly aligned, the Tee barrel forming the
thread on a second adjustment stop.
adjustable stop mounting must be securely locked in this position. This is
important as, should the Tee barrel swivel, the control will be distorted. The C. Fix the control temporarily in position on the aircraft along the route it is
control should be attached to the airframe by pliable clips. For controls lon- to follow.
ger than 2 ft., the conduit should be supported every 12 in. The conduit of a D. Make sure that the stops are at their minimum length and that the part
Bowden control should never be in tension. to be operated is in the normal position, then slide the other nipple on to
2. Cable. Care must be taken when handling the cable to avoid kinking it, as the cable. Pull the cable taut and, with a lead pencil, mark off the correct
this will cause the cable to work harshly in the conduit. The cable must be position for the nipple.
clean, free from fraying or corrosion and lubricated with graphited synthetic E. the control from the aircraft, cut the cable to length and solder the sec-
grease applied at room temperature (60-70oF.) The grease must be well ond nipple in position.
rubbed into the interstices of the cable. F. Fix the control correctly in the aircraft. Adjust the stops until all slack in
3. Servicing. The control should be inspected periodically as follows: the cable is taken up and then tighten the locknuts.
A. Inspect the cable ends for fraying or other damage. Frayed cables must
be renewed.
B. Inspect the conduit for kinks and signs of wear, especially at bends and
at the ends.
C. If there is any slackness in the cable, screw out the conduit adjustment
stops until the slackness disappears. After adjustment, make sure that
all components are still in safety and securely locked.
D. Operate the control lever over its full range and ensure that the spring
returns the lever freely and smoothly to its stop.
E. Check the security and locking of mountings and clips.

Part -66


Part -66


M7.14.MATERIAL HANDLING
M7.14.1 SHEET METAL Part -66
M7.14 MATERIAL HANDLING

M7.14.1 SHEET METAL

GENERAL
Introduction
Material can be bent in the “as received” or “heat treated” condition. For mate-
rial to be bent in the “as received” as well as in the “heat treated” condition,
refer to the SRM chapter 51.
NOTE: All tools used for the bending process must be free from scratches,
burrs, etc.
CAUTION: Do not bend painted sheet material, as bending will destroy its protec-
tion.
The following data is necessary to calculate the correct dimensions of a repair
component:
S sheet thickness (T),
S bend radius (R),
S bend allowance (V).
NOTE: The minimum bend radius is related to the material specification and
sheet thickness.
Bending Process
Bending a strip compresses the material on the inside of the curve and
stretches the material on the outside of the curve. The smaller the radius bend
and the thicker the metal, the greater the expansion will be.
The degree of expansion varies from metal to metal. It is dependent on the
kind of alloy, the temper condition or tensile property of the material.
A material which has, for example, an ultimate strain of 20% may only be bent
to a level below 20%, whereas the risk of fracture increases when approaching
the ultimate strain limit.
Example:
Material with an ultimate strain of 22%.
The drawing illustrates the expansion of the outer fibres in comparison with the
neutral fibres when bent at 90_.
Because the ultimate strength can be strongly reduced by notching the edges
and surface of the material (fracture during bending or latent tendency to
break), it is necessary to deburr and polish the edges of the part to be bent.
The surfaces should always be protected against any kind of damage. Mark-
ings should only be made with a soft pencil.

T 1
1
R3
R1
B a b
R
Neutral Fibres Neutral Fibres

L
Outer Fibres Outer fibres
(expansion approx. 48%) (expansion approx. 17%)
A+B = Flange Width

L = Developed Length
T = Sheet Thickness Material theoretically broken Below ultimate strain
Figure 319 Bend Radius

BENDING PROCESS
Bending Process (Continued)
The ultimate strength of the material varies according to the grain direction.
There is a higher ultimate strength in the direction of the grain, therefore an
acute--angled bend should always be at right--angles to the grain. The direction
of the rolled grooves is usually the same as the grain direction. Bending should
be performed at right--angles to this direction.
In practice, the minimum radius of bend which can guarantee a crack--free de-
formation cross wise and longitudinally to the grain direction should be taken
from the respective table in the appropriate manual. These values are valid for
various aluminium and steel alloys in aircraft construction.
Because the ability to elongate can decrease by increasing deformation (risk of
fractures by further deformation) it is necessary to check if heat treatment
would bring back the ultimate strength.
It is advisable to perform straight line bending at a constant and moderate
speed to enable the material to flow.

LONGITUDINAL
DIRECTION
SHEET METAL
ROLLED GROVES
Figure 320 Bending Process

FLAT-LAYOUT CALCULATION
Defining the Flat Layout of the Material
Because the material is shaped round--edged and not square--edged, the
length of the material is reduced by a certain amount.
The reduction in size can be determined by test--bending or by applying a cer-
tain equation.
Example of Test-Bending
1. Cut a piece of material which is the same in substance and thickness to a
certain measurement, eg 100mm.
2. Straight--line bend the material with the intended radius at any point to an
angle of 90_ using the machine which will be employed for the actual work
later.
3. Now measure the outer lengths at the bent strip by using a caliper gauge
and add the sums together.
4. Subtract the original length of 100mm from this sum and the result is the
amount that the material has apparently extended (around the radius).
NOTE: IN ORDER TO ACHIEVE THE DESIRED MEASUREMENT FOR
A 90_ BEND, THE SHEET METAL MUST BE SHORTENED AP-
PROPRIATELY BEFORE STARTING WORK.

100
62
44
62 + 44 = 106 mm
-- 100 mm
= 6 mm
Figure 321 Example Of Test Bending

DEVELOPED LENGTH CALCULATION

Calculation of the Developed Length
The developed length: L= A + B - or + V
The bend allowance “V” changes with:
S the dimension of the bend radii “R”,
S the bend angle “a”,
S the sheet thickness “T”.
The bend allowance “V” is negative when the bend angles “a” = 0° to 115° (sec-
tion angle “b” = 180° to 65°).
The bend allowance can be positive or negative when the bend angles “a” =
115° to 180° (section angle “b” = 65° to 0°).
The basic (rule of thumb) formula for the set--back calculation of a 90° bend is:
Set--back = R/2 + T
For more than two bends it is helpful to use the following formula:
Set--back = 0.43R + 1.48T
Example
You want to bend an angle 90° with the dimension 20 by 30 mm. Material thick-
ness is 1.5 mm, and radius 8 mm. How long is the unbent portion?
Calculation
20 mm plus 30mm = 50 mm. Then the set--back
(R/2 + T) 4 - 1.5 = 2.5 mm has to be subtracted from the 50 mm.
Finally, you get the unbent portion of 47.5 mm.

1
1
T
R3 15 R3 15
15 30
B a b
R
A
Flat Flat
=____________ =____________
length length
L
=____________ =____________
=____________ =____________
A+B = Flange Width
L = Developed Length =____________ =____________
T = Sheet Thickness
Flat Flat
=___________mm length =___________mm
length
Figure 322 Example For Calculating The Flat Layout

Example for Calculation of the Developed Length
A hat-section of 1mm-thick sheet metal is to be made. How wide must the flat
layout be?
The profile has seven flats. There are 6 radii. The outer dimensions of the flats
are added. From this dimension the sums of set--backs caused by the bends is
subtracted.

58
L4
R4
L3 L5
T=1mm
55
L1 L7
15
L2 L6
30
TL= Total length TL = L1+L2+L3+L4+L5+L6 +L7--6x (R/2+T)

FL= Flat length TL= 15 +30+55+58+55+30+15 --6x (R/2+T)
TL= 258 –6x (4/2+1)
TL= 258 –6x 3

TL= 258 –18
FL= 240mm
Figure 323 Calculation Example

Fixed interchangeable
top leaf of clamping bar
Counterweight
Handwheel for moving

clamping bar
Bending leaf handle

Adjusting screw
Bending leaf (moveable)
Figure 324 Folding Machine

Clamping bar Radius bar
Workpiece
Edge rail
Bending leaf
Figure 325 Folding Machine (Continued)

BENDING BY HAMMERING
Straight Line Bending by Hammering
The advantage of performing straight line bending by using a hammer is the
fact that the tool used is very simple and can also be used anywhere.
The application is limited, however, to mainly thin sheet--metal and soft materi-
als.
The following is to be observed in the examples opposite:
S The clamping surfaces of the vice must be fitted with a protective lining to
eliminate the possibility of damaging the surface of the metal to be bent.
S The bending edge must have a radius corresponding to that required on the
material.
S Hammers are used which are made of wood, plastic, ebonite (hard rubber)
or steel depending on the material or condition of material to be worked.
S When using a steel hammer, a protective plate of plastic is used to spread
the force of the impact from the hammer over as large an area as possible
and also to protect the material from impressions and dents made by the
hammer.

Figure 326 Bending By Hammering

Straight Line Bending by Hammering (continued)
It is easier to carry out simple straight line bending by using form blocks. The
form block guarantees the same radii and dimensions on all worked pieces on
condition that the materials used and their sizes are all the same.
Incidentally, aids like form blocks can also be made out of materials like plastic
(nylon or resin bonded fabric) or out of metals. The choice of material depends
on the amount of straight-line bending to be done and also the kind of sheet
metal and thickness.
The straight-line bending can also be carried out in off--set lines (see illustra-
tion).

Figure 327 Bending By Hammering (Continued)

Straight-Line Bending by Hammering (continued)
When hammering the sheet metal, which is to be done gradually, it will spring
back slightly. Therefore, the form block is to be constructed in such a way that
the angle on the form block where there will be a possible spring--back is
somewhat smaller. The spring--back angle can be determined by performing
sample bending.

Spring-
Back
Spring-
Angle Back
Angle

Figure 328 Bending By Hammering (Continued)

FOLDING MACHINE
Folding Machine
The folding machine is suitable for the production of long and sometimes com-
plicated profiles, boxes and pipes.
When using a folding machine, the material to be bent is placed on a snaker
which is in the machine. The material is then pressed into the snaker by a
mould which has the desired radius.
The moulds are screwed onto the upper beam of the machine. The total width
of the moulds and the snakers can be changed because they are built up of
separate parts which are 3, 3.5 , 4, 5, 10, 50 and 100 cm long.
Consequently, it is possible to manufacture even boxes whose sides are rela-
tively high, including the last side which has to be bent.

Adjustment for edge rail
Manual folding wheel
Folding lever
Edge rail mould (interchangeable)
Edge rail (interchangeable)

Figure 329 Hydraulic Folding Machine

C-Profile Square Tube Tube

Sheet Metal Break Through Flat Profile

Fold Back with Flange
Figure 330 Production Examples



BENDING SEQUENCE
Bending Procedure
1. Calculate flat layout
2. Cut to size using squaring shears
3. Clean up the cut edges
4. Check that the radius bar is correctly set
5. Set the bending leaf
6. Perform sample bending
NOTE: IF A DEVIATION TO THE FINAL MEASUREMENTS IS NOTICED
(DUE TO MEASUREMENT, PERMISSIBLE VARIATION, MEA-
SURING TOOLS) THIS MUST BE TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT IN
THE FOLLOWING SHEET METAL BENDING PROCEDURES.
7. Perform actual bending on workpiece. The dimension EM equals the de-

sired dimension when finished FM, minus that value which was determined
in the sample bending.
NOTE: AN UNSUCCESSFUL BEND MUST NOT BE BENT BACK,
OTHERWISE THE MATERIAL COULD FRACTURE OR THERE
MAY BE A STRUCTURAL TRANSFORMATION.
8. Check the measurements and angles and, if necessary, adjust.
9. Follow the procedure for locating sheet metal in the press.
NOTE: FOR PRODUCTION REASONS IT IS NECESSARY TO PER-
FORM EACH BENDING PROCESS IN A CERTAIN SEQUENCE.

EM
FM
Figure 331 Procedure



M7.14.2 COMPOSITE & NON-METALLIC Part -66
M7.14.2 COMPOSITE AND NON-METALLIC


CURING
Methods of Curing is applied, the vaporization, or gassing, of the matrix may cause bubbles to
Composite matrix systems cure by chemical reaction. There are room tempera- form on the surface. A dry area is also an indication of excessive heat.
ture cure systems which will cure at room temperature, but can be accelerated Although the fibres will withstand higher temperatures than the matrix, the rec-
by the use of applying external heat. There are some matrix systems which ommended curing temperature should not be exceeded in order to avoid mate-
require heat to cure the composite to achieve the maximum strength. rial disintegration or further delamination of the existing structure around the
Failure to follow the proper curing requirements, or improper usage of curing repair.
equipment, can cause defects which are cause to reject the repair. Improper When a part is to be cured with heat, it is not enough to simply apply heat at
curing or handling during the cure has a direct effect on the strength of the re- the final cure temperature. It is important that the resins be allowed enough
pair. During the curing process, humidity may cause a problem unless the re- time to flow properly before they go through their curing process. If this is not
pair is vacuum bagged. allowed, a resin-rich area may result. It is also important to allow a repair to
cool at the proper rate.
Room Temperature Cure
Composites gain much of their cure strength in the cooling down process. A
Some repairs may be cured at room temperature (65--80˚F) over a time span slow rate of temperature rise and a gradual cooling process is desirable, but
of 8--24 hours, depending on the type of resin system used. The curing process not usually possible, unless a monitor or controller is available. The step cure
can be accelerated by the application of low heat (140--160˚F) to some room and ramp and soak are probably the most commonly used with composite re-
temperature resin systems. pair. They will ensure a slow rate of temperature rise and decline.
S Check the applicable cure time for the specific material used.
Step Curing
S Full cure strength is usually not achieved until after five to seven days.
Step curing is used when a manually operated controller is used. It requires
If the repair calls for a resin system that can be cured at room temperature, it
that the technician make the adjustments manually at specific time intervals.
would be for parts which are used in areas where there is no exposure to high
Step curing is the process of bringing up the temperature slowly by raising the
operating temperatures (usually above 160˚F). Such room temperature cures
temperature to one point and holding it there, then bringing it up again and
are usually used with composite parts that are used on lightly loaded, or non-
holding it there, until the cure temperature is reached. This allows the slow
structural parts.
heating process which is critical in the curing of the composite.
Heat Curing After the cure time has elapsed, the temperature can be stepped down by re-
The most widely accepted method of curing structural composites employs the ducing the temperature slightly and holding it there, then bringing it down slowly
use of resins which cure at higher temperatures. These adhesives and resins again and holding it there until room temperature is reached. This slow cooling
down will give a stronger final cure to the component.
require elevated temperatures during their cure in order to develop full strength,
and reduce the brittleness of the cured resin. Heat will also reduce the curing
time.
When a part is manufactured at a high temperature, the repair patches which
are used in its repair may have to be cured at the manufacturing temperature in
order to restore the original strength. These resins usually cure at a tempera-
ture of 250--750˚F. The amount of heat applied should be held constant by
monitoring the surface temperature of the repair.
Although curing by applying heat in some instances produces a stronger repair,
overheating can cause extensive damage to the component. If too much heat

Cure Temp Cure Time
Hold Temp
Hold Temp
Time
Figure 332 Step Curing

Ramp And Soak Curing
A more sophisticated and accurate curing may be done with a programmable
controller. A controller may be programmed in a ramp and soak mode, which is 300
used to heat or cool a repair at a specific rate.
250
For example, a structural repair manual may specify that a repair be heated to
Temperature (˚F)
a temperature of 400˚F and that the temperature be reached at a slow, 200
constant rate of change from room temperature at eight degrees per minute. If
room temperature was 70˚, it will take approximately 41 minutes to reach the
400˚ mark (400˚-- 70˚ = 330˚, 330˚ + 8˚ each minute = 41.25 minutes). This 150
heating process is called the ramp.
Once the repair has been heated to 400˚F, the structural repair manual may 100
require that this temperature be held for a specific amount of time; in this ex- 27.5
ample, for two hours. The mode which the controller operates during these two 50
hours is referred to as the soak. 30
Following the soak, the structural repair manual may specify that the tempera- 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Time (minutes)
ture be ramped down to room temperature at a specific rate. In our example, a Cold Climate. If the cure is to be done in a cold climate where the outdoor temperature is 30˚F,
five˚ per minute cool down rate will take an hour and six minutes (400˚-- 70˚ =
the cure ramp up time is to be 8˚F/minute. 250˚-30˚=220˚+8˚=27.5 minutes to climb to the cure
330˚, 330˚/ 5˚each minute = 66 minutes).
temperature of 250˚F at a rate of 8˚/minute.
The entire heating and cooling cycle are combined graphically to depict a ramp
and soak profile. The illustration opposite is an example of a ramp and soak
profile. Structural Repair Manuals typically will not give the ramp up and ramp 300
down times. This is because the starting temperatures may not always be the
same. 250
Temperature (˚F)
If, for example, you are working outside in a cold climate and the temperature
is 30˚F, and the final cure temperature is 250˚F, the ramp up will be a longer 200
period of time. The same can be said for a climate which is very warm. If the
outside temperature is 105˚F, and the final cure temperature is 250˚F, the time
150
it takes to ramp up will be substantially shorter to achieve the same final cure
temperature.
100
105
50 18.125
Time (minutes)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Warm Climate. If the cure is to be done in a warm climate where the outdoor temperature is
105˚F, the cure ramp up time is to be 8˚F/minute. 250˚-105˚=145˚+8˚=18.125 minutes to climb
to the cure temperature of 250˚F at a rate of 8˚/minute.

Cure Temp (A)

400
300
Temperature (˚F)
Heat Up 8˚F/
200 Minute Maximum
Cool Down 5˚F/

Minute Maximum
100
Apply Vacuum (B)
50
Time
Cure Cycle For Repair Plies
(A) Refer to the specific component repair for the required cure temperature and time.
Examples
* Cure at 200˚F +/- 10 and hold for 220 minutes minimum

(B) Maintain 22 inches vacuum minimum during entire cure cycle.
Figure 333 Profile for a Ramp and Soak Cure

HEATING EQUIPMENT
1. Heat Lamps fined area. The tent can be made of vacuum bagging film and attached to the
The use of heat lamps to cure composite parts is not recommended. The tem- part with sealant tape.
perature cannot be accurately controlled, and the heat may localize in one To prevent excessive curing, be sure the heat gun is not pointed at the part. If
spot. Scorching or blistering of the part may occur if the heat lamp is too close, the cure temperature of the part is 250˚F, the bagging film used for the tent
or is left on too long. Heat lamps generate high surface temperatures, which should be able to withstand a high heat range.
have a tendency to cure a repair too rapidly. Draughts in the work area can Another alternative to using bagging film as a tent is to use a cardboard box, or
also affect the amount of heat. anything which will hold the heat in. Heat guns may present a fire hazard and
The light of the heat lamp must hit all areas of the part. If there is a shadow on should never be left unattended during the cure process. If a tent--like structure
any area, it will not cure at the same rate as a part with the light shining on it. A is used with a heat gun, a shaded area is not a problem as it was with the heat
templestick or other temperature monitoring device can be used, but it must be lamps. The heat will reach all areas of the part.
monitored constantly. A templestick is a temperature sensitive crayon that will 3. Oven Curing
melt at the temperature at which it is rated.
Ovens offer controlled, uniform temperature over all surfaces. Some ovens
Another temperature sensing device is a strip with temperature sensitive ink on have vacuum ports installed to provide vacuum pressure while curing. Oven
it that will change colours when the heat reaches a certain temperature. If noth- curing is frequently used by manufacturers.
ing else is available, heat lamps may be used for accelerating the cure of room
When using an oven for repair work, the part must be removed from the air-
temperature resins. They should not be used on resins that need to be cured at
craft, and the part must be small enough to fit into the oven. When an aircraft
a higher manufacturing temperature.
part has metal hardware attached, it should not be cured in an oven, because
2. Heat Guns the metal will heat up at a faster rate than the composite.
When a heat gun is used to cure a composite part, it must be controlled with a This uneven heating or high temperature may deteriorate the adhesives under
monitor. A typical heat gun can generate temperatures of 500--750˚F when it is the metal, causing failure of the bond. Ovens may also present a problem by
left on constantly. If the cure temperature is 350˚F and a heat gun is used to heating up the whole part, not just the repair area.
cure the component, the heat gun should be monitored with a controller to
The areas which are not being repaired are subjected to very high tempera-
maintain a constant temperature.
tures and may deteriorate the existing bond. Ovens which are used to cure
To control a heat gun, a thermocouple is used with the controlling unit to keep composites must be certified for that purpose.
the temperature constant. The controller will allow the heat gun to get up to the
desired temperature, then the thermocouple senses that it is at the set temper-
ature and will shut off the heat gun. The heat gun cycles on and off around this
temperature to hold the temperature fairly constant.

Problems may occur if the heat gun is focused in one place on the repair. If a
heat gun should shift position during the curing cycle, excessive evaporation of
the resins in one spot may leave dry areas which will be cause to reject the
repair. A heat gun is often used to cure repairs when the contour of the part will
not allow the use of a heat blanket.
On composite components with very contoured shapes, heat blankets some-
times lack enough flexibility to conform to the shape of some parts. In this
case, a tent around the part can be fabricated to hold the hot air within a con-



4. Autoclaves The heat blanket is vacuum bagged into the repair area so that no matter
Autoclaves are usually used in the manufacture of composites and are not usu- where the repair is being done, the heat blanket will be next to the patches to
ally used in the repair procedures unless the part must be remanufac--tured. be cured.
Autoclaves may be used to remanufacture a part if the damage is very large For example, if the underside of a wing is to be repaired, the vacuum bagging
and it is necessary to put the part into the original mold, and cure it with high film with vacuum applied will hold the heat blanket tightly to the patches as they
heat and high pressure. are being cured. Some heat blankets are very flexible, to bend around curved
In this case, the part is vacuum-bagged and is heated to the curing tempera- surfaces, yet others are made for flat use only.
ture at a controlled rate, while additional pressure is applied within the auto- A flat heat blanket should not be used on a curved surface, as this may break
clave. Normally, parts that are vacuum bagged are subject to one atmosphere the wires in the heat blanket. Flexible heat blankets are available to go around
of pressure, but an autoclave can apply substantially more pressure to a part. a curve, such as a leading edge. If the part is sharply contoured, customized
Two or three atmospheres of additional pressure may be added while the part heat blankets made to the shape of a specific part can be used. This would
is being manufactured, or cured, in an autoclave. If the damage is large and most commonly be used if the same type and size of part is repaired repeat-
extensive enough, it may be sent to a remanufacturing facility. Large manufac- edly.
turing facilities have the molds and capabilities to repair large damaged sur-
faces.
If an extensively damaged component is not cured with the molds and high
heat and pressure, the part may not regain its original strength. Caution should
be taken when operating any autoclave. They can be very dangerous if not op-
erated properly.
5. Heating Blankets
Heating blankets are probably the most widely-accepted form of applying heat
to a composite component for repair work. They will uniformly heat the repair
area without heating a larger area than necessary. They are usually used with
a controller, or hot patch bonding machine, which means the accuracy of the
cure is higher.
They can be used with vacuum bagging to hold the heat directly onto the sur-
face. Heat blankets are made of a flexible silicon and come in a variety of
forms and sizes. Heating coils within the blanket are powered by a controller
regulating unit. A thermocouple is used with the blanket to monitor the heat and
to control the temperature.
Most manufacturers recommend the use of a heating blanket for curing repairs
because of its ability to evenly heat the part. The ramp and soak method of
heating is easily accomplished with the heat blanket method, and results in a
stronger cure. The heat blanket must cover the repair completely, and usually
is an inch or two larger than the largest size patch. However, if the heat blanket
is too large, the heat may damage surrounding areas of the part.

Vacuum Bag Extruded Sealing

Compound
Heat Blanket
Bleeder Cloth
Thermocouple
Screen
Panel
Thermocouple
Heat Blanket
Figure 334 Vacuum Bag Setup: Moisture Extraction

6. Hot Patch Bonding
Simply stated, a hot patch bonding machine performs two functions: The resin and catalyst mixtures need time to slowly start their chemical reac-
S It applies pressure by means of a vacuum pump. tion before the final cure temperatures is reached. It is also important to not
turn off the heat and allow the part to cool too quickly, because composites
S It applies heat, usually in the form of a heat blanket.
gain much of their strength during the cooling down process which will also pre-
Hot patch bonding makes use of heat blankets which have electrical coils vent the part from becoming brittle.
bonded into a rubber pad or blanket. The heat blankets can heat up quickly,
A slow rate of temperature rise and decline is desirable, but can usually be
unless they have a monitoring unit to control the rate of temperature rise and to
achieved only if a monitor or controller is available. A graph of the controller
set the temperature.
operating as a set-point controller might look like the figure below. Here, the
If the shape of the part to be cured is sharply contoured, instead of using a temperature climbs quickly from room temperature (Tl) to a specified tempera-
heat blanket with the hot bonding machine, in some instances a heat gun may ture (T2). There are many different ways in which a controller can be used.
be used. A tent of bagging film is attached to the part to hold the heat in around
the part. The heat gun is monitored with a thermocouple and the controller of
the hot bonding unit.
The monitor or controller is a device which will maintain a constant tempera- T2
ture, or will change the temperature at a specific rate. In working with compos-
Temperature
ites, the temperature must be controlled both at a constant and at a specific
rate of change. It is critical to perform these functions with a minimum of effort
and a maximum of efficiency in order to achieve professional results.
The simplest function the controller will do is to maintain a specified tempera-
ture for the repair. The specified temperature is called the set-point of the repair
and when the controller is working in this mode it is called a set-point controller.
T1 Time
Another function the controller may be able to perform is the ramp and soak.
The controller allows the temperature to slowly rise at a specific rate, then hold The temperature rise from T1 (room temperature)
the temperature constant, then allows a slow decline of temperature at a spe- to T2 (set point) would look like this graph.
cific rate.
In the illustration of the controller face, the set point is 250˚F. If the thermocou-
ple is only sensing 150˚F, the controller will apply heat to the blanket or gun
until the thermocouple senses 250˚F.
If the set point during the cooling down process is 150˚F and the controller had
previously been curing at 250˚F, then the controller will not apply heat until the
temperature dips slightly below 150˚F.
To initially apply heat at the final cure temperature will not allow the resins
enough time to flow properly before they go through their curing process. This
may result in a resin rich area. For example, if 250˚F is the final cure tempera-
ture and the controller applies heat, it will reach the 250˚F mark as soon as it
possibly can (usually within 30 seconds).



PRE-TREATMENT FOR BONDING

Whenever bonding is to be carried out, the condition of the bond surfaces must
be considered. They are likely to be contaminated with material which could
affect the performance of the joint. Surface preparation is essential.
Surfaces are prepared by one of the following pre-treatment procedures listed
below:
S degrease only
S degrease, abrade and remove loose particles
S degrease and chemically pre-treat.
Care must be taken to avoid contaminating the surfaces during or after pre-
treatment. Contamination may be caused by:
S fingerprints
S cloth which are not perfectly clean
S contaminated abrasives
S sub-standard degreasing
S chemical solutions
S other work processes taking place in the bonding area.
In particular, oil vapours from machinery, paint and mould-release agents from
spraying operations should be excluded. When pre-treatment has been carried
out, it is good practice to bond the surfaces as soon as possible.
Should the bonding operation be delayed, the surface properties may be pre-
served by priming the bond surfaces immediately after pre-treatment. For nor-
mal work, the removal of all traces of oil and grease from the surfaces to be
bonded is essential.

Vacuum Valve Vacuum Bag
Sealant Tape Insulation Blanket
Heat Blanket Thermocouple
Caul Plate
Bleeder
Release Fabric
Repair Plies
Damaged Area
Panel
Figure 335 Typical Bagging Operation With Heat Blanket

NON-DESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION (NDT) TECHNIQUES

General highly dependent on the inspector’s subjective interpretation of the test re-
A variety of NDT techniques are available as inspection tools for documenting sponse.
manufacturing and service-related defects in composites. However, as in me-
tallic structures, no single non-destructive inspection method can locate and
isolate all defects.
Equipment and techniques utilised in the non--destructive inspection of com-
posite structures ranges in complexity from the use of a coin tap-test to the use
of lasers in holographic equipment:
S tap testing
S visual or optical inspection
S bond tester or resonator
S penetrant
S thermography
S holography
S acoustic emission
S ultrasonics
S radiography.
Of the listed techniques, the most commonly-used methods are ultrasonics
(pulse echo or through transmission) and radiography (x--ray). Tap
Test
Tap-Testing
Tap-testing is widely used for the quick evaluation of any accessible aircraft Visual or Optical Inspection
surfaces to detect presence of debonding or entrapped water. The tap-test pro- Visual or optical inspection procedures are used for a quick assessment of the
cedure consists of lightly tapping the surface of the part with a coin, light ham- condition of the aircraft surface to look for the presence of flaws or damage.
mer or other suitable objects. The acoustic response is compared with the re- With the paint stripped off the suspect area, a strong light shone through a lam-
sponse of an known good area. A ”flat” or ”dead” response is considered
inated structure and viewed from the other side may reveal delamination, indi-
unacceptable. cated by a change in colour.
The acoustic response of a good part can vary dramatically with changes in Visual inspection is inexpensive, easy and fast. However, if the inspected mate-
geometry, in which case a standard of some sort is required. The entire area rial is not transparent, it is only capable of finding flaws that are evident on the
must be tapped. visible surface.
The method is limited to finding relatively shallow defects. In a honeycomb Internal flaws in composites (such as delaminations, disbonding and matrix
structure, for example, the far side bondline cannot be evaluated. Thus, two- crazing) are not detectable. In addition, tight surface cracks and edge dela-
sided access is required for a complete inspection of honeycomb structures. minations may not be detectable.
The method is portable, but no records are produced. The method is also



Visual aids such as mirrors, boroscopes and magnifiers are portable, and may
be used to facilitate detection. Visual inspection results may be recorded in the
form of photographs, if desired. The surface to be inspected should be clean
and free of conditions that may mask or obscure defects.

Delamination
Skin
Detection
Ultrasonic
Stringers Debonded
method
stringer
Tap
Honeycomb and skin
test
debonded
Detection
Figure 336 NDT Techniques

HOLOGRAPHY
Holography is used for the rapid assessment of flaws in surfaces of composite The ultrasound is generally transmitted and received by an ultrasonic trans-
structures. ducer in a pulse echo or a through-transmission mode. The pulse echo tech-
Optical holography is extremely sensitive in measuring small surface defects. nique can be applied to both immersion and contact test set-ups, while the
The part to be inspected is stressed by the application of heat, a static load or through-transmission method generally applies only to immersion and squirter
vibration to bring out the effect of the flaw on the surface displacement. test set-ups.
For internal flaws in composite parts, holograms are taken when the structure In the pulse echo mode, the ultrasound is transmitted by a transducer and the
is unstressed and then when the structure is stressed. The applied stress is reflected signal is received by the same transducer, after the signal is reflected
carefully set to avoid additional damage to the structure. from the back surface of the composite part. The attenuation of the reflected
pulse is influenced by the presence of internal defects in the part, while the
The holograms corresponding to the stressed and unstressed states are recon-
time delay of the reflected pulse is related to the depth of defects in the com-
structed to form interference fringes. The fringe pattern is then analyzed to re-
posite part.
veal internal defects. The advantage of this technique is the inspection speed.
The disadvantages are the tedious set-up procedures related to the optical Composite parts suspected of containing defects that are open to the outer sur-
components, the caution to be exercised in proper stress application and the faces should be handled with care. In these situations, water may infiltrate into
difficulties in converting fringe patterns to a meaningful display (inspection the part through these defects and make it difficult to detect the flaws. Water
image) of defects. contamination of a honeycomb core in sandwich constructions may lead to se-
rious corrosion problems. Reference standards are required to calibrate the
ULTRASONICS ultrasonic test equipment, and inspectors should have experience in operating
them.
Ultrasonic inspection is widely used for quick and inexpensive evaluation of
flaws in composite parts. Portable inspection probes are used for on-site in-
spection of areas with suspected damage or flaws. Transducer generates
Ultrasonic waves travel through solids and liquids at relatively high speeds, but and receives
are rapidly attenuated in gasses. The density and the elasticity of the medium Sound path
Defect
may affect the wave speed.
Also, depending on the type of particle movement induced by the ultrasonic
transducer, a longitudinal wave, shear wave or surface wave may be trans- Generating signal
mitted in the medium. The refraction of an ultrasonic beam when it passes
through the boundary between two media is comparable to the refraction of Receiving signal
light beams in the same situation.

Ultrasonic NDT techniques are widely used for quality control and flaw detec-
tion in composite laminates. The technique is based on the attenuation of high
frequency (1 - 30 MHz) acoustic waves passing through the composite part.
The attenuation is generally a result of three causes dispersion due to visco--
elastic effects in the resin matrix, geometric dispersion due to the heterogeneity
in the composite material and geometric attenuation due to internal defects
such as delaminations, porosity, fibre and matrix cracks. The surface rough- Ultrasonic Testing
ness and the shape or contour of the test specimen will also affect the wave
attenuation.

Ultrasonic Flaw Detection Unit
Probe
Equipment Requirements
Ultrasonic flaw detector High resolution high energy (gain)
High resolution transducer with delay shoe diameter 10mm

Probes frequency 5 - 10Mhz
Painted areas: water, oil grease

Medium Unpainted areas: water-based only
Figure 337 Ultrasonics

RADIOGRAPHY
X--ray inspection technique is widely used for quick and low-cost inspection of
composite structures. X--ray equipment can be adapted to handle small parts
up to relatively large parts.
X--rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation similar to light. They are pro-
duced when electrons, travelling at high speed, collide with matter or change
direction.
In X--ray tubes, electrons are accelerated by a difference of potential between
the cathode (source of electrons) and the target.
Gamma rays are similar to X--rays in their characteristics, and are emitted from
the disintegrating nuclei of radioactive substances like radium and cobalt 60.
Both X--rays and gamma rays have extremely short wave-lengths that provide
them with the ability to penetrate materials that absorb or reflect ordinary light.
Radiography is a NDT technique that uses X--rays or gamma rays. A radio-
graph is a photographic record produced by the passage of these rays through
a test object onto a film.
The radiation proceeds in straight lines to the object; some of the rays pass
through the object and the others are absorbed. The amount transmitted de-
pends on the nature of the material and its thickness. The presence of a void in
the material, for example, causes more radiation to pass through the section
containing the void than through the surrounding region.
A radiograph is like a shadow picture; the darker regions on the film represent
the more penetrable parts of the test specimen and the lighter regions are
more opaque to the radiation.

Radiation source
Material is thinner Hole
Object Film
Darkened area (when processed)
Figure 338 Radiographic Testing



M7.15 WELDING, BRAZING, SOLDERING
AND BONDING Part -66
M 7.15 WELDING, BRAZING, SOLDERING AND BONDING


INTRODUCTION
Because the overall structure of an airplane cannot be fabricated as a single
continuous unit, structural parts must be fastened together.
For certain materials and types of structural units, welding plays an important
role in joining or connecting structural units.
Welding is not new. The earliest known form of welding, called forge welding,
dates back to the year 2000 BC. Forge welding is a primitive process of joining
metals by heating and hammering until the metals are fused (mixed) together.
Although forge welding still exists, it is mainly limited to the blacksmith trade.
Research is constantly going on to develop better welding machines and weld-
ing techniques and also to develop new materials that can be welded without
producing a detrimental strength influence on the base or unwelded material.
Welding consists of joining two or more pieces of metal by applying heat, pres-
sure, electron beam, etc., with or without filler material, to produce a localized
union through fusion or recrystallization across the joint interface.

Arc
Welding
Solid-
State Brazing
Welding
Other
Soldering Welding Welding
Processes
Oxyfuel
Resistance Gas
Welding Welding
Thermal Allied Adhesive

Spraying Processes Bonding
Oxygen Thermal Arc

Cutting Cutting Cutting
Figure 339 Welding and Allied Processes

OXYACETYLENE WELDING
Introduction
The equipment used for oxyacetylene welding consists of a source of oxygen
and a source of acetylene from a portable or stationary outfit, along with a cut-
ting attachment or a separate cutting torch. Other equipment requirements in-
clude suitable goggles for eye protection, gloves to protect the hands, a
method to light the torch, and wrenches to operate the various connections on
the cylinders, regulators, and torches.
STATIONARY WELDING EQUIPMENT

Stationary welding equipment is installed where welding operations are con-
ducted in a fixed location. Oxygen and acetylene are provided in the welding
area as shown opposite.
S Oxygen is obtained from a number of cylinders manifolded and equipped
with a master regulator. The regulator and manifold control the pressure and
the flow together. The oxygen is supplied to the welding stations through a
pipe line equipped with station outlets.
S Acetylene is obtained either from acetylene cylinders set up as shown op-
posite, or an acetylene generator. The acetylene is supplied to the welding
stations through a pipe line equipped with station outlets.

Outlet to distributing line A - Line Valve F - Flash Arrestor Chamber
B - Release Valve G - Escape Pipe

Shut-off valves
C - Filler Plug H - Cylinder Connection Pipe
D - Header Pipe J - Check Valve & Drain Plug
E - Regulator G K - Acetylene Cylinders

H A E
D
Regulator
Header
B K
Oxygen cylinders
F
C
J
Stationary Oxygen Cylinder Manifold Stationary Acetylene Cylinder Manifold
Figure 340 Stationary Welding Equipment

PORTABLE WELDING EQUIPMENT gerous pressures can be developed. The plug hole is too small to permit a
flame to burn back into the cylinder if escaping acetylene is ignited. Acetylene,
The portable oxyacetylene welding outfit consists of an oxygen cylinder and an when used with oxygen, produces the highest flame temperature of any of the
acetylene cylinder with attached valves, regulators, gauges, and hoses. fuel gases. It also has the most concentrated flame, but produces less gross
This equipment may be temporarily secured on the floor or mounted on an all heat of combustion than the liquid petroleum gases and the synthetic gases.
welded steel truck. The trucks are equipped with a platform to support two
large size cylinders. The cylinders are secured by chains attached to the truck Oxygen
frame. Oxygen is a colourless, tasteless, odourless gas that is slightly heavier than air.
A metal toolbox, welded to the frame, provides storage space for torch tips, It is non-flammable but will support combustion with other elements. In its free
gloves, fluxes, goggles, and necessary wrenches. state, oxygen is one of the most common elements. The atmosphere is made
up of approximately 21 parts of oxygen and 78 parts of nitrogen, the remainder
Acetylene being rare gases. Rusting of ferrous metals, discoloration of copper, and the
Acetylene is a colourless, flammable gas composed of carbon and hydrogen, corrosion of aluminium are all due to the action of atmospheric oxygen, known
manufactured by the reaction of water and calcium carbide. It is slightly lighter as oxidation.
than air. Acetylene burns in the air with an intensely hot, yellow, luminous,
smoky flame. Production of Oxygen
Oxygen is obtained commercially either by the liquid air process or by the elec-
Although acetylene is nontoxic, it is an anaesthetic, and if present in a suffi-
trolytic process.
ciently high concentration, is an asphyxiant in that it replaces oxygen and can
produce suffocation. S In the liquid air process, air is compressed and cooled to a point where the
gases become liquid. As the temperature of the liquid air rises, nitrogen in a
Although acetylene is stable under low pressure, if compressed to 15 psi
gaseous form is given off first, since its boiling point is lower than that of
(103.4 kPa), it becomes unstable. Heat or shock can cause acetylene under
liquid oxygen. These gases, having been separated, are then further puri-
pressure to explode. Avoid exposing filled cylinders to heat, furnaces, radiators,
fied and compressed into cylinders for use. The liquid air process is by far
open fires, or sparks (from a torch). Avoid striking the cylinder against other
the most widely used to produce oxygen.
objects and creating sparks. To avoid shock when transporting cylinders, do not
drag, roll, or slide them on their sides. Acetylene can be compressed into cylin- S In the electrolytic process, water is broken down into hydrogen and oxygen
ders when dissolved in acetone at pressures up to 250 psi (1724 kPa). by the passage of an electric current. The oxygen collects at the positive
terminal and the hydrogen at the negative terminal. Each gas is collected
In order to decrease the size of the open spaces in the cylinder, acetylene cyl-
and compressed into cylinders for use.
inders are filled with porous materials such as balsa wood, charcoal, corn pith,
or portland cement. Acetone, a colourless, flammable liquid, is added to the Oxygen Cylinders
cylinder until about 40% of the porous material is saturated. The porous mate-
A typical oxygen cylinder is made of steel and has a capacity of 220 cu ft at a
rial acts as a large sponge which absorbs the acetone, which then absorbs the
pressure of 2000 psi (13,790 kPa) and a temperature of 70˚F (21˚C). Attached
acetylene. In this process, the volume of acetone increases as it absorbs the
equipment provided by the oxygen supplier consists of an outlet valve, a re-
acetylene, while acetylene, being a gas, decreases in volume.
movable metal cap for the protection of the valve, and a low melting point
Acetylene Cylinders safety fuse plug and disk. The cylinder is fabricated from a single plate of high
grade steel so that it will have no seams and is heat treated to achieve maxi-
Acetylene cylinders are equipped with safety plugs which have a small hole
mum strength. Because of their high pressure, oxygen cylinders undergo ex-
through the centre. This hole is filled with a metal alloy which melts at approxi-
tensive testing prior to their release for work, and must be periodically tested
mately 212˚F (100˚C), or releases at 500 psi (3448 kPa). When a cylinder is
thereafter.
overheated, the plug will melt and permit the acetylene to escape before dan-

Welding Torch Oxygen Hose Connection
Tip Acetylene Hose

Connection
Cylinder Pressure
Working Pressure
Gauge Working Pressure
Gauge
Gauge
Oxygen Regulator Cylinder Pressure

Gauge
Oxygen Hose Acetylene Valve
Wrench
Acetylene
Regulator
Acetylene Hose
Twin Hose
Acetylene
Cylinder
Oxygen
Cylinder
Figure 341 Portable Oxyacetylene Welding and Cutting Equipment

Oxyacetylene Welding Torch screwed onto the torch head. The universal type mixer is a separate unit
The oxyacetylene welding torch is used to mix oxygen and acetylene in definite which can be used with tips of various sizes.
proportions. It also controls the volume of these gases burning at the welding
tip, which produces the required type of flame.
The torch consists of a handle or body which contains the hose connections for
the oxygen and the fuel gas. The torch also has two needle valves; one for ad-
justing the flew of oxygen and the other for acetylene, and a mixing head.
In addition, there are two tubes; one for oxygen, the other for acetylene; inlet
nipples for the attachment of hoses; a tip; and a handle. The tubes and handle
are of seamless hard brass, copper--nickel alloy, stainless steel.
Types of Torch
There are two general types of welding torches; the low pressure or injector
type, and the equal pressure type.
S In the low pressure or injector type, the acetylene pressure is less than 1 psi
(6.895 kPa). A jet of high pressure oxygen is used to produce a suction ef-
fect to draw in the required amount of acetylene. Any change in oxygen flow
will produce relative change in acetylene flow so that the proportion of the
two gases remains constant. This is accomplished by designing the mixer in
the torch to operate on the injector principle. The welding tips may or may
not have separate injectors designed integrally with each tip.
S The equal pressure torch is designed to operate with equal pressures for
the oxygen and acetylene. The pressure ranges from 1 to 15 psi (6.895 to
103.4 kPa). This torch has certain advantages over the low pressure type. It
can be more readily adjusted, and since equal pressures are used for each
gas, the torch is less susceptible to flashbacks.
Welding Tips and Mixers
S The welding tips are made of hard drawn electrolytic or 95% copper and 5%
tellurium. They are made in various and types, some having a one--piece tip
either with a single orifice or multiple orifices. The diameters of the tip ori-
fices differ in order to control the quantity of heat and the type of flame.
These tip sizes are designated by numbers which are arranged according to
the individual manufacturer’s system. Generally, the smaller the number, the
smaller the tip orifice.
S Mixers are frequently provided in tip tier assemblies which assure the cor-
rect flow of mixed gases for each size tip. In this tip mixer assembly, the
mixer is assembled with the tip for which it has been drilled and then

Oxygen
Needle Oxygen
Tip Valve Handle Tube
Mixing
Head
Injector Nozzle Oxygen Needle Valve

Mixing Head Nut Acetylene Stem Assembly
Acetylene
Tube
Needle
Oxygen Needle
Valve
Mixing Head Nut Valve Body
Oxygen Tube Oxygen Hose

Mixing Head - Injector-Type Welding Torch Oxygen Hose Connection Gland
No 1 Copper Tip Handle Connection Nut
Mixing Head
Acetylene Tube Rear End

Torch Head Acetylene Needle Valve

Acetylene Hose
Acetylene Hose Connection Gland
Connection Nut
Equal Pressure-Type General Purpose Welding Torch
Figure 342 Oxyacetylene Welding Torches

Oxyacetylene Cutting Equipment Basic Safety Rules
The cutting torch, like the welding torch, has a tube for oxygen and one for 1. Blow out the cylinder valve before you connect the regulator.
acetylene. In addition, there is a tube for high-pressure oxygen, along with a 2. Release the adjusting screw on the regulator before opening the cylinder
cutting tip or nozzle. valve.
The tip is provided with a centre hole through which a jet of pure oxygen 3. Stand to one side of the regulator before you open the cylinder valve.
passes. Mixed oxygen and acetylene pass through holes surrounding the
4. Open the cylinder valve slowly.
centre holes for the pre-heating flames.
5. Do not use or compress acetylene in a free state at pressures more than
The number of orifices for oxyacetylene flames ranges from 2 to 6, depending
15 psi.
on the purpose for which the tip is used.
6. Purge your acetylene and oxygen passages individually before lighting the
The cutting torch is controlled by a trigger or lever operating valve. The cutting
torch.
torch is furnished with interchangeable tips for cutting steel from less than 1/4in
(6.4mm) to more than 12 in (304.8mm) in thickness. 7. Light the acetylene before opening the oxygen on the torch.
In order to make uniformly clean cuts on steel plate, motor-driven cutting ma- 8. Never use oil or grease on regulators, tips, etc., in contact with oxygen.
chines are used to support and guide the cutting torch. 9. Do not use oxygen as a substitute for air.
There is a wide variety of cutting tip styles available to suit various types of 10.Keep your work area clear of anything that will burn.
work. The thickness of the material to be cut generally governs the selection of
the tip.
The cutting oxygen pressure, cutting speed and pre-heating intensity should be
controlled to produce narrow, parallel-sided kerfs. Cuts that are improperly
made will produce ragged, irregular edges with adhering slag at the bottom of
the plates.
Operation of Cutting Equipment
1. Attach the required cutting tip to the torch and adjust the oxygen and acety-
lene pressures to effect the best metal cut.
2. Adjust the pre-heating flame to neutral.
3. Hold the torch so that the cutting oxygen lever or trigger can be operated
with one hand. Use the other hand to steady and maintain the position of
the torch head to the work. Keep the flame at a 90˚ angle to work in the
direction of travel. The inner cone of the pre-heating flame should be about
1/16 in (1.6mm) above the end of the line to be cut. Hold this position until
the spot has been raised to a bright red heat, then slowly open the cutting
oxygen valve.
4. If the cut has been started correctly, a shower of sparks will fall from the
opposite side of the work. Move the torch at a speed which will allow the
cut to continue penetrating the work. A good cut will be clean and narrow.

Straight Head Rear Tube
Torch Handle Oxygen Vent

Oxyacetylene Vents
75˚Head Acetylene Needle

Cross-Section Through Handle Valve Assembly
Pre-Heating Oxygen Tube Oxygen Valve Spring

Oxygen Valve and Seat
90˚Head Cutting Oxygen Tube Oxygen Hose Connection
Oxyacetylene Cutting Tip
Pre-Heating Acetylene
Acetylene Hose Connection
Trigger Assembly Torch Handle
Tube
Tip
Acetylene Needle
Valve Assembly
Oxyacetylene Cutting Torch

Cutting Oxygen
Oxygen Hose
High Pressure Cutting Valve Lever Oxygen Needle Valve
Connection
90˚Head Oxygen Tube
Torch Handle
Pre-Heating Gas Tube

Torch Head
Tip Acetylene Hose
Acetylene Needle Valve Assembly
Connection
75˚Head
Cutting Attachment for Welding Torch
Figure 343 Oxyacetylene Cutting Equipment

FUSION WELDING
Fusion is a process of electrically bonding two pieces together. This is achieved
by passing electricity through the two pieces. One, which has a fusion nib on it,
is brought into contact with the other. As the two pieces meet an electrical arch
is created , causing the nib to instantaneously vaporize and then solidify, bond-
ing the two pieces. This process is a superior bond compared to a soldered
bond .
Fusion joining is accomplished by heating the joint zone to a molten state and
weld is formed when adjacent molten surfaces coalesce and cool. A filler metal
may be added to the welded joints.
Fusion welds are classified as follows:
S Class A - a vital joint (failure would jeopardize the aircraft safety)
S Class B1 - a secondary structure (failure would not jeopardize the aircraft
safety)
S Class B2 - non-structure.
Fusion weld applications are summarized in the table opposite.
INERT GAS FUSION WELDING

Inert gas fusion welding depends on an inert gas, such as argon or helium, to
provide a protective atmosphere in the area of the weld. This inert gas shield-
ing is necessary to avoid oxidation and contamination of the weld by atmo-
spheric elements. Most weld repairs can be made with this process.

Type of Welding Characteristics
Tungsten electrode with inert gas shielding. The most popular welding process
Gas tungsten-arc (Tig or Heliarc or Heliweld)
in aerospace.
Hot wire gas and tungsten-arc Faster welding and improved distortion.
Better depth-to-width ratio, narrower heat-affected zone and lower porosity con-
Pulsed current gas and tungsten-arc
tent.
Plasma-arc Permits higher welding speeds and improved process control.
Gas metal-arc For thick materials.

Welding heat is generated by impingement on the metal joint by high velocity

electrons. Vacuum chamber size and depth of welding are the limiting factors. It
Vacuum electron beam is a relatively costly process and requires close tolerance machining and straight
line joint surfaces. This welding process is widely applied to titanium material
(some for tension joint applications).

GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW)

Terminology Process Description
The American Welding Society has termed this process Tungsten Inert Gas Since the tungsten electrode is not consumed in the process, if filler metal is
(TIG) because the shielding is taken care of by an extraneously added gas, used it must be added by hand (similar to gas welding) or it can be fed me-
and a non--consumable tungsten electrode is used to provide an arc between a chanically as shown opposite.
torch and base metal as shown below. The process is referred to very com- There are two concepts of feeding the wire mechanically:
monly in industry as Heliarc welding (a trade name established by the Linde S a wire feed is used and simply feeds a wire into the leading edge of the weld
Division) or TIG welding. pool
The term ”Heliarc” seems to suggest an arc operated in a helium atmosphere. S a power source is used to electrically preheat the wire. As it reaches the
Helium can be and is used to some extent as a shielding gas for the process, leading edge of the weld pool it takes a minimum amount of thermal energy
but other gases are possible and with argon being the primary gas used in to melt the wire so that it will mix into the weld.
GTAW, the term ”Heliarc” leaves a lot to be desired from the stand--point of
There are some types of weld joint which require no filler metal. In such cases,
process description.
the GTAW torch simply melts and fuses the two pieces of base metal together.
The acronym ”TIG” is much more accurate because it does not limit the gas This is called an autogenous weld.
selection to helium as implied by Heliarc. Argon and helium are both inert (will The tungsten electrode will vary in diameter from 1 mm (0.040”) to 6.35 mm
not chemically react with any known substance), but there are some excep- (1/4”), and is 18 cm (7”) in length. The tungsten should be kept as small as
tions to the shielding gas being inert, such as when hydrogen is mixed with ar- practicable so as to obtain a high current density. This will keep the weld pool
gon as suggested in some GTAW applications. small and weld with a minimum amount of heat input.
The tungsten electrodes are limited with respect to the amperage they can
withstand without overheating, which would result in melting and dropping off to
become a tungsten inclusion in the weld.

REGULATOR WITH
FLOWMETER
TORCH
INERT
FILLER ROD GAS
TUNGSTEN
ELECTRODE POWER
SUPPLY
SHIELDING GAS
WORK
Figure 344 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Concept

GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW) (CONTINUED)

Shielding Gas Selection Shielding Gas Selection for GTAW
Shielding gas selection for GTAW usually involves argon, helium or argon-he- Metal Shielding Gas
lium mixtures. Also, hydrogen has been mixed with argon, but it must be used
on materials where the hydrogen would not cause embrittlement. M Argon
Any shielding gas selection must not contaminate either the tungsten electrode Aluminiums A Helium
or the base metal being welded. The tungsten electrode is more easily contam- Argon/Helium
inated, hence carbon dioxide cannot be used in GTAW whilst it is used exten-
sively in GMAW. The adjacent figure is a guide which indicates shielding gases M Argon
Magnesiums
which are used with various metals. A Helium
Application M Argon
Carbon Steel
GTAW is one of the most versatile of the widely-used processes. It can be A Argon/Helium
used on a wide variety of alloy chemical compositions and a wide range of ma- M Argon
terial thicknesses. Since it does not use the filler metal as the electrode, it is CHR-NI Argon/Helium
considered slower in potential than consumable electrode processes. However,
this can be offset to a large extent by using a mechanical wire-feeding system, Stainless Steel A Argon-H2 (35%)
especially if an electrical current is used to pre-heat the wire as it is fed into the Helium
pool. M = Manual A = Automatic

FILLER METAL FED BY HAND OR

MECHANICALLY
GTAW filler metal addition
NO FILLER NEEDED; JUST FUSE

EDGES TOGETHER
Autogenous weld of flange joint
Figure 345 GTAW Application

GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW)

Because man inherently searches for faster methods of doing almost anything,
the GTAW process did not escape investigation. It was discovered that if the
tungsten electrode was replaced by a consumable electrode, the process
would be a lot faster in filling the weld joint with metal. Thus was born the Gas
Metal Arc (GMAW) process.
Not only was it true that the electric current was used more efficiently in GMAW
but it was found that, for satisfactory operation, much higher current densities
were needed than with GTAW. The figure opposite illustrates the gas metal arc
welding concept. This process is increasing in usage faster than any other
welding process.
Terminology
As with GTAW, the GMAW process is referred to by different terms. It is too
difficult to list them all because of the modifications and extensions of the pro-
cess.
A few of the widely-used terms are listed here.
SIGMA is a trade name established by the Linde Division. The acronym stands
for ’Shielded Inert Gas Metal Arc’. This would be an accurate term except for
the fact that not only inert gases are used for shielding. Another term, ’MIG’
(Metal (arc) Inert Gas), has the same problem.
Both of the afore-mentioned terms are popular in industry along with wire weld-
ing, micro--wire welding, CO2 welding, and other terms used for modifications
of the process.
The American Welding Society has adopted Gas Metal Arc Welding because it
is both accurate and descriptive, though, as with GTAW, it has not been widely
accepted by industry as yet.
The gas metal arc and gas tungsten arc welding processes are referred to as
the Gas Shielded Arc Processes.

Process Description
In concept, the main difference between GMAW and GTAW is that the non--
consumable tungsten electrode is replaced by a consumable electrode wire.
However, with this important change comes the need for a wire feeder to sup-
ply the electrode wire to the arc at the correct rate. The shielding gas added
extraneously feeds through the nozzle.

WIRE REEL
ELECTRODE WIRE
SHIELDING GAS
WIRE DRIVE
CONTROLS FOR GOVERNING

WIRE DRIVE CURRENT, GAS FLOW
AND COOLING WATER (IF USED)
POWER
SOURCE
GAS SUPPLY
Figure 346 Gas Metal Arc Welding Concept

Semi--Automatic and Automatic GMAW
Both semi--automatic and automatic GMAW are common. In concept, the only
difference is that in the automatic GMAW, the torch is held mechanically. With
the semi--automatic, the operator holds the torch and is responsible for main-
taining the correct torch attitude, protrusion and speed of travel.
The figure opposite illustrates a semi--automatic torch being used for an auto-
matic application. A more specialized process, also shown opposite, may be
advisable for high-production volume, but would be more limited in scope of
application (less versatile).
Application
As was stated at the beginning of this section, the process is gaining in usage
faster than any other welding process.
It is a very versatile process with respect to weldable alloys as well as material
thickness and welding positions. The various modes of transfer and wire selec-
tions make it possible to weld material from thin gauge (<1.59 mm/1/16”) to
very heavy sections as thick as is required.
The variety of electrode alloy selection available makes the welding of most
weldable ferrous and non-ferrous metals feasible. It Is not intended to suggest
that GMAW is the answer to all welding applications; the reader should make
an effort to understand the advantages and limitations of each welding process.

WIRE
FEEDER
ROTATE
POWER
WORK
SOURCE
Utilizing Semi-Automatic Torch for Automatic GMAW Automatic Welding Head

Welding
Figure 347 GMAW Application

ELECTRON BEAM WELDING

In electron beam welding, the heat of fusion is generated by a high--energy How does Electron Beam Welding work?
beam of electrons impinging on the workpieces to be joined together, the ki- In many ways, an electron beam welder is similar to a television set. Electrons
netic energy of the electrons being directly converted into heat and causing a in a picture tube are emitted by a heated tungsten filament, concentrated by an
vapour channel in the centre of the resulting weld pool. electron optics system to a small diameter beam, and moved so rapidly by a
To provide the necessary high acceleration of the electrons, a vacuum of about deflection system that a picture is produced on a fluorescent screen.
1O --4 Torr has to be produced. To generate a continuous weld it is also neces- While a correctly-designed electron beam welder has several thousand times
sary to provide movement of the workpiece relative to the electron gun. the beam intensity of a picture tube, it has very similar operating features, and
An electron beam welding machine is comprised of three main assemblies: is almost as simple to operate.
S electron beam system To change TV stations, volume, brightness and contrast, knobs are adjusted
S vacuum system while viewing the picture; the set is not disassembled.
S manipulating gear. With really usable electron beam welding equipment, the weld settings can be
altered and all other necessary variables by simple knob adjustment, whilst
The example shown here is a three--stage compressor rotor (Ti--Al alloy) devel-
looking directly at the weld joint. It is not necessary to disassemble the gun and
oped and manufactured by MTU for an aero engine of advanced design.
install spacers to accommodate various materials, thicknesses and focal
The separate forged disks making up this rotor are machine-finished either lengths.
prior to or immediately following the individual welding operations and thus the
complete contour of the component is obtained with relatively close tolerances
after electron beam welding.
This rotor was welded on a high--voltage welding machine with a maximum
power consumption of 12 kW.
A typical feature of this welding process is that the heat input is relatively small.
It also permits welding in locations inaccessible for previous welding processes,
partly with materials which were previously unweldable.
It therefore opens up new engineering possibilities leading, for instance, to
more compact design and savings in weight.

1st Seam 3th Seam 2nd Seam 4th Seam
Detail A
Material: Titanium--Aluminium--Alloy
Figure 348 Electron Beam Welding

ELECTRON BEAM WELDING PROCEDURE

General power or intensity levels. The prime advantage of the electron beam weld pro-
Electron beam welding is a fusion welding process whereby the work piece is cess for repair of aircraft hardware is low weld distortion.
bombarded with a dense stream of high velocity electrons. The stream of elec-
trons is then focused by use of electromagnetic or electrostatic fields into a nar-
row concentrated beam which impinges a small spot on the material to be
welded. The resultant kinetic energy developed is transferred to heat, melting
the material in a very localized area to form a fusion weld.
Aircraft quality hardware is generally welded in a high-vacuum environment to
avoid undesirable gas molecules, which scatter the electron beam and contrib-
ute to weld contamination.
Electron beam welding of aircraft quality joints must be performed only on certi-
fied equipment by personnel qualified on the type of electron beam welder be-
ing used. The electron beam weld process is not used interchangeably with
other fusion weld processes.
Equipment
There are currently two basic types of electron beam welding machines com-
mercially available, high voltage and low voltage.
S High Voltage These machines use acceleration voltages of 70,000 -
150,000 volts. High voltage beams generally provide for deeper penetration
and narrow welds, due to sharper focusing capability. Due to the intensity of
the high voltage beam, weld spatter and weld undercutting are more pro-
nounced than normally experienced on low voltage machines.
S Low Voltage These machines use acceleration voltages in the range of
5,000 - 30,000 volts. They will produce welds of excellent quality but are
usually somewhat wider than high voltage welds. Due to the increased weld
width and lower beam intensity, welds tend to have minimized undercut and
spatter.
Process
The electron beam is capable of such intense local heating that it has the ca-
pacity to burn a hole (keyhole) completely through the weld joint thickness. The
walls of this hole are molten and as the hole is advanced along the joint, the
metal head of the hole is melted which then flows around the bore of the hole
and solidifies at the rear side of the hole to form the weld. However, a partial
penetration weld can be accomplished merely by welding with lower beam

High Voltage
Cable Receptacle
Electron Beam Gun
Column Hinge
Alignment Adjust- Column Vent Valve
ment Screw
Column Valve
Optical Viewing
System
Shutter
Magnetic Lens
Deflection Coil
Water Connections
Viewing
Water-Cooled To Vacuum System
Window Work Piece
Heatshield
Work Table
Chamber
Figure 349 Electron Beam Welder

ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE WELDING RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING (RSW)

This concept of welding does not utilize an arc to obtain heat. Also, a vapour or The figure opposite illustrates the RSW concept utilizing two copper columnar
gas shielding is not utilized. The two important parameters of this concept are: type (stick-shape) electrodes pushing toward each other under high pressure.
S heat is generated by resistance to an electrical current A surge of electrical current for only a fraction of a second Is sent from one
electrode to the other with two pieces of metal sandwiched together. Since cop-
S considerable pressure is always used in pressing the two pieces tightly to-
per is a very excellent electrical conductor there should be less resistance be-
gether.
tween the copper base metal interface than at the interface between the two
Shielding is taken care of in these processes by the pieces themselves touch- base metal pieces.
ing each other under considerable pressure, thus squeezing out the air.
As the current is supplied, the highest-resistance point heats the fastest. The
Three different types of electrical resistance welding processes will be de- metal is quickly brought up to or near the melting point, at which time the elec-
scribed in this section: trodes under heavy pressure make the two pieces become one at the local
S spot welding spot where the pressurized electrodes are located.
S seam welding The figure also illustrates a stationary version of RSW. Timers are used for
S projection welding. controlling dwell time for each phase of the cycle.
This type of welding is used extensively in automobile assembly and light
gauge material fabricated products. It must involve two pieces which can be
upset by the electrode pressure. Therefore, it is limited to relatively thin mate-
rial usually less than 4.76 mm (3/16”).
When compared to gas tungsten, arc spot welding or gas metal arc spot weld-
ing, it is somewhat faster in weld cycle time, but is not quite as versatile, since
both sides must be available to the copper electrodes, and for most applica-
tions equipment costs are considerably more using RSW. The figure compares
spot welds made with three processes.

RSW GTAW GMAW

PRESSURE
DEPRESSIONS Spot Welding Nugget Comparisons

FROM UPSET COPPER
ELECTRODE
JOINT
COPPER INTERFACE
ELECTRODE
PRESSURE
Electric Resistance Spot Weld Concept

Stationary Resistance Spot Welder
Figure 350 Resistance Spot Welding

RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING (RSEW)

The parameters for electric resistance seam welding are very similar to spot
welding. With RSEW, the electrodes are copper wheels instead of the colum-
nar shape used in RSW.
As the wheels apply pressure toward each other with the base metal sand-
wiched in between, a pulse of high current makes a spot weld and the wheels
turn a predetermined amount, making another spot weld which overlaps the
first. This procedure is repeated, making overlapping spot welds which result in
a seam weld as illustrated.
The RSEW process is used for welding fuel tanks for vehicles. Two halves are
stamped with flanges around the periphery of each half, then the seam welder
is used for welding the flanges of the two halves as illustrated. A leak-tight tank
is produced by the overlapping spot welds.

PRESSURE
COPPER WHEEL ELECTRODES

FLANGES WELDED VIA RSEW
VEHICLE FUEL-TANK FLANGES

(RSEW WELDED)
THIN-GAUGE METAL
PRESSURE
Figure 351 Resistance Seam Welding

RESISTANCE PROJECTION WELDING (RPW)

The figure opposite illustrates the resistance projection welding concept, which
is an extension of resistance spot welding.
With RPW, there are projections, usually on one member (though both mem-
bers may have them). The columnar type RSW electrodes are used to apply
pressure. Instead of the electrodes determining the location of the welds as in
RSW, the projections perform this function. The only place where the two
pieces are touching is the projection locations.
As the current is applied, the projections are quickly heated and upset by the
applied pressure of the electrodes, which follow through until the two members
are touching. At this point the current is discontinued. The resulting welds re-
semble spot welds (as illustrated).
A very distinctive advantage of resistance welding processes is that once the
variables are determined and the equipment set accordingly, unskilled opera-
tors may satisfactorily do the work.
Capital investment for industrial applications is relatively high. The equipment
varies from single-station operations to multiple stations using automatic equip-
ment which can position and weld the major portion of an vehicle chassis in a
matter of a few seconds. All the operators need do is load the parts then un-
load the welded unit.

PRESSURE
RSW-TYPE COPPER ELECTRODES
PROJECTIONS ON ONE OR
BOTH MEMBERS
SPOT WELD RESULTS
FROM PROJECTIONS
PRESSURE
Projections Before Welding

Projections Become Welds
Figure 352 Projection Welding

INERTIA WELDING
In this process, the kinetic energy stored up in a rotating mass is converted into
friction heat between the surfaces of the components to be joined, resulting in
the components being welded in the solid state.
A flywheel mass made up of a number of flywheels in conjunction with a
spindle, clamping device and the rotating workpiece is run up to the required
speed by means of a motor to achieve the rotational energy necessary for the
weld involved.
The joint faces of the rotating workpiece and the other non--rotating, clamped
workpiece are pressed together at constant axial pressure during the friction
and upsetting process. The friction produces the heat necessary for welding
the two ends of the work together.
Inertia welding has a number of advantages over conventional welding pro-
cesses:
S the drive operates with a low power motor, thus keeping down the energy
requirement for friction heating and upsetting. One axial pressure only is
used
S this welding process is highly suitable for automation
S welding surfaces require no particular pre-treatment
S no filler material is required
S welded joints are stronger and quality is consistent
S the grain structure in the heating zone is made finer, not coarser
S temperatures are limited to forging temperature and not melting tempera-
ture.

Flywheel
Kinetic energy of rotating fly-

wheel is predetermined by
selection of moment of inertia
Axial force is applied and energy

stored in flywheel becomes converted
into heat at the joint faces
Welding and upset occurs

just before rotation ceases
Figure 353 Inertia Welding

SOLDERING OF METALS
Soldering and fusion welding are related procedures in order to connect metal- but has flowed. In this case, the solder is the more overheated and the
lic work pieces. surface of the work piece is cooler. The connection is reduced to the
The following characteristics are common for both procedures: point of contact.
S In both cases the space between two metallic work pieces is filled with a -- The liquid solder contacts the surface of the work piece and spreads in
completely or partially melted metal or metal alloy. Work piece and filler all directions; it flows on the surface. If a narrow gap is encountered
metal are heated to a minimum temperature. This is why these procedures while the solder is flowing, it will be sucked into the gap by capillary
are called thermal connection processes. forces. Both parts will be connected inter--crystalline after hardening.
S In both cases the parts cannot be separated without destroying the weld or
the work piece. This procedure is therefore called „inter--crystalline connec-
tion“.
The following characteristics differ for both procedures:
S When fusion welding, the melt-areas of the filler metal and the work piece
are almost or completely identical. When soldering, the filler metal will melt
at lower temperatures than the work piece.
S Whilst welding, the connection is affected due to the hardening of the mix-
ture of the filler metal and the melted portions of the work pieces which are
to be combined. When soldering, the connection is realized due to the hard-
ening of the solder, which causes a connection with the unmelted parent
metal by way of diffusion processes and alloy processes.
NOTE: THE SOLDER DOES NOT ALWAYS HAVE TO BE ADDED WHEN
SOLDERING; IN SOME CASES IT WILL BE CREATED FROM THE
WORK PIECES TO BE SOLDERED. IF PURE SHEETSILVER IS
PUT ON A PANEL OF ELECTROLYTE-COPPER AND HEATED UP
TO 790 - 800o C THE RESULT WILL BE A SOLDER CONSISTING
OF 72% AG AND 28% COPPER. THIS ALLOY HAS A LOWER
MELTING POINT THAN THE PARENT METALS. IN THIS EUTEC-
TIC SYSTEM, NONE OF THE PARTNERS IS COMPLETELY
MELTED.
S If liquid solder contacts a heated, solid metal with a metallically clean sur-
face, one of the following phenomenons can be observed:
-- The liquid solder forms into a ball or a flattened shape which can easily
be separated from the metal after hardening. This condition occurs when
the temperature of the surface of the work piece is much lower than the
melting temperature of the solder.
-- The liquid solder gets on the surface of the work piece but doesn’t
spread. After hardening, the solder is solidly connected to the work piece

Solder slightly
connected
Bondline
Solder
Crystalline
Solder partly alloyed
Normal Gap
Solder
Crystalline
Solder perfectly alloyed

Good Gap
Solder
Figure 354 Brazing / Soldering

SOLDERING OF METALS (CONT.)

The lowest temperature that must exist at the contact area of solder and work
piece in order to let the solder flow and adhere to the parent metal is called the
operating temperature.
The operating temperature depends exclusively on the properties of the solder
(which are caused by the composition of the solder alloy), but not on the
amount of solder or the properties of the parent metal. This makes it a temper-
ature valid and characteristic for all soldering processes.
Usually the work pieces to be soldered are heated to a temperature above the
operating temperature. The permitted temperature may vary within a certain
range. This range has its lower limit at the operating temperature and its upper
limit at the maximum soldering temperature.
The maximum soldering temperature is the temperature above which the fol-
lowing damage is caused:
S elements of the solder alloy will evaporate
S the work piece will soften
S the work piece will get coarse
S important components of the flux will evaporate.
The range of the permitted soldering temperature decreases with the sensitivity
of the material.
Adherence to the specified soldering-gap width has highest priority, because
satisfactory soldering depends not only on the flow of the solder but also on the
capillary action of the solder and the soldering gap of the material.

Solder destroyed
Material
4. Macro crystalline development

Liquid solder
Above normal operating temperature
Solder gap
Material Penetration behaviour

3. Solder penetrates Upper operating temperature
3
2. Solder begins to melt
2 Lower operating temperature
1 Below normal operating temperature

1. Solder is solid
Good solder penetration Bad solder penetration
Wrong Solder Gap

Time Optimum Solder Gap
Figure 355 Brazing / Soldering Process

Soldering procedures are classified according to the soldering temperature:
S soft soldering - 450˚ C
S hard soldering - 450˚ C
S high temperature soldering - 900˚ C.
Soft soldering will not be dealt with in this text. We will concentrate on hard sol-
dering and high temperature soldering.

b
Degree of wetting
0.1 0.2 0.4 mm 0.5

Gap distance b
Gap too small: solder Good gap design: optimum solder Wider gap only for manual soldering. Heat Gap too big: insufficient wetting of the
cannot penetrate penetration for automated soldering and solder must be controlled individually. solder, high solder consumption
Figure 356 Soldering Process (cont.)

HARD SOLDERING PROCESSES

Hard soldering processes are usually named according to their type of heating. Furnace Soldering
The following processes are of current industrial importance: Furnace soldering is preferably used when the parts to be connected can be
S flame soldering pre-assembled.
S furnace soldering The solder is added as wire, rings, foils powder or paste. Furnace soldering
can only be carried out without flux in a special atmosphere that that takes over
S induction soldering
the function of the flux.
S resistance soldering Furnace soldering is often performed in a reduced gas atmosphere such as
S dip brazing hydrogen. To create a special, neutral atmosphere, pure dry inert gases such
S infrared soldering. as argon or helium are used. These inert gases are very unreactive and chemi-
cally indifferent.
All these procedures have in common that the solder has a melting point of
more than 450˚C, which is below the melting point of the respective parent A great amount of furnace soldering is performed in a vacuum. This prevents
metal. The solder spreads in the contact area because of capillary action. oxidation and, under certain conditions, the use of flux is unnecessary. This
procedure is of high importance in aviation, astronautics and nuclear energy
Flame Soldering techniques, either because highly reactive materials are used here or the use
Heating is caused by one or more gas burners, which can be used either of flux is not permitted. The vacuum is maintained by continuous pumping and
manually or mechanically. removes evaporating substances which are created during the soldering pro-
cess.
Depending on the required temperature and the amount of heat necessary to
reach it, different gases such as Acetylene and Propane are used. The vacuum-furnace soldering is a relatively economical procedure to use an
exactly controlled furnace atmosphere. The vacuum creates the cleanliness of
These are burnt together with air, pressurized air or oxygen. The solder is ei-
the surface which is necessary for a good contact of work piece and solder and
ther added before the burning procedure (in the form of rings, slices, strips or
the flow of the solder without use of flux.
powder) or it is added manually (as wire or in the form of a bar). The use of flux
is necessary. Material containing chromium or silicon con be soldered very well in a vacuum.
Without using the vacuum, a very clean atmosphere is required with a very low
point of condensation.
Furnace soldering in a vacuum is usually used at temperatures higher
than 900˚C and as a rule guarantees relatively high grade soldering con-
nections.



INDUCTION SOLDERING
In this process, the heat required for hard soldering is created by induced cur-
rents. The work piece is placed near a coil which is connected to alternate cur-
rent. Thus the work piece becomes part of the electrical circuit.
The currents which are induced in the work piece create heat because of the
electrical resistance of the material. The surrounding area remains cold except
for the radiation heat.
For the soldering of small components, high frequency installations of 450 -
2000 kHz are usually used. Their power is mostly between 1 and 15 KW.
Medium frequency of about 5 to 10 KHz is preferably used for larger compo-
nents. In this case, the power is usually between 5 and 10 KW. The material
strength at the soldering area is very important here.
The heating of the soldering area is effected without contact by water-cooled
induction coils. Because of the fast heating of the soldering area, the solder is
often applied before the soldering starts.
If protective gas is not used, the work is performed with the help of flux.
Protective gas soldering is either performed in a room filled with protective gas,
or by using an induction coil with integrated protective gas nozzle. The latter
shields the soldering area locally because of the escaping protective gas.

3
4
1 5
2 1
1 Work Pieces
2 Soldering Gap
3 Inducer (Coiler)
4 Shielding Gas Protection
5 Shielding Gas Nozzle
Figure 357 Induction Brazing

RESISTANCE SOLDERING
The heat necessary for this soldering is created by the electrical resistance of
the soldering area in the electrical circuit. The parts to be soldered are held in
place with sufficient pressure by two water-cooled electrodes.
These can be made of coal, graphite, copper or copper alloy, depending on the
required electrical conductivity. The use of resistance welding machines is pos-
sible.
DIP BRAZING
Dip brazing can be performed in two different ways:
S as salt bath soldering. In this case the solder and flux have already been
applied to the soldering area. The electrically-heated salt bath only supplies
the heat necessary for the soldering process.
S as metal bath soldering. The metal bath consists of molten solder. The
cleaned parts are dipped into the solder after they have been treated with
flux. This soldering process is only applicable to small parts.
INFRARED SOLDERING
This procedure has gained economical importance since strong quartz-lights
have been developed. These quartz-lights (commercially available up to 5KW)
are used as heat sources for the soldering process.
The use in an extreme low- pressure atmosphere or in a protective gas atmo-
sphere is possible.
CLEANING AFTER SOLDERING

Usually it is necessary to remove flux residues after soldering. This is espe-
cially important if the flux acts in a strongly corrosive way, like when soldering
aluminium or magnesium.

REACTION OF MATERIALS TO SOLDERING

Some metals and alloys react to being soldered which impairs the soldering Hydrogen Embrittlement
and sometimes call for special action. Some of these reactions are caused by Because of the small size of its molecules, hydrogen has the ability to enter
the material (carbide precipitation, oxidation, hydrogen embrittlement, sulphur many metals (diffusion).
embrittlement, etc), whilst others are caused by the solder (vapour pressure).
The rate of diffusion rises with the temperature. When hydrogen enters mate-
Others again are caused by material and solder (phosphoric embrittlement, rial which is not completely oxide-free, it can reduce the oxide of the metal, pro-
stress cracking). vided the temperature is high enough.
Carbide Precipitation Because the size of the molecules of the water vapour prevent it from diffusing
to the surface, pressure is created in the material. In the case of copper this
Corrosion resistant steel and some alloys which contain chromium and carbon
pressure can reach 63.3 N/cm2.
tend to carbide precipitation at temperatures 427--816˚C.
These enormous pressures tear the material apart at its grain boundaries. Cop-
The carbon content of the material reacts preferably with the chromium and is
per, silver and palladium which contain oxygen are especially endangered.
precipitated as chromium-carbide.
The hydrogen embrittlement of steel follows a different pattern. No water is
The parent metal which is thus reduced in its chromium content will lose its cor-
formed, but the hydrogen atoms transform into hydrogen molecules at the grain
rosion resistance.
boundaries and in the areas of non-metallic enclosures. Since the molecules
The precipitated carbides can be dissolved again by a heat treatment between are less mobile than the atoms, the removal of the hydrogen is thus more diffi-
1010 and 1120˚C, followed by rapid cooling. cult. Heat treatment 90 - 200 ˚C or a long storage time can restore the tough-
A heat treatment of 2 hours at 870˚C, followed by a furnace cooling to 538˚C ness of the material.
and subsequent air cooling can spread the chromium that has not yet been Some materials cannot be soldered in a hydrogen atmosphere, because they
precipitated evenly in the material again. would develop permanent embrittlement. Typical examples are titanium, zir-
The carbide precipitation will not exceed acceptable limits with normal corro- cons and their alloys.
sion resistant steels, as long as the soldering is carried out quickly. Tantalum and niobium (or colombium) also show embrittlement when in contact
with hydrogen, but their toughness can be restored by heat treatment.
Oxidation
Most other metals and alloys whose oxides con be reduced in a hydrogen sur-
Some oxides are easy to remove, but chromium, titanium, silicon, manganese
rounding have a surplus of elements that decrease the amount of oxides.
and beryllium form oxides which are hard to remove. This is why alloys contain-
These metals are not subject to hydrogen embrittlement.
ing these elements require special procedures.
Chromium oxide can be removed with some fluxes containing fluorine.
Aluminium-, titanium-, silicon-, manganese- and byrillium-oxide can also be re-

moved by special fluxes.
In many high temperature soldering processes where age-hardening alloys with
chromium and aluminium are processed, very stable oxides are created, which
are difficult to reduce. Such soldering should take place in hydrogen, helium,
argon or in a vacuum. A galvanic nickel-plating can prevent the build-up of ox-
ides due to its masking effect.

Areas Subjected to Heat Vapour Pressure
The heat that is required for the soldering process can lead to softening of ma- If soldering is to take place in a vacuum, care must be taken with selection of
terials whose mechanical properties were achieved by cold-working. If the sol- the solder. Solders containing cadmium or zinc cannot be used.
dering temperature is higher than the recrystallizing temperature, a coarsening The reaction of solder and parent metal is important for the behaviour of a sol-
of the grains can be the result. Properties that were achieved by heat treatment dering connection. The extent of these reactions depends on the composition
can be altered. of the solder, the parent metal and the heat treatment process.
The size of the area subjected to heat depends on the hard-soldering proce- Vacuum soldering takes place between 10--1 Torr and 10--4 Torr at temperatures
dure. In general it is larger and less defined than in welding processes. up to 1200˚C.
Sulphur Embrittlement Since the vacuum removes all gases from the soldering area, you need not
clean any gases which otherwise would have to be added. The intensity of the
Nickel and certain nickel alloys can be subject to embrittlement if they are
vacuum depends on the parent metal and the solder.
heated in the presence of sulphur or substances containing sulphur.
Certain oxides of the parent metal will disintegrate in the vacuum at soldering
Particularly at grain boundaries, nickel sulphide with a low melting-point is
temperatures.
formed, which is soft and brittle and will break under load. Material damaged in
this way cannot be regenerated. Difficulties because of contamination of the surfaces to be soldered caused by
degassing of the parent metal are negligible in the vacuum.
This is why it is important that nickel and nickel alloys are clean and free of
sulphuric substances (oils, grease, paint, markings from colour pencils etc) be- The negative pressure around the parent metal and the solder will remove
fore heating. the heating has to take place in a sulphur-free atmosphere. gases and evaporating contamination at higher temperatures. In some cases
the properties of the parent metal are even improved.
Phosphoric Embrittlement
Phosphor builds brittle phosphides with many metals. This is why copper-phos-
phor solders are normally not used for iron alloys or nickel alloys.

SOLDERS
A metal or an alloy which is to be used as solder for soldering must have the Gold Solders
following properties: These are designed for soldering iron-, nickel- and cobalt-base materials which
S the ability to form a good solid contact with the parent metal used have to be oxidation- and corrosion-resistant. Due to their small influence on
S it must melt and flow easily to ensure the distribution of the solder via capil- the parent metal they are usually used for thin parent material.
lary action They are used together with a borax-boric acid flux.
S its composition must be homogeneous and stable to prevent the separation
Copper Solders
of solid and fluid parts whilst soldering
These solders are suitable for different ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
S the ability to provide soldering that meets various requirements such as sta-
bility and corrosion resistance Copper Zinc Solders
S depending on the requirements, it must be able to prevent or bring about a They are used for the same materials as copper solders, but their corrosion
reaction between the solder and the parent metal. resistance when soldering copper, silicon-Bronx, copper-nickel alloys and cor-
rosion resistant steel is not sufficient.
Solder Categories
Magnesium Solders
Aluminium-Silicon Solders
Are usable for soldering magnesium-base alloys. Heating has to be controlled
These are suitable for aluminium and aluminium alloys and can be used for
carefully to prevent melting of the parent metal.
cast metals and masticated materials. They can only be used with flux. The
flux can usually be removed in boiling water. Nickel Solders
Copper-Phosphate Solders Generally used because of their good corrosion- and heat-resistance.
These solders should primarily be used for soldering copper and copper alloys. Mainly used for soldering corrosion-resistant steel, nickel and nickel-base al-
To a limited extent they are used for silver, tungsten and molybdenum. loys. They can also be used for carbon-steels, ferrous alloy steels and copper.
They are heat-resistant up to about 980˚C.
They should not be used for iron or nickel-base-alloy nor for copper-nickel al-
loys with a nickel content of more than 10%. Cobalt Solders
When used for copper, flux is not necessary. For all other materials, including The special field of usage are cobalt alloys. Cobalt solders have an especially
copper alloys, flux is needed. high heat resistance up to a maximum of 1150˚C.
Silver Solders
Suitable for most ferrous or non-ferrous metals with the exceptions of alumin-
ium and magnesium. The use of flux is generally necessary.

FLUX
The purpose of a flux is to support the creation of a soldering connection. In Inspection of Soldered Joints
this sense, a gas or a vacuum which surrounds the work piece and creates a After completing the soldering operation, it is imperative that all traces of resid-
protective atmosphere is a flux. ual flux be completely removed.
Here, however, we will not deal with atmospheres, only fluid fluxes. Thoroughly clean the entire installation area with generously applied solvent
When base metals are subjected to air, chemical reactions will take place. and a soft--bristled brush. Clean the solder connection area until no visible
Higher temperatures will speed up these reactions. The main reaction is oxida- signs of residual flux remain, and blot the area dry with a clean gauze sponge .
tion, but the forming of nitrates and carbides is possible. Visually inspect the soldered joints for any gritty or jagged joint surfaces and for
The speed of oxidation and the structure of the oxides vary according to the traces of flux. Solder connections should be smooth, shiny, and uniform in ap-
composition of the material. In almost all cases the presence of oxides will pre- pearance. Any soldered joints that look questionable should be re--soldered,
vent satisfactory soldering. and flux removed.
When soldering, flux is used to remove or dissolve unwanted oxides or resi-
dues or to react with them. Otherwise the soldering would be impaired or pre-
vented. Since the flux must be displaced by the liquid solder easily, the viscos-
ity of the flux is very important. Under certain conditions the flux must also
prevent the evaporation of certain constituents of the solder.
Some solders (like lithium or the copper-phosphor solders) can act themselves
as flux when used with certain alloys. The flux has a masking and cleaning
function. The melting of the flux can also be used as temperature indication at
the soldering area.



RADIOGRAPHIC AND ULTRASONIC WELD INSPECTION

Radiographic Testing Ultrasonic Testing
Radiographic testing (RT) is usually suitable for testing welded joints that can Ultrasonic testing (UT) can be used on ferrous and nonferrous materials and
be accessed from both sides, with the exception of double--wall signal image often is suited for testing thicker sections accessible from one side only. In gen-
techniques used on some pipe. Although this is a slow and expensive NDT eral, it can detect finer linear or planar defects than can RT.
method, it is a dependable way to detect porosity, inclusions, cracks and voids UT makes use of mechanical vibrations similar to sound waves but of higher
in weld interiors. frequency. A beam of ultrasonic energy is directed into the object to be tested.
RT makes use of X--rays or gamma rays. X--rays are produced by an X--ray This beam travels through the object with insignificant energy loss, except
tube, and gamma rays are produced by a radioactive isotope. The basic princi- when it is intercepted and reflected by a discontinuity.
ple of radiographic weld inspection is the same as that of medical radiography. The ultrasonic contact pulse reflection technique is used in UT. This system
Penetrating radiation is passed through a solid object (in this case, a weld uses a transducer, which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
rather than part of the human body) onto photographic film, creating an image The transducer is excited by a high--frequency voltage that causes a crystal to
of the object’s internal structure on the film. vibrate mechanically. The crystal probe becomes the source of ultrasonic me-
The amount of energy absorbed by the object depends on its thickness and chanical vibration. These vibrations are transmitted into the test piece through
density. Energy not absorbed by the object causes exposure of the radio- a coupling fluid, usually a film of oil, called a couplant.
graphic film. These areas will be dark when the film is developed. Areas of the When the ultrasonic waves pulse strikes a discontinuity in the test piece, it is
film exposed to less energy remain lighter. Therefore, areas of the object where reflected back to its point of origin. Thus, the energy returns to the transducer.
the thickness has been changed by discontinuities, such as porosity or cracks, The transducer now serves as a receiver for the reflected energy.
will appear as dark outlines on the film. Inclusions of low density, such as slag,
The initial signal (or main bang), the returned echoes from the discontinuities
will appear as dark areas on the film, while inclusions of high density, such as
and the echo of the rear surface of the test piece all are displayed by a trace on
tungsten, will appear as light areas.
the screen of a cathode--ray oscilloscope. The detection, location, and evalua-
All discontinuities are detected by viewing the weld shape and variations in the tion of discontinuities become possible because the velocity of sound through a
density of the processed film. This permanent film record of weld quality is rela- material is nearly constant, making distance measurement possible, and the
tively easy to interpret if personnel are properly trained. Only qualified person- relative amplitude of a reflected pulse is more or less proportional to the size of
nel should conduct radiography and radiographic interpretation because false the reflector.
readings can be expensive and can interfere seriously with productivity, and
One of the most useful characteristics of UT is its ability to determine the exact
because invisible X--ray and gamma radiation can be hazardous.
position of a discontinuity in a weld. This testing method requires a high level of
operator training and competence and depends on establishing and applying
suitable testing procedures.

Transducer generates and receives

Sound path
Defect
Generating signal
Receiving signal
Radiation
source
Material is
thinner
Hole
Object
Film Ultrasonic Testing
Darkened area (when

processed)
Radiographic Testing
Figure 358 Radiographic and Ultrasonic Weld Inspection
BONDING
TYPES OF BONDING MATERIALS
There are 4 main groups of adhesives which differ as far as their application and The principal of contact bonding is based on the utilization of atmospheric air
effectiveness are concerned: pressure.
1. Contact adhesives Vaseline is a viscous contact that prevents air pressure entering between the
2. Fusion adhesives on a solution base (also called adhesive lacquers) panels, but a lateral movement of the panels in relation to each other (and fi-
nally a separation of the panels) cannot be prevented because of the viscosity
3. Reaction resin adhesive (Polymerization-adhesives, Polycondensation-
of the Vaseline. The experiment can also be carried out with fluids of a lower
adhesive and EP adhesives)
viscosity such as water, but then the panels can be separated quite easily.
4. Dispersion adhesives (eg polyvinyl acetate (“Phenol“)).
If the Vaseline is replaced with an adhesive, a mechanical application of load to
1.Contact Adhesives the bonded parts becomes possible.
Atmospheric air pressure presses two smooth surfaces with parallel faces to- Contact adhesives contain binding agents and fast evaporating solutions. Dur-
gether, provided there is no air between the contact surfaces. ing use you must ensure that both contact surfaces have a thin layer of adhe-
In outer space, “cold welding“ would be the result. Even in our environment, sive applied.
especially high-grade surfaces like on-end measures or master gauges tend to Before joining the surfaces you must wait until the solution has completely
“cold weld“. evaporated to avoid enclosure of still viscous parts of the adhesive. The parts
Experiments have shown that you can bond two glass panes with parallel sur- are then joined with high pressure to exclude air.
faces with Vaseline to such a degree that you cannot separate them manually Even material that has no chemical similarity with either the adhesive or one or
with a force acting in a vertical direction to the surfaces. both parts to be joined can be bonded with contact adhesive.
The reason for this is simply our normal barometric air pressure, which at sea The expression „contact adhesive“ is also to be used as an expression for per-
level amounts to 1 bar or 10 N/cm2. manently bonding materials such as Band-Aid or price labels.
A relatively small contact area of 100 cm2 needs a perpendicular pulling force
of 1000N to separate the glass panes from each other.



2.Fusion Adhesives on a Solution Base
You can only join parts with identical material with fusion adhesive.
For example, you can soften hard PVC panels with hot air and then join using
PVC welding wire. This procedure can be used with most thermoplastics.
Cold welding of parts of the same material is also possible with suitable solu-
tions. The edges to be joined will temporarily get soft, are pressed together and
thus melt. After the solution has evaporated, the edges that have been melted
together will be solid.
Solution-based adhesives can also be used to make rubber products soft (eg
the tube of the tire of a vehicle and the respective patch). The solution on large
patches and the repair area of the tube must evaporate before they are
pressed together to avoid the installation of the “softener“.
Generally, the usually paste-like solutions can only be used for certain materi-
als. For example, it is not possible to use a polystyrene adhesive to bond a rub-
ber patch or to combine polyurethane parts with a PVC adhesive.
3. Reaction Resin-Adhesives
To understand the processing and effectivity of polymerization-adhesives it is
necessary to have a closer look at some principles. These principles are ex-
plained later in a simplified version.
4.Dispersion Adhesives
Dispersion adhesives are not discussed in this book.



WETTING
An important condition for best possible bonding is the ability of the adhesive to
cover the complete surface of the parts to be joined, and to ensure a good con-
tact (wetting capability).
Mercury, for example, is a fluid which does not wet most metallic and ceramic
materials. The flattening of the mercury drop is caused by gravity. The mercury
drop forms into a ball due to strong internal cohesion forces of the atoms,
which attract each other.
In contrast to mercury, a fluid that will provide good contact with the surface will
make it wet. A so-called penetrating oil will even cover the complete surface of
a part that is facing the ground.
Epoxy-resins used in airplane manufacture get in good contact with the sur-
faces of the parts if they have been pretreated correctly. However, not every
material surface will have a good contact with epoxy-resin. The automatic cov-
ering of Teflon, for instance, is not possible.
The contact of the fluid and the surface occurs because there is a mutual at-
traction between the fluid and the surface. This can be stronger than gravity.
Only if gravity is higher than the contacting force will the fluid drop from a sur-
face that is upside down.

Mercury
Aluminium Alloy
g
In space, where gravity does not

exist, fluid will form into a ball
Figure 359 Bonding Process ( Fundamental )

α ን 90° = no wetting
α = wetting-angel α ኢ 90° = good wetting
Figure 360 Definition of wetting

No wetting - no capillary action
Good wetting - good capillary action
Figure 361 Capillary action between two surfaces

CAPILLARY ACTION Advantages of bonded connections over riveted connections are:

If conditions for a good contact are right, the narrowness of tubes and gaps in S decreased concentration of stresses
adjacent material will add to it. Fluid will enter the narrower the cavity is. S increased stability of the component
This effect is called capillary action. S improved sealing (for example of the pressurized cabin or the fuel tanks)
The same effect is used in soldering (relation between soldering and bonding). S minimized costs for manufacture
The following descriptions refer to capillary action in narrow tubes or gaps, for S decreased danger of contact corrosion and crevice corrosion
example in sheet metal panels in contact with each other. S in the case of outer bonding seams, improvement of the aerodynamic sur-
It is clear that in the cabin interior area (such as in the galley and lavatory face.
areas) a lot of corrosion damage is caused because aggressive fluids pene- Disadvantages of a bonded connection are:
trate between borders of floor panels or under supported masking panels. The S relatively low mechanical strength of the bonding
wetting forces are usually so strong, that an evaporation of the penetrating fluid
does not take place. S low resistance to heat
S very sensitive to chemical action
ADHESION AND COHESION S sensitive to moisture
Good bonding depends on the factors adhesion and cohesion. S tendency of the bonding material to penetrate adjacent areas
The bonding strength between the fluid and the surface of the part to be joined S separation is only possible by destroying the connection.
is called adhesion.
The inner strength (the force that holds the molecules of a material together The following rule will ensure that you can utilize the full bonding strength of the
(breaking load)), is called cohesion. adhesive and still prevent breakage of the bond during operation of the aircraft
The adhesion (also called adsorption) is determined by the attraction that the to a very high degree:
molecules of (for example) the epoxy-resin and the sheet metal surface create
to each other. Adhesion must be stronger than cohesion!
This adhesion will only be effective if the surfaces of the parts has been This means that the surface always must be pretreated in a way that will en-
cleaned and degreased carefully. Should it be necessary, the surface can be sure that the applied adhesive will never rip or tear off the surface under the
enlarged by roughening or an etching bath (pickling). operational stresses.
Cohesion is always known. The breaking load of an adhesive is determined by
tests carried out by the manufacturer. The adhesive is provided with a certain
minimum breaking load so that the airplane manufacturer can rely on a fixed
bonding strength.
Due to the development of very solid adhesives which have good contact to
metal surfaces and are very resistant to aging, it has become possible to
manufacture large areas of the airplane structure as bonded components.

Adhesion crack Coherence crack

Figure 362 Adhesion / Coherence

To get the best bonding connections, several conditions have to be satisfied:

S The interfacial surface forces between the surfaces of the joined parts are
enlarged by a submicroscopic teasling ( pickling bath until 1994; than chro-
mic acid anodizing).
S A slightly-roughened surface offers a better contact between the parts to be
joined and the adhesive.
S The „real“ surface is slightly enlarged and this makes the bond tighter.
S Mechanical roughening as is sufficient for most bonding connections is not
permitted for high grade connection by means of adhesive films and curing
in an autoclave.
S The pretreating of adhesion surface areas of sheet metal parts out of alu-
minium or aluminium alloys is performed on the basis of chemical etching.
S The pickling process is modified by some airplane manufacturers. There
may be differences between Airbus and Boeing.
S The result of the pickling or CAA process is a sheet-metal surface covered
with micro-depressions.
Adhesive can only reach its full stability when being correctly processed:
S Only use new adhesives and not those whose usability has expired.
S Mix adhesives consisting of different components in the correct ratio and
process at specified temperature and humidity.
S Observe pot-life time under all circumstances.
S During hardening time, the parts must not be in contact with each other.
S Ensure the correct temperature and sufficient time for the hardening and
curing procedure.

The micro-depressions should be 6 to 7 m in

diameter, the depth 2 to 4 m.
Figure 363 Effect on surface roughening

Potential debonding
Bonded joint under tension Bondline cracking; adhesion crack.

load; elastically deformed.
Bondline cracking due to Good bondline behaviour.

overload; normal cracking.
Figure 364 Typical Bonding Overloads



EFFECTS OF BOND THICKNESS

The thickness of the bond has great influence on the tensile shear strength of
the bonded connection. In the case of a wide joint, the stress centreline of the
parts is far away from each other. When the connection is subjected to stress,
the stress centreline will move closer to each other, because the bond volume
changes into a parallelogram form.
The larger the thickness of the joint, the more an overlapping connection of this
kind is subjected to stress due to bending, and the stability of the connection
will decrease in proportion to the thickness of the joint.
The thickness of the joint should not exceed 0.1mm in the case of bonded
metal parts.

Stress concentration
(debonding forces)
Lever arm of a force
Bending
Elastic Stress line

deformation
Figure 365 Influence of Bondline Thickness



Influence of overlap length to

resin strength
60
50
Tension strength in N/mm2

Influence of the bondline thickness
40
to the resin strength
40 30
Epoxy
Epoxy 20
Resin
30 Resin
10
20
0 10 20 30
10 Overlap (mm)
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Bondline thickness d (mm)
Figure 366 Bonding Thickness/Overlap Comparisons

DESIGN OF BONDED CONNECTIONS

Bonding of metal parts requires parts design that is fit for bonding. Since the
adhesive usually has a smaller strength than the parts to be joined, it is unfa-
vourable to have perpendicular pulling forces act on the bonded connection.
1. Blunt Joints
This joint is not suitable for the transfer of forces because the bonding area is
small and the strength of the adhesive will never reach the strength of the ma-
terial of the parts. Unsuitable for airplane construction.
2. Stepped Double-Fishplate Connection
This connection is too luxurious for airplane construction, even though its bond-
ing area is larger.
3. Stepped Lap Joint
This connection is simpler than the above, but still unsuitable for higher
stresses.
4. Single Lap Joint

This connection is preferred for thin cross sections in airplane construction,
because of its easy realization.
5. Double Lap Joint
This results in good connections at low costs. You get best material utilization
at a sheet metal thickness of 1:2:1. Not suitable for airplane construction be-
cause of the amount of handicraft-work and the double force transition.
The best utilization of a bonding connection is a shearing force that acts in the
joint direction.
6. Single-Fishplate
This connection is often used if a surface has to be smooth without any special
pretreatment.

1. 4.
2. 5.
3. 6.
Figure 367 Typical bonding examples 1

7. Double-Fishplate
This connection has a higher stability than the single-fishplate, but it requires
more work and time. It is rarely used, because you cannot reach the condition
of a smooth and even bonding connection on either side.
It is therefore hardly practicable for airplane construction.
8. Tapered Lap Joint

This connection is somewhat better than the overlap shown in example 4, but it
also requires more work.
Used in airplane construction.
9. Bonded Reinforcement
Common in airplane construction, eg stringer and sheet metal skin.
10. Tapered Double-Fishplate Connection

This connection is even worse than the tapered lap joint, even though it is sym-
metrical.
11. Shaft-Connection
This connection reaches high stability values, but requires much work. Espe-
cially for performance under dynamic stresses, the shaft connection is superior
to all other bonding connections.
It was widely used in wooden airplane construction, eg for glued spars.
In the cases of all described bonded connections with the exception of the
shaft-connection, the connections require peel strength adhesives, because
stress peaks occur at the end of material sections.

7.
10.
8.
11.
9.
Figure 368 Typical bonding examples 2

STRESSES IN DIFFERENT KINDS OF CONNECTION

1. Rivet Connections
Peaks of stresses at the countersinks and their edges.
2. Welded Connections
Uneven distribution of stresses because of superimposed welding-stresses.
1. Weld
2. Overheat area
3. Softening area
3.Bonded Single Lap Joint Connection

Shear-stress distribution results in extreme stress peaks at the edges of
bonded parts.
4. Bonded Shaft Connection
Most even distribution of stresses.

1.
3.
F
F
2.
4.
3
1
2
Figure 369 Stress distribution

PROPERTIES OF RESINS AND BONDED CONNECTIONS

Stability of Bonded Connections MATERIAL Rm = KSI
There are some technological problems which have to be taken into consider-
ation by the aircraft manufacturer when parts are to be bonded. Carbon Steel from 50
The most important differences between 2024 and 7075 aluminium alloys and High Strength Steel Heat Treated up to 300
epoxy-resin are the lower stability (breaking load) and the higher elasticity and
thermal extension of the latter. CRES 60 - 115
Aluminium that can be subjected to age hardening has a stability ten times as Ti 6Al 4V up to 185
high as epoxy resin.
AA 2024 65
The elasticity under load and the temperature extension coefficient are 10
times higher than the respective values for aluminium. AA 7075 80
As a matter of fact, several technical and physical factors have a strong influ- Epoxi - Resin up to max. 15
ence on the construction of the bond.
These factors will lead to certain measurements. Often the shape and mea-
surements will differ from those commonly used for rivet connections. When constructing the components, the respective safety factor and possible
The following tables and diagrams show the most important factors the fatigue of the material have to be considered.
manufacturer has to keep in mind. Most data were determined empirically. This means that the breaking load values are normally reduced by up to 75%.
Generally, deviations from the specified instructions for repair procedures are In the case of composites, an additional safety factor of j=1.5 is added accord-
not necessary for airlines, because the different work procedures, cure times, ing to FAR 25 :
pressures, temperatures etc depend on the results of the above-mentioned jkompl. = j x jR
data.
Deviations often lead to worse results.
Only material that has been specified by the aircraft manufacturer is permitted
jkompl. = 1.5 x 1.5 = 2.25
for use in repairs.
Any modifications for which the airline is responsible will automatically lead to
the expiration of claims under warranty which could result from the respective The Shear-strength for EP-adhesives that cure with heat treatment (125 de-
repair. gree C-system) is thus calculated with
τB = 6,5 KSI
(15 KSI / 2.25), but a number of flight-operational influences can reduce this
value dramatically.

Influence on adhesion caused by temperatures like permanent operational Comparisons of elasticity-modules

temperature or temporary solar radiation. The E-module is the theoretical tensile stress that will expand a material-bar of
certain length to twice this length:
E = Tension / Expansion
4.2
KSI
E-Modulus KSI
2.8
Steel 30.000
Titanium 20.000
1.4 AA 2024/7075 10.000
PF - Resin 1.370
0 EP - Resin 960
0 10 30 50 70 90 o
C
Sealing Compounds 70
Temperature

INFLUENCES OF PRODUCTION
The consideration of curing processes during fabrication has highest priority.
There is known data for the cure of cold age-hardening epoxy adhesives for a
period of about 26 hours.
It is also known that, for acceptable periods, EP-adhesives actually require
considerably higher temperatures to develop best adhesion values than are
possible for the heat treated aluminium sheet metal parts.

Curing time up to a tensile strength of 30 N/mm2

Theoretical curing of epoxy resin according to the
for a room-temperature curing epoxy resin
increasing curing temperature (oven or autoclave)
30
20
Tension shear strength in N/mm2

40
Stren 35
10 gth 30
8
Curing
Time t (h)
20 25
5 area 20
4
3 Mate-
10
rial Al
2
Mag 3
1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Temperature Co
Curing Time t (h)
Figure 370 Curing times

For the polymerization process, the EP-adhesion-film is mostly used in the au-
toclave at 2-3 bar overpressure and 125-175 degrees C.
At the same time, possibly enclosed moisture will evaporate and is removed by
a vacuum (suction).

Thermocouple
Pressure
Hold 90 +60/-0 minutes
Vacuum line (eg 2.5 bar)
260oF +/- 10oF
(127oC +/- 12oC)
260oF
Heat up 2oF - 8oF
(127oC)
(1oC - 5oC) Cool down 5oF/minute
per minute (3oC/minute)
maximum
TEMPERATURE
150oF
(66oC)
Compressor
(max 16 bar)
100oF
(38oC) Below 125oF (52oC)
release pressure and remove
layup and bagging materials
TIME
NOTE - maintain a vacuum of 22 inches of

mercury minimum during the entire cure cycle
Figure 371 Bonding process

Tensile-Shear-
oC oC Strength (N/mm2):
Product Form Weight (g/m2) Curing Temp Curing Time H Temp Stability
Bonding Al Alloy
Panels at R T
+20 36
lAraldite 123 B -60 to
Thickened fluid 200-400 +60 1 12 to 15
Hardener HY 956 +70
+100 30 min
+20 24
Aradite 106 -60 to
Thickened fluid 150-300 +40 6 12 to 25
Hardener 953 U +60
+160 1
+20 36
-60 to
EC 2216 B/A Thickened fluid 200-400 +60 2 22
+70
+90 1
Versamid 125 -60 to
Fluid 100-500 +20 24 10
Epoxy resin BN 710 +70
-55 to
FM 1000 Film 250 +175 1 45
+82
-55 to
Metlbond Type I Film 450 +175 1 25
+160
-55 to
FM 96 Film 400 +175 1 25
+160
-55 to
Redux 775 Fluid and powder 450 +150 30 min 30
+70
-55 to
EC 2214 Thickened fluid 100-400 +120 40 min 28
+82
-55 to
FM 123-5.03 Film 150 +125 30 min 30
+82

M 7.16 WEIGHT AND BALANCE
Part-66
AIRCRAFT WEIGHT AND BALANCE

GENERAL
All aircraft have design limitations. One of these limitations is weight. The fac-
tors that must be included in determining the weight limitations are the struc-
ture, the ability to lift the aircraft, and the maneuvers that the aircraft is allowed
to perform. For these reasons a maximurn weight must be established for each
aircraft design.
The distribution of weight is also of vital importance since the position of the
center of gravity affects the stability of the airplane. In loading an airplane, the
C.G. must be within the permissible range and remain so during the flight to
ensure the stability and maneuverability of the airplane during flight.
Airplane manufacturers publish weight and balance limits for their airplanes.
This information can be found in two sources:
1. The Aircraft Weight and Balance Record ( WBR )

2. The Aircraft Operation Manual ( AOM )
The information in the Aircraft Operation Manual is general for the particular
model of airplane.
The information in the Aircraft Weight and Balance Record is particular to a
specific airplane
The airplane with all equipment installed is weighed and the C.G. limits calcu-
lated and this information is tabulated on the record that accompanies the air-
plane logbooks. If alterations or modifications are made or additional equipment
added to the airplane, the weight and balance must be recalculated and a new
record prepared.
HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec 2005 Page: 807

Part-66
DOCUMENTS
FLIGHT LOG AOM
& MANUALS
NON- STRUCTURAL STRUCTURAL

MAINTENANCE
DESTRUCTIVE REPAIR SERVICE INSPECTION
PLANNING
TESTING MANUAL BULLETIN DOCUMENT
DOCUMENT
MANUAL
CORROSION COMPONENT WEIGHT AND

MAINTENANCE PREVENTION MAINTENANCE/ BALANCE
MANUAL MANUAL OVERHAUL RECORD
MANUAL
Figure 372 Manual Overview

Part-66
WEIGHT AND BALANCE CONTROL

Definitions and Terminology
The following terminology is used in the practical application of weight and
balance control for weighing, maintenance and operational purposes.
Datum Line
The datum is an imaginary line on a vertical plane from which all horizontal
measurements on the aircraft are taken for weight and balance purposes.
These measurements are taken with the aircraft in a level flight position. From
this datum we can determine the distances for the location of such items on the
manufacturer’s equipment lists such as seats and special equipment. It can
also be used when new equipment is to be added or old equipment is to be
removed from the aircraft.
The actual location of the datum for a particular type of aircraft can be any
point selected by the manufacturer. Common places are the leading edge of
the wing, the firewall and the nose. There is a tendancy today for the manufac-
turers to place the datum forward of the nose of the aircraft.
The balance datum line is a suitable line selected arbitrarily by the manufac-
turer from which horizontal distances are measured for balance purposes. It
may be the nose of the airplane, the firewall or any other convenient point .

Part-66
(DATUM LINE DL) BE (DL)
DL at Aircraft Leading Edge DL at Aircraft nose
0 68 140 ( Sizes in inch, mm,cm,m.....) 380

Station
depends on manufacturer
BE (DL) = 0
Figure 373 Aircraft Datum

Part-66
CENTER OF GRAVITY
Center of Gravity
The center of gravity (commonly abbreviated CG) is the point at which the total
weight of the aircraft is assumed to be concentratded, and the CG must be lo-
cated within the specific limits for safe flight.
Both lateral and longitundinal balance are important, but the prime concern is
longitudinal balance; that is the location of the CG along the longitudinal or
lengthwise axis.
An Airplane is designed to have stability that allows it to be trimmed so it will
maintain straight and level flight with hands off the controls. Longitudinal stabil-
ity is maintained by ensuring the CG is slightly ahead of the center of lift. This
produces a fixed nose down force independent of the airspeed.
This is balanced by a variable nose up force, which is produced by a downward
aerodynamic force on the horizontal tail surfaces that varies directly with air-
speed.
If rising air current should cause the nose to pitch up, the airplane will slow
down and the downward force on the tail will decrease. The weight concen-
trated at the CG will pull the nose back down. If the nose should drop in flight,
the airspeed will increase and the increased downward tail load will bring the
nose back up to level flight.
As long as the CG is maintained within the allowable limits for its weight, the
airplane will have adequate longitudinal stability and control.
Center of Gravity too far aft

If the CG is too far aft, it will be unstable, and difficult to recover from a stall.If
the unstable airplane should ever enter a spin, the spin could become flat and
recovery would be difficult or impossible.
Center of Gravity too far forward

If the CG is too far forward, the downward tail load will have to be increased to
maintain level flight. This increased tail load has the same effect as carrying
additional weight-the aircraft will have to fly at a higher angle of attack, and
drag will increase.

Part-66
Figure 374 Stability and Balance Control

Part-66
CENTER OF GRAVITY CONT’D
We could possibly suspend a light aircraft from various points to locate the CG
but this would be highly impractical and also impossiple with a large aircraft.
So, for practicality, it must be done mathematically. The formula for obtaining
the center of gravity is the total moment divided by the total weight which may
be abbreviated
S CG = TM / TW
Other formulas may be used to obtain the center of gravity of an aircraft, as we

will discuss later, but these variatons will always utilize the total moment de-
vided by the total weight formula.
Empty Weight Center of Gravity

The empty weight CG is the CG of an aircraft in its empty weight condition, and
is an important part of the Weight and Balance Record.

Part-66
Center of Gravity
Figure 375 Center of Gravity

Part-66
ARM AND MOMENT

ARM
The arm is the horizontal distance that an item is located from the datum. This
distance is always given in inches or centimeter. If the particular item is located
forward of the datum it is shown with a negative ( - ) sign. If the item is located
aft of the datum it is shown with a positive ( + )sign.
Weight is usually measured in pounds. When weight is removed from an air-
craft it is negative ( - ), and when added, it is positive ( + ).
Many items used in our weight and balance computations will have arm dis-
tances furnished by the manufacturer or will be found in the FAA Specifica-
tions. For example, these will be shown as ( + 25) or a ( - 50) meaning 25
inches aft of the datum and 50 inches forward of the datum respectively. If the
distance for an item to be installed is not given. an actual measurement must
be taken.
MOMENT
Moment is the product of the weight multiplied by the arm. This measurement
of force will be in inch pounds. The longer the distance from the datum the
larger the moment will become. For example. 5 pounds placed 25 inches from
the datum will have a moment of 125 inch pounds. Five pounds placed 100
inches from the datum will have a moment of 500 inch pounds.
Moment may be either negative or positive. This will be determined by whether
the weight is added or removed and whether the arm is negative or positive.

Part-66
arm l1 arm l2
0
90
Force Force
left CCW right CW
moment ML moment MR
F1 F
2
Explanation
ML = MR
M = Moment
F1 . l1 = F . l2
F = Force
2
m1 . g . l 1 = m2 . g . m = mass
l2
l = arm
m1 . l = m2 . l
g = gravity
1 2
Figure 376 Arm and Moment

Part-66
THE LAW OF THE LEVER
Determination of Mass-Moments
All weight and balance problems are based on the physical law of the lever.
This law states that a lever is balanced when the weight on one side of the
Datum multiplied by its arm is equal to the weight on the opposite side multi-
plied by its arm.
In other words, the lever is balanced when the algebraic sum of the moments
about the Datum is zero.
This is the condition in which positive moments ( those that try to rotate the
lever clockwise ) are equal to the negative moments ( those that try to rotate
the lever counterclockwise ).
S (+Mass ) X (+STA ) = (+ Moment )

S (- Mass ) X (+ STA ) = ( - Moment )
S (+Mass ) X ( - STA ) = ( - Moment )
S (- Mass ) X ( - STA ) = (+Moment )

Part-66
mass carry on baggage

mass rear passenger ( Payload )
mass fuel ( TOF, TF, RF )
mass flight crew
mass empty weight AC ( Basic Weight )
actual mass of loaded AC

Figure 377 Weight distribution on an Aircraft

Part-66


Part-66
F * Station = M
Basic weight 1.000 kg * 200 inch = 200.000 kginch
Equipment 100 kg * 210 inch = 21.000 kginch
Fuel 300 kg * 220 inch = 66.000 kginch
Baggage 100 kg * 190 inch = 19.000 kginch
Crew 2 Pilots 150 kg * 180 inch = 27.000 kginch
1.650 kg * X CG = 333.000 kginch
333.000 kginch
By using the CG formula you determine following:
X CG = = 201,8 inch
1.650 kg
The actual Center of gravity is now at Sta 201,8 inch from the Datum
Figure 378 CG Calculation ( Example )

Part-66
CENTER OF GRAVITY RANGE

Empty Weight CG Range
Light Aircraft with fuel tanks located in the wing, and seats that are side by side
with a small baggage compartment just behind the seats, have a relatively
limited CG range. For this reason, the manufacturer includes an empty weight
CG range in the Aircraft Specification Sheets. If the empty weight CG falls
within the empty weight CG range, the aircraft cannot be legally loaded so that
its CG in flight falls outside of the loaded CG range.
Loaded or Operating CG Range

Larger Aircraft with several rows of seats and both forward and aft cargo
compartments typically have a loaded CG graph contained in the Type Certifi-
cate Data Sheet.
Here you can find the most forward and most rearward loaded CG positions at
which the aircrafts meets the requirements according to JAR-OPS 1.625 Mass
and Balance Documentation.
The Limits are indicated in the specifications in either inches from the datum or
percent of mean aerodynamic chord ( MAC )

Part-66
CG Range 14“
Datum STA120 STA134
0“
Figure 379 CG Range and MAC

Part-66
MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD

Mean Aerodynamic Chord
The CG location in a transport aircraft is given in terms of percent of the Mean
aerodynamic chord ( % MAC ) of the wing. If you remember, a wings chord is
the distance from the leading edge to the trailing edge.
So the mean aerodynamic chord ( MAC ) is th chord drawn through the wing
plan area. Since wing on aircraft is not rectangle, the mean aerodynamic chord
is determined for weight and balance and aerodynamic purposes.
The center of gravity range on most large aircraft is expressed with respect to
the CG location on the mean aerodynamic chord. For example, if the center of
gravity is 15 % aft of the leading edge of a mean aerodynamic chord which is
100 inches long, the center of gravity would be 15 inches aft of the leading
edge of the mean aerodynamic chord.
LEMAC and TEMAC

The leading edge of the MAC is referred to as LEMAC and the trailing edge of
the MAC as TEMAC.
The location of LEMAC is usually expressed as a body station number to help
in determing the body station number of the center of gravity.
The length of the MAC is established by the manufacturer and is found in the
Aircrafts Type Certificate Data Sheets and maintenance manuals too. When
the length of the MAC and the CG position is known, it is an easy task to deter-
mine the CG in percent MAC

Part-66
a%
MAC
CENTER OF
GRAVITY
CG
CENTER OF CENTER OF
GRAVITY PRESSURE
CG CP
X STA inch
X%
Swept Wing ( % MAC ) Rectangular Wing ( STA“ )
Figure 380 Mean Aerodynamic Chord

Part-66
MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD

CG Range in % MAC Boeing 747--400 ( typical )
The swept--back wing of jet airplanes has a varying chord length (chord is the
cross--section of the wing). The root chord at the base of the wing is the largest
chord value, and the tip chord is the smallest. The MAC is the average value of
the wing chord.
The MAC projected to the longitudinal axis of the airplane where the CG is lo-
cated. The leading edge of the MAC (station 1258) is 0% MAC, and the trailing
edge (station 1586) is 100% MAC.
In our Example the CG Limits are from 11 % MAC up to 34 % MAC therefore
the CG limit is from STA 1294 up to STA 1333

Part-66
Figure 381 Mean Aerodynamic Chord Boeing 747-- 400

Part-66
AIRCRAFT WEIGHTS
Empty Weight Maximum Landing Weight
Standard Weight Empty: The weight of the airframe and engine with all stan- The maximum weight approved for landing touchdown. Most multi--engine air-
dard equipment installed. It also includes the unusable fuel and oil. planes which operate over long stage lengths consume considerable weights of
fuel. As a result, their weight is appreciably less on landing than at takeoff. De-
Basic Weight Empty signers take advantage of this condition to stress the airplane for the lighter
The weight of the airplane with all optional equipment included. In most modern landing loads, thus saving structural weight. If the flight has been of short dura-
airplanes, the manufacturer includes full oil in the basic empty weight. tion, fuel or payload may have to be jettisoned reduce the gross weight maxi-
mum or maximum landing weight.
Useful load (or Disposable load)
The difference between gross take--off weight and basic weight empty. It is, in Maximum Weight -- Zero Fuel
other words, all the load which is removable, which is not permanently part of Some transport planes carry fuel in their wings, the weight of which relieves;
the airplane. It includes the usable fuel, the pilot, crew, passengers, baggage, the bending moments imposed on the wings by the lift. The maximum weight --
freight, etc. zero fuel limits the load which may be carried in the fuselage. Any increase in
weight in the form of load carried fuselage must be counterbalanced by adding
Payload weight in the form of fuel in the wings.
The load available as passengers, baggage, freight, etc., after the weight of
pilot, crew, usable fuel have been deducted from the useful load. Passenger Weights
Actual passenger weights must be used in computing the weight of an airplane
Operational Weight Empty with limited seating capacity. Allowance must be made for heavy winter clothing
The basic empty weight of the airplane plus the weight of the pilot. It excludes when such is worn. Winter clothing may add as much as 14 lbs to a person’s
payload and usable fuel. basic weight; summer clothing would add about 8 lbs. On larger airplanes with
quite a number of passenger seats and for which actual passenger weights
Maximum Take--Off Weight would not be available, the average passenger weights of (182 lbs for males in
The maximum weight approved for the start of the take--off run. Winter and 188 lbs in summer season. 135 lbs and 141 lbs for females) may
be used. The specified weights for males and females include an allowance for
Maximum Ramp Weight 8 lbs of carry--on baggage.
The maximum weight approved for ground maneuvering. It includes the weight
of fuel used for start, taxi and run up.
Zero Fuel Weight

The weight of the airplane exclusive of usable fuel.

Part-66


Part-66
AIRCRAFT WEIGHTS CONT’D
Weight determination
The starting point for weight computation is the weight of the aircraft before
passengers, cargo, and fuel are added.
The term Basic Empty Weight includes the weight of the standard aircraft,
any optional or special equipment, fixed ballast, unusable fuel, and full operat-
ing fluids including oil, hydraulic fluid, and other fluids required for normal op-
erations of aircraft systems except potable water, lavatory precharge water,
and water intended for injection in the engines
Another weight term often used is standard empty weight. This is simply the
weight of an aircraft without optional equipment, and is obtained from aircraft
manufacturers.
For a fleet or a group of aeroplanes of the same model and configuration, an
average Dry Operating Weight and CG position may be used as the fleet
mass and CG position, provided that the dry operating weight and CG positions
of the individual aeroplanes meet the tolerances of designated specifications.
Tolerances up to (+ / - 0,5 % ) of DOW or CG are allowed.
The commonly used term is the Dry Operating Weight. This weight is the total
mass of the aircraft ready for specific type of operation excluding all usable fuel
and traffic load. This mass includes items such as :
S Crew and Crew Baggage

S Catering and removable passenger service equipment
S Potable water and lavatory chemicals
For computing purposes you have to use the Dry Operating Weight( DOW )
and as a counterpart on the Load and Trim Sheet the Dry Operating Index
( DOI )

Part-66
TOW
TAKE OFF WEIGHT
TOF (Take Off Fuel )

PAYLOAD
ZFW
OW
ZERO FUEL WEIGHT
OPERATING WEIGHT
DOW
DRY OPERATING WEIGHT
PAYLOAD
FUEL
BASIC WEIGHT
CREW CREW
PANTRY PANTRY
Movable Equipment
EMPTY WEIGHT
-- Airframe
-- Powerplant
Take Off Fuel:
-- Equipment Trip Fuel

Optional and special Equipment
fixed ballast and full engine coolant hydraulic fluid Alternate
-- Emergency Equipment Holding
residual fuel and oil Taxi
2 % Continguency
Figure 382 Weight determination

Part-66
ENVIRONMENTAL WEIGHT LIMITS

Determination MATOW and MALW
The aircraft weight has not only influence to the Aircraft structure as well as to
the Aircraft performance. By increased Weight well beyond the limits the per-
formance of the aircraft will change as follows:
S Increased Take off run

S reduction of climb rate
S reduced climb speed
S increased Landing stop distance
On top the pilot has to consider local condition such as Runway slope, Take off
run available, Airport height, Obstacles in take off segment as well as meteo-
rolgical conditions such as Winddirection, Windspeed, Temperatur, Density and
humidity.
In some cases it is not allowed to reach the MTOW because one of the above
will work as an limitation, so the pilot has to adjust the weight of the aircraft
within limits regarding to the manual to determine the Maximum allowable take
off weight ( MATOW )or the Maximum allowable landing weight ( MALW ).
However, the Maximum Zero Fuel Weight ( MZFW )is not adjustable, here is
the limitation the structural integrity at the wing to body joint.

Part-66
Determination of MALW and MATOW reducted by environmental condition
max TOW max LW max ZFW

a) (MTOW)
b) (MLW)
c) (MZFW)
Reduction due to
Density, Humidity, Temperature

Windcomponent, RWY, Slope, Condition
max allowable max allowable

Weight Weight
for Take Off for Landing
minus plus
Trip Fuel Trip Fuel
LAW Allowable Take Off Weight

( lowest of a, b, c )
Figure 383 Determination MATOW / MALW

Part-66
AIRCRAFT WEIGHING
WEIGHING PROCEDURES
General
When calculating a weight and balance record, certain procedures must be fol-
lowed in order to make the report accurate.
These procedures include more than just weighing the aircraft, they include
understanding weight and balance terms, knowing how to set up and use the
necessary equipment. There are also differnt JAA regulations that apply to
general aviation as compared to commercial aviation that must be adhered to.
Information on which to base the record of weight and balance changes to the
aircraft may be obtained from pertinent aircraft specification as follow,
S Type Certificate Data Sheet ( TCDS )

S Prescribed Aircraft Operating Limitations
S Aircraft Operation Manual ( AOM )
S Aircraft Weight and Balance Record
S Aircraft Maintenance Manual ( AMM )
S Weight and Balance Manual ( WBM )
Removal or addition of minor items of equipment such as nuts and bolts,

rivets, washers and similar standard parts of negligible weight do not require a
weight and balance check.
Therefore the removal or addition of major parts or equipment, such as config-
uration changes, results in changes to the center of gravity and a weighing pro-
cedure must be conducted with reference to the manuals above.

These changes are often calculated by aircraft technicians and entered in the
aircrafts permanent weight and balance records. Since these records stay with
the aircraft forever, they must reflect current aircraft status.

Part-66
Total Empty Weight
Total Empty Moment
CG position in % MAC
Empty Weight CG position ( Index )

Figure 384 Weight and Balance Record

Part-66
TYPE CERTIFICATE DATA SHEET ( TCDS )

Aircraft Specification
The Type Certificate Data Sheet is a document which contains a formal de-
scription of the aircraft, including detailed specifications of the type design and
the information required for type certification as well as weight and balance in-
formation as follows.
S Center of gravity range

S Empty weight CG range
S Maximum weight
S Position of datum
S Leveling means
The TCDS is issued by the FAA and it is the responsibility of the inspecting
Aircraft technician to ensure that the aircraft adheres to them before he starts
with weighing or balancing procedures.

Part-66
DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION
FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION
A 45 EU
BAe/SNIAS
CONCORDE, Type 1
January 9, 1979
TYPE CERTIFICATE DATA SHEET NO. A45EU
Datum The datum of the center of gravity computation is a vertical reference plane located 8.333 feet
( 2540m ) forward of Fuselage Station XA.0.A reference rigging point „C“ is provided on the airframe
83.172 feet ( 21.570m )
M.A.C. The reference root chord Co is 90.748 feet ( 27.660m ) in length;its leading edge is located
70.771 feet ( 21.570m ) aft of the datum
Leveling means Clinometer on the cabin rails.

Maximum weights TAXI WEIGHT 186,880 kg 412,000 lb

TAKE OFF WEIGHT 185,070 kg 408,000 lb
LANDING WEIGHT 111,130 kg 245,000 lb
ZERO FUEL WEIGHT 92,080 kg 203,000 lb
Figure 385 Type Certificate Data Sheet ( CONCORDE )

Part-66
AIRCRAFT LEVELING MEANS

Leveling Line
ln order to find the CG of an aircraft it must be level. For this purpose a leveling
means is provided by the aircraft manufacturer. It may be nothing more than a
door sill, or it could be two lugs built into the fuselage in order to accomodate a
spirit level. On some aircraft it consists of a point to suspend a plumb bob over
a scale.
Some larger aircrafts have an attitude indicator on board which is connectetd
with the weight and Balance Computer if the aircraft is equipped with such sys-
tem.

Part-66
Leveling Point
Leveling Line
Plumb Bob
Leveling Scale
Figure 386 Leveling Line and Scale

Part-66


Part-66
Figure 387 Leveling means B747-- 400

Part-66
WEIGHING THE AIRCRAFT

Weighing points
In order to find the center of gravity, weighing points must be selected. For
placing the scales, the most commonly used points are the wheels or the jack
points of the aircraft. Either of these places are designed to support the weight
of the aircraft. Usually on light aircraft the landing gear is used. This would be
difficult on large aircraft so the jack pads must be used.
All aircraft should be weighed in a closed hangar with a fairly level floor. If the
aircraft were to be weighed outside, the wind over the wings would adversely
affect scale readings, thus giving lighter readings than the actual aircraft
weight.
Usually, at least three scales are used during the actual weighing of the aircraft.
On some of the larger aircraft four scales are required with two of these on the
nose of the aircraft and two scales on the main gear.

Part-66
Weighing point ( Main Gear ) Scale ( typical )

Figure 388 Weighing points

Part-66
ON BOARD AIRCRAFT WEIGHT AND BALANCE SYSTEM

Weight and Balance Computer ( WBC )
Some large transport Aircraft have an on board aircraft weighing system called
( OBAWS ) that, when the aircraft is on the ground, gives the flight crew and
the maintenance technician a continues indication of the aircraft gross weight
and the location of the Center of gravity in % MAC.
The system consists of strain sensing transducers in each main wheel and
nose wheel axle, a weight and balance computer, and indicators that show the
gross weight, the CG location in % MAC, and an indicator of the ground atti-
tude of the aircraft ( leveling )
The strain sensors measure the amount each axle deflects and send this data
into the computer, where signals from all of the transducers and the ground
attitude sensor are integrated. The results are displayed on the indicators in the
cockpit.

Part-66
Figure 389 Weight and Balance Computer

Part-66
TARE
Tare
Tare is the additional--weight items that are used during the weighing proce-
dure. This could be the chocks used to hold the wheels on the scale platforms
because brakes are never applied during weighing due to possible side loading
of the scale. Tare might also be a jack placed on the scale platform or ballast
required for the jacking operation. regardless of what the tare may be, it must
be subtracted from the scale reading before empty weight and the center of
gravity are computed.

Part-66
Tare
Jack
Scale
Tare Scale
Tare
Figure 390 Tare

Part-66
PREPARATION OF THE AIRCRAFT

Cleaning of the Aircraft
The airframe should be thoroughly cleaned before weighing. A little dirt spread
over the large area of the aircraft will make quite a difference in the weight.
This cleaning should include not only the outside, but the interior, wheel wells,
and the baggage compartments. All items not considered as equipment should
be removed. Aircraft always have a tendancy to become heavier as the aircraft
becomes older. This is due to dirt in inaccessible places, paint, and items
added of negligible weight.
Fuel drain
Fuel should be drained from the aircraft tanks before weighing. The fuel re-
maining is considered residual fuel and is considered part of the empty weight.
Generally, on light aircraft, the fuel is drained from the fuel sumps or screens of
the system, since only unusable fuel is included in an aircrafts empty weight,
Draining fuel tanks is often impractical and therefore it is permissible to fill
tanks completely and then subtract out the weight of the usable fuel as speci-
fied in the TCDS.
Furthermore, since the weight of of fuel varies with temperature, the fuel tem-
perature should be taken when the aircraft is weighed and a correction applied
as necessary.
All fluid reservoirs and tanks must be filled to the specified level in the TCDS.
For example, hydraulic reservoirs must be filled and if the aircraft is equipped
with an anti-icing system, it also should be full.
Plumbbob
The plumb bob may be used with the leveling scale. It will also be used for
dropping points to the floor for such items as datum lines and weighing points
so actual measurements may be taken for computation.

Environment
All aircraft should be weighed in a closed hangar with a fairly level floor. If the
aircraft were to be weighed outside, the wind over the wings would adversely
affect scale readings, thus giving lighter readings than the actual aircraft
weight.

Part-66
Figure 391 Aircraft weighing on platform scales

Part-66
CALCULATION EXAMPLES
CALCULATION WEIGHT AND BALANCE
Determination of the Balance Point
Example 1
To better understanding the principles of weight and balance, consider a teeter-
totter with weight on each end. To illustrate this, imagine a board has a weight
of 25 pounds on the left and a weight of 50 pounds on the right.
Between the center of the two weights there is 12 feet. In order to find out
where the fulcrum must be placed to balance the two weights, choose an arbi-
trary location for the datum and construct a chart that lists the two weights,
their arms, and their moments. For example the datum is located at the center
of the 25 pound weight.
A lever problem is simplified if you draw a picture of the problem and
construct a chart.
In figure 16 the weight „A“ is used as a Datum
Since the weight A is directly over the datum, its arm and moment are zero.
However, the arm of weight B is 12 feet and therefore, has a moment of 600
pound feet ( 12 ft. X 50 lbs. = 600 pounds )
To find the balance point, divide the total moment by the total weight. The total
moment is 600 poundfeet and the total weight is 75 pounds.This places the
balance point eight feet to the right of the datum.

Part-66
12 feet
A B
25# 50#
Item Weight Arm Moment

A 25kg 0 0kg’
B 50kg 12’ 600kg’
Total 75kg 600kg’
Figure 392 Example 1

Part-66
EXAMPLE 2
Determination of Balancepoint with negative and positive arms
To check your calculations and prove that the board balances at the 8--foot
point, make a chart similar to the above.
However, this time use the 8--foot point as the datum. When this is done, all
distances to the right are considered positive and all distances to the left are
negative
Weight „A“ has an arm of negative eight feet, and a corresponding mo-
ment of negative 200 pound-feet. The arm of weight „B“ is a positive four
feet, and has a moment of 200 pound-feet. The sum of the moments is
zero and therefore, the board balances.

Part-66
8’ 4’
A B
25# 50#

A 25kg -8’ -200kg’
B 50kg +4’ +200kg’

Total 75kg 0kg’

Part-66
EXAMPLE 3
Determination of balancepoint with datum ahead of the Aircraft
When Aircraft manufacturers place the datum a given distance ahead of the
aircraft to make all moments positive, the balance point is still calculated the
same way. For example, assume the datum is located six feet to the left of the-
weight A in our previous example.
The moment of „A“ is +150 poundfeet, whereas, the moment of weight

„B“ is +900 poundfeet. This equates to a total moment of +1050 pound-
feet. When this is divided by the total weight, the balance point is found
to be 14 feet to the right of the datum. This is the same location found in
the previous example, eight feet to the right of weight „A“.

Part-66
DATUM
18’
14’
6’
A B
25# 50#

A 25kg +6’ +150kg’

B 50kg +18’ +900kg’
Total 75kg +14’ +1050kg’

Part-66
EXAMPLE 4
Shifting Center of gravity by weight additionals or reductions
Up to this point, the discussion has involved only two weights. However, this is
almost never the case when computing aircraft weight and balance changes.
Therefore, in this next example, assume you have a 50 pounds weight that is
25 inches to the left of the fulcrum, a 40 pound weight that is 45 inches to the
right of the fulcrum, and a third, 50 pound weight that you want to place on the
board to make it balance
To determine where to place weight C, add the moments of both weight

A and B together. Since the moment of weight B is greater than that of A,
there is a net force, or a moment of + 550 poundinches to the right of the
fulcrum.

Part-66
25’ 45’
A B
50# 40#
C
50#

A 50kg -25’ - 1250kg’
B 40kg +45’ +1800kg’

Total + 550kg’
C 50kg -11’ - 550kg’

Part-66
EXAMPLE 4 CONT’D
Where to place weight „C“?
With the moment calculated, the next step is to dtermine where to place weight
C. In order to make the board balance, a force of -550 pound inches must be
exerted left of the fulcrum.
To determine where weight C must be placed, divide the force ( moment )
needed by 50 pounds. The center of weight C must be 11 inches to the left of
the fulcrum. To prove this, calculate the total moment on each side of the ful-
crum.
The sum of the moments left of the fulcrum is -1800 pound-inches, and
the moment right of the fulcrum is +1800 pound-inches, therefore, the
board balances.

Part-66
25’ 45’
11’
A C B
50# 50# 40#

A 50kg -25’ -1250kg’
B 40kg +45 +1800kg’

C 50kg -11’ - 550kg’
Total 140kg ( -1800kg’ ) + ( + 1800kg’ )= 0
Figure 396 Example 4 cont’d

Part-66
APPENDIX
Load and Trim Sheet Boeing 747--400 ( typical )
Everything possible is done to make flying safe, and one expedient method is
to use of charts and graphs from the AOM / AFM to simplyfy and speed up the
preflight weight and balance computations.
Some use a loading graph and moment indexes ( Dry Operating Index ) rather
than the arms and moments.
These charts eliminate the need for calculating the moments and thus make
computations quicker and easier.
Moment Indexes
Moments determined by multiplying the weight of each compoment by its arm
result in large numbers that are difficult to handle and become a source of
mathematical error. To eliminate these large numbers, moment indexes are
used. The moment is divided by a reduction factor such as 100 or 1000 to get
the moment index.
The Load and Trim sheet provides the moment index for each component, so
you can avoid complicated calculation. The CG envelope uses moment in-
dexes rather than arms and moments

Part-66


Part-66
Figure 397 Load and Trim Sheet Explanation

Part-66
1
2 3 4
5 6 7
10
14
15
16
13
Figure 398 Typical Load and Trim Sheet B747-- 400

Part-66
WEIGHT AND BALANCE CALCULATION
FORMULAS
Commonly used formulas for weight and balance calculations
M=F * X
ML = MR
MGes = ML + MR
FGes * XCG = F1 * X1 + F2 * X2
CG in % MAC = CG inches from LEMAC x100

MAC
Trim Ballast = ACweight x change in CG desired

Ballast STA. - Arm of desired CG

Part-66


Part-66
Given : An Aircraft will be loaded at STA. 1057 with 2000kg and at STA. 2296 with 1400kg, Basic weight : 34000kg
Determine: actual position of center of gravity after loading
DL CG
1100cm
1057cm
2000kg 1400kg
2296cm
Figure 399 Exercise 1

Part-66
EXERCISE 1 CALCULATIONS:

Part-66
Given : An Aircraft has been weighed and the scale reading are as follows:
1) NLG = 6500kg at STA. 500cm
2) MLGL= 29300kg at STA.1614cm
3) MLGR=29200kg at STA.1614cm
All tare has been reducted
Determine: actual position of center of gravity
DL
500cm
6500kg
CG = ?
1614cm
29300kg
29200kg

Part-66
EXERCISE 2 CALCULATION :

Part-66
Given : An Aircraft with its Empty weight of 150000kg and Empty center of gravity at position STA. 3302 has
to be loaded to shift the Empty Center of gravity to STA. 3355.
Determine: How much weight has to be load at STA 5054 to reach the required Center of gravity at STA.3355?
DL
STA 3355
CGact.
STA.3302 STA.5054
150000kg Ballast ?
( -) (+)

Part-66
EXERCISE 3 CALCULATIONS :

Part-66
Given : An Aircraft with Empty weight of 6500kg at STA.200cm + 2 Pilots with 150kg both at STA 80cm has
to be loaded with :
1) CARGO 1 400kg, at STA 220cm
2) CARGO 2 200kg, at STA. 280cm
For conducting the flight they are fueling the aircraft with 1000ltr. AVGAS ( Fuel density: 0.7kg/ltr. )
LEMAC 0% at STA 180cm, length of Chord is 90cm
Determine: Position of CG by fully loaded Aircraft in

a) cm
b) % MAC
2,80m C2
C1
2,20m
CGempty
2,00m
1,80m 0%MAC
1,60m
2,10m
Fuel

Part-66

Part-66
Given : An Aircraft has been weighed, after weighing a weatherradar should be installed at position
2.02m ahead of the Empty weight CG.
Determine: a) Empty weight CG
b) Actual CG after installation of the Radar-equipment
xCG = ?
1.99m
0,68m
Scale Reading
2,01m
NLG 304,7 kg
MLG ( L ) 472,1 kg
DL MLG ( R ) 473,2 kg
Weatherradar 12,0 kg

Part-66

M7.17 AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND
STORAGE Part -66
M 7.17 AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE


STORAGE Part -66
TAXIING AND TOWING

General
The section on taxiing provides information relating to the danger areas around
aircraft engines.
The aircraft may be taxied with deflated tyres.
The aircraft may be towed via the nose landing gear or the main landing gear.
The aircraft may also be towed with deflated tyres.
Taxiing
The aircraft is normally taxied with all engines running, but in exceptional
circumstances may be taxied on one engine. The nose wheels are steered
hydraulically via the nosewheel steering system, which is controlled by a hand
wheel (tiller) in the cockpit to a maximum steering angle (depending on the
aircraft type) of +/- 70o.
If nosewheel steering is not available, the aircraft may be steered by differential
use of LH and RH landing gear wheel brakes.
WARNING: 1. ENSURE THAT, WHEN THE AIRCRAFT MOVES UNDER

ITS OWN POWER ON THE GROUND, NO-ONE ENTERS AN
AREA WHERE THE AIRCRAFT CAN CAUSE INJURY OR
EVEN DEATH.
2. ENSURE THAT NO OBJECTS (FOD) CAN BE BLOWN

AWAY OR INGESTED BY THE ENGINES.
DURING TAXIING/TOWING OPERATIONS (INCLUDING

LOW SPEED OPERATIONS), EACH PERSON IN THE AIR-
CRAFT MUST BE IN A SEAT WITH THE SEAT-BELT FAS-

TENED. IF THE SEAT-BELT IS UNFASTENED, THERE IS A
RISK OF INJURY IF THE AIRCRAFT STOPS SUDDENLY.

STORAGE Part -66
Figure 404 Taxiing

STORAGE Part -66
Towing
Forward and rearward towing is achieved by the use of a tractor attached to
the nosewheel axle via a tow-bar. The tractor must have sufficient weight and
braking power to ensure safety should the aircraft wheel brakes be defective or
fail during towing.
Steering the aircraft during towing is effected by the tractor acting directly on
the nose wheels via the tow-bar. The nose landing gear wheels can be turned
to a maximum (depending on the aircraft type) of +/- 150o during towing, but
the maximum towing angle +/- 90o is not to be exceeded normally.
Rearward towing and recovery of a bogged-down aircraft is achieved using a
tractor and towing bridle, with a steering arm attached to the nose gear wheel
axle. During rearward towing operations, when the aircraft is being steered
manually with the steering arm, the steering angle is not to exceed +/- 30o.
CAUTION: PRIOR TO ALL TOWING OPERATIONS, THE AIRCRAFT

HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS ARE TO BE PRESSURISED AND
THE BRAKE SYSTEMS TESTED.
Tools and equipment provided for towing are to be examined for serviceability
prior to use. Before towing the aircraft, all doors and panels are to be closed.
The towing path and aircraft parking area are to be clear of obstacles. During
towing, the cockpit is to be occupied so that the brakes can be applied in an
emergency. The towing procedure must be continuously controlled.
CAUTION: TOWING SPEED USING A TOW BAR OR TOWING BRIDLE

MUST NOT EXCEED THE WALKING SPEED OF THE AC-
COMPANYING GROUND CREW.

STORAGE Part -66
Figure 405 Towing via Nose Landing Gear

STORAGE Part -66
Towing Approximate Towing Load

During maintenance work, the aircraft is normally moved and steered by a
tractor attached to the nosewheel axle via a towbar. When towing in a limited
NOTE: IN ALL CALCULATIONS FOR MTW (MAXIMUM TAXI WEIGHT),
space, it is essential that the aircraft does not turn on a locked wheel, since this
WHEN THE AIRCRAFT IS PUSHED REARWARDS WITH THE
can result in deformation and excessive wear of the tyres.
ENGINES AT IDLE, THRUST RESISTANCE MUST BE ADDED TO
THE TOWING LOADS.
NOTE: IT IS RECOMMENDED THAT A TOWBAR WITH A DAMPING
SYSTEM IS USED.
NOTE: THE ENGINE THRUST RESISTANCE AT GROUND IDLE IS 400
DAN (FOR EACH ENGINE IN OPERATION).
You can use the MLG attachments to tow the aircraft: USE THESE COEFFICIENTS FOR THE FRICTION BETWEEN THE
S with the engines shut down, TYRES OF THE TOW TRACTOR AND THE GROUND,
S when the aircraft is bogged down. I.E. DRY CONCRETE OR ASPHALT : 0.80
WET ASPHALT : 0.75
Speed limits, when the door is closed and locked or removed:
S for a tractor with a tow bar, a maximum speed of 25 km/h (15.5 mph) is
permitted
S for a tractor without a tow bar (ie using a lifting device), a maximum speed
of 32 km/h (19.8 mph) is permitted.
Speed imits, when the passenger/crew doors are fully open and locked and/or
cargo doors open in vertical position:
S the permitted maximum speed is 10 km/h (6.21 mph).
You can use the nose landing gear tow--bar fitting to tow or push the aircraft:
S with maximum weight,
S with the engines between zero and idle.

STORAGE Part -66
Figure 406 Towing via Main Landing Gear

STORAGE Part -66
LIFTING AND SHORING

Lifting and Shoring
Aircraft lifting is accomplished using three hydraulic jacks; one positioned under
the front fuselage and one under each wing.
An auxiliary jack may be provided on each side of the centre fuselage.
The lifting of an individual landing gear strut is accomplished using a landing
gear jack positioned under a jack point integral with the base of each strut.
No special provision for aircraft shoring is necessary beyond the lifting of the
aircraft with hydraulic jacks and the installation of a rear fuselage support (tail
steady) to steady the aircraft.
Lifting for aircraft recovery is by standard recovery methods using lifting air-
bags.
Shoring
An aircraft on jacks is subjected to structural stresses. Shoring is necessary to
give support to the wings in order to release loads on the structure before mod-
ifications or major repair work can be carried out.

STORAGE Part -66
Figure 407 Lifting and Shoring

STORAGE Part -66
Lifting
WARNING: BEFORE COMMENCEMENT OF JACKING PROCEDURES,
A complete aircraft, or an individual landing gear strut and its wheel assembly
is lifted clear of the ground using hydraulic jacks. ENSURE THAT THE LANDING GEAR LEVER IS IN THE
DOWN POSITION AND THAT ALL LANDING GEAR LOCKS
Three main jack points are provided on the aircraft primary structure to accom- ARE FITTED.
modate aircraft lifting jacks. One is situated immediately forward of the nose
landing gear compartment and one under each wing outboard of the main CHECK THAT PERSONNEL HAVE BEEN CLEARED FROM
landing gear struts. INSIDE THE AIRCRAFT AND THAT ALL PERSONNEL IN
The jack points provide threaded receptacles for the attachment of removable THE VICINITY OF THE AIRCRAFT HAVE BEEN INFORMED
jack adaptors. OF THE PROCEDURE IN PROGRESS.
Two auxiliary jack points may be provided on the primary structure on each
side of the centre fuselage and may be used as an alternative to the main jack CAUTION: ENSURE THAT ALL SERVICING EQUIPMENT IS CLEAR OF
points if maintenance requires it. THE AIRCRAFT DURING LIFTING AND LOWERING PRO-
A rear fuselage support is positioned under a specific station (depending on the CEDURES.
aircraft type) to steady the aircraft during maintenance procedures whilst the
aircraft is on jacks. THE AIRCRAFT MUST ONLY BE JACKED ON A LEVEL
Auxiliary steps are used to provide access to the passenger stairs when the SURFACE KNOWN TO BE CAPABLE OF SUPPORTING
aircraft is on jacks. EACH JACK.
Lifting practices
Whenever possible, jacking procedures should be carried out on a site
protected from the wind, preferably in a hangar. When jacking in the open, the
aircraft must be headed into wind.

STORAGE Part -66
Jacking Point
Safety Jack
Jacking Point
Jacking Point
Figure 408 Jacking

STORAGE Part -66
Lifting on landing gear struts

A jack point is provided on all three landing gear struts to accommodate the
landing gear hydraulic jack.
Any strut and its wheel assembly can be individually lifted clear of the ground
for maintenance procedures such as wheel or brake change.
If both tyres on one landing gear strut are deflated, there is insufficient clear-
ance to insert the landing gear jack under the base of the strut. If, in this case,
it is impractical to lift the aircraft using the main jacks, a landing gear ramp can
be positioned in front of the affected wheels and the aircraft towed onto the
ramp to give the required clearance for landing gear jack insertion.
S Chock the two other wheels (when lifting one landing gear strut)
S Ensure aircraft parking brake is off
S Position landing gear jack under jack point on base of strut
S Operate jack until wheels are lifted just clear of ground.
NOTE: THE PROCEDURE FOR LOWERING A LANDING GEAR STRUT IS

THE REVERSE OF LIFTING.

STORAGE Part -66
Figure 409 Landing Gear Jacking Points

STORAGE Part -66
A/C STORAGE METHODS

Installation of Protection Devices on the Fuselage
PARKING Protection of:
Parking Procedure (of not more than 2 days): ensures preservation for a S total temperature sensors
parking period of not more than 2 days. S pitot probes
S angle--of--attack sensors
CAUTION: YOU MUST CONTINUE TO DO THE SCHEDULED S static probes.
MAINTENANCE DURING THE PARKING PERIOD.
Installation of Protection Devices on APU Area
BEFORE YOU CAN DO THIS PARKING PROCEDURE
AGAIN,THE AIRCRAFT MUST FIRST DO A FULL FLIGHT Protection of:
CYCLE. S APU exhaust duct
S outlet duct of the APU oil cooler.
NOTE: ALL GUIDE--LINES ARE FOR AIRCRAFT PARKING IN NORMAL
WEATHER CONDITIONS. Installation of Protection Devices on Engines
Protection of:
S If the aircraft is parked in high wind conditions, check the aircraft stability S engine air intakes
and moor the aircraft if necessary.
S engine exhaust nozzles and the centre plug openings
S If the aircraft is parked in cold weather conditions, do the cold weather
maintenance procedures. S engine air inlet scoop.
Safety Precautions Aircraft Maintenance Configuration

S Park the aircraft on a flat surface, ensuring that the wheel of the nose land- S Push the DITCHING push button switch to close the avionics ventilation
ing gear is on the aircraft axis and the aircraft points into the wind skin valves
S Install safety devices on the landing gears S Make sure that the windows of the cockpit are closed.
S Make sure that the flaps, slats, spoilers and thrust reversers are retracted
S Make sure that the THS is set to neutral Close--Up
S Put the wheel chocks in position: S Make an entry in the aircraft log book or attach a tag on the captain’s side-
-- NLG: -- in front of and behind the wheels stick to inform the crew that protection covers/devices are installed
-- MLG: -- in front of the FWD wheels and behind the AFT wheels S Remove the ground support and maintenance equipment, the special and
standard tools and all other items
S Ground the aircraft.
S Make sure that you close all access/doors.

STORAGE Part -66
Figure 410 Examples of Protection Devices on Fuselage

STORAGE Part -66
RETURN TO OPERATION (PARKING OF NOT MORE THAN 2 DAYS)
Aircraft Configuration
Remove ground cables from the aircraft.
Open the avionics ventilation skin valves.
NOTE: ENSURE THAT THE AVIONICS VENTILATION CONTINUES TO Remove the wheel chocks from the main and nose landing gears.
OPERATE CORRECTLY.
Remove tag from the captain side-stick or write in the log book that the protec-
Removal of Protective Equipment tion covers/devices are no longer installed.
S APU exhaust plug
S APU oil cooler outlet plug Remove the ground support and maintenance equipment, the special and stan-
S Engine inlet cowl cover dard tools and all other items.
S Engine inlet scoop cover.
Remove Cover Slips from

S total temperature sensors
S pitot probes
S angle--of--attack sensors
S static probes.
General Visual Inspection of Airframe from Ground for Correct Condition
Ensure that there are no leaks from:

S the wings
S the lower fuselage
S the landing gears

S the engines
S the APU
S the horizontal and vertical stabilizer.

STORAGE Part -66
Figure 411 Parking Intervals (Not More Than 2 Days)

STORAGE Part -66
PARKING
Parking Procedure (of not more than 12 Weeks): ensures preservation for a Protection of the Air Data System
parking period of not more than 12 weeks. S Flush the total pressure line of the Air Data Module
It keeps the aircraft in Flight--Ready condition. S Flush the static pressure line of the Air Data Module
Periodic Ground Checks must be carried out at 7--day and 15--day intervals. S Drain and flush the standby static and standby total pressure lines of the Air
S If the aircraft is parked in high wind conditions, check the aircraft stability Data Module
and moor the aircraft if necessary.
S If the aircraft is parked in cold weather conditions, do the cold weather Protection of the Fuel System
maintenance procedures.
S Drain water from all the fuel tanks. You must wait for one hour after refu-
elling is completed before you do the water drain procedure.
NOTE: IT IS RECOMMENDED THAT THERE IS NO CANNIBALIZATION
OR REMOVAL OF PARTS DURING THIS PARKING PERIOD. Protection of the Seats
S It is recommended to do the protection of the cockpit and passenger seats
Aircraft Configuration with STORAGE PRESERVATION Material No.15--002.This is to prevent
Ensure that the fuel tanks are 90% full (minimum). discolouration by the sun during a long parking period.
Protection of the Engines and APU Protection of the Electrical System

NOTE: YOU CAN IGNORE THIS STEP IF THE LAST FLIGHT CYCLE WAS S Remove or disconnect the batteries.
IN THE LAST 24 HOURS (ENGINES AND APU OPERATED). IN
THESE CONDITIONS, THE PARKING PERIOD STARTS FROM
Protection of the Doors
THE END OF THIS LAST FLIGHT CYCLE.
S Open all doors including
S Operate the APU for at least 5 min. at no-load governed speed
-- the passenger/crew doors
S Run the engines and let them become stable at ground idle for 15-20 mins
-- the emergency exit doors
S Do a thrust reverser full cycle
-- the cargo compartment doors
Protection of the Water and Toilet System -- the landing gear doors
Potable water system -- all other the pressurized access doors and
S Ensure the system is empty and dry. If necessary, drain, flush and dry the S apply SPECIAL MATERIALS Material No.05--043 on seals of all the doors
system. S Close all doors.
Toilet system
S Ensure that the system is empty. If necessary, drain, flush and use disinfec- Put aircraft in parking configuration. Ensure that all the external structural drain
tant to clean the system. holes are not clogged. Ensure that all the engine drains are not clogged.
Carry out full parking procedure. Seal the air conditioning /ventilation inlets and
outlets with STORAGE PRESERVATION Material No.15--002 and adhesive
tape. Put tarpaulins on the MLG wheels.

STORAGE Part -66
Figure 412 Protection Devices on Engine

STORAGE Part -66
Periodic Checks and Return in Operation System Test
During the parking period, do the periodic checks: S Do the functional test of the nose wheel steering with the handwheel and
S at 7--day intervals with the pedals
S at 15--day intervals. S Do the operational test of the Normal braking system and Alternate braking
system.
Periodic Ground Check (at 7--day intervals) Operate the APU and the Engines
Check of Aircraft Condition S Start the APU
Ensure that the protection covers/plugs are correctly installed. S Start the engines with APU bleed and operate them at idle power.
Do a general visual inspection of the airframe from the ground for condition.
Make sure that there are no leaks from: Operate Air Conditioning system.
S the wings Operate all the flight control surfaces on full travel and ensure that they operate
correctly.
S the lower fuselage
Do the operational test of the bleed air system.
S the landing gears
Do the operational test of the wing--ice protection system.
S the engines
Do the operational test of the engine air intake ice protection.
S the APU
Do a thrust reverser cycle.
S the horizontal and vertical stabilizer.
Move the aircraft.

Periodic Ground Check (at 15--day intervals)
Procedure Put the aircraft in parking configuration.
Do a general visual inspection of the airframe from the ground for condition. Let the engines and the APU become cool and install protection covers/plugs
S Ensure that there are no leaks on the fuselage,the engines and the APU area.
S Ensure that there are no signs of bird nesting in all areas of the aircraft to Record any discrepancy in the log book.
which birds have access Install tarpaulins on the MLG wheels.
S Check for bird excrement. If present, remove it.
S Do a check of the outer skin for unusual contamination.

CAUTION: MAKE AN ENTRY IN THE AIRCRAFT LOG BOOK OR
Make sure that the extension of the landing gear shock absorbers is correct. ATTACH A TAG ON THE CAPTAIN’S SIDE-STICK TO IN-
Do a check of the tire pressure. FORM THE CREW THAT PROTECTION COVERS/DEVICES
Do a check of the hydraulic reservoir level. ARE INSTALLED.
Drain water from all the fuel tanks.

STORAGE Part -66
Figure 413 Parking Intervals (not more than 12 weeks)

STORAGE Part -66
STORAGE
CAUTION: -- WHILE THE AIRCRAFT IS IN STORAGE, ENSURE THAT Protection of the Fuel System
YOU DO THE MAINTENANCE CHECKS SPECIFIED FOR S Fill all the fuel tanks to 90% of their total capacity and all the fuel system
STORAGE. lines
BEFORE YOU PUT THE AIRCRAFT BACK INTO SERVICE,
S Make the vents wet (so that the sealants will not become dry and will not
IT IS RECOMMENDED THAT YOU MAKE SURE THAT ALL
crack). Operate the water drains one hour after you refuel the tanks.
THE CALENDAR TASKS SCHEDULED FOR THE PERIOD
DURING WHICH THE AIRCRAFT WAS IN STORAGE ARE
COMPLETED (REFER TO THE MAINTENANCE PROGRAM). Protection of the Oxygen System
DO NOT CHANGE OR STOP THE MAINTENANCE PRO- S Close the valve of the oxygen cylinder and bleed the oxygen system.
GRAM WITHOUT APPROVAL FROM YOUR LOCAL AU-
THORITIES. Seal the following areas with STORAGE PRESERVATION Material No.15--002
attached with adhesive tape (record the location):
Storage Procedure (not more than 1 month) S inlets and outlets of the air conditioning packs
S Clean the aircraft externally and internally S battery venturi
S Drain of the potable water system S pre-cooler outlets
S Drain the toilet system S anti--ice air outlet and the access panels which are on the engine air in-
takes.
S Open all doors and apply SPECIAL MATERIALS Material No.05--043 to all
the seals of the doors NOTE: WHEN YOU USE ADHESIVE TAPE, DISCOLORATION OF THE
S Make sure that there is no blockage in any structural drain holes AIRCRAFT PAINT OR TRANSFER OF COLOURS CAN OCCUR.
THIS IS WHY YOU MUST USE THE MINIMUM POSSIBLE ADHES-
S Flush the total pressure line and the static pressure line of the Air Data
IVE TAPE.
Module
S Lubricate the mechanical control chains of the THS
Close Access
S Lubricate all rollers and pinions of slat tracks, all spoiler linkage bearings
Close all the window shades, emergency exit doors, cargo compartment doors
that have grease nipples and hinge and attachment fittings of horizontal sta-
and gear doors.
bilizer
Put the aircraft in the storage area.
S Check tyre pressures
Do the full parking procedure.

S Remove the batteries.
Protection of the Engines During the storage period, do the periodic checks:
S Do the preservation of the engines. S at 7--day intervals
S at 15--day intervals.
Protection of the APU
S Do the preservation of the APU. For return-to-service, do the return-to-service procedure.

STORAGE Part -66
Figure 414 Aircraft Storage - Inspection Intervals

STORAGE Part -66
STORAGE (CONT’D)
Storage (for a period as long as 2 years) Rain Repellent System
De--activate the rain repellent system.
CAUTION: --WHILE THE AIRCRAFT IS IN STORAGE, ENSURE THAT Lubrication
YOU DO THE MAINTENANCE CHECKS SPECIFIED FOR S Lubricate the mechanical control chains of the THS, all the rollers and pin-
STORAGE. ions of the slat tracks, spoilers, linkage bearings, cargo compartment doors,
BEFORE YOU PUT THE AIRCRAFT BACK INTO SERVICE, passenger/crew doors and emergency exit doors hinges and the attach fit-
IT IS RECOMMENDED THAT YOU MAKE SURE THAT ALL ting of the horizontal stabilizer, rudder bearing and sliding window.
THE CALENDAR TASKS SCHEDULED FOR THE PERIOD Protection
DURING WHICH THE AIRCRAFT WAS IN STORAGE ARE
S Apply SPECIAL MATERIALS to all the seals of the doors
COMPLETED (REFER TO THE MAINTENANCE PROGRAM).
DO NOT CHANGE OR STOP THE MAINTENANCE PRO- S carry out protection of all the light-alloy areas that are unpainted
GRAM WITHOUT APPROVAL FROM YOUR LOCAL AU- S Apply SPECIAL MATERIALS or COMMON GREASE to the steel parts that
THORITIES. are unpainted and on the mechanical rods in unpressurized areas
Clean S Apply SPECIAL MATERIALS (Material No.05--027) to:
Clean the aircraft. -- the cases, electrical connectors, solenoids, brackets, screw- and bolt-
heads located in the APU compartment
Hydraulics -- in all the holes, especially in the areas where condensation can occur.
S Depressurize the hydraulic systems Landing Gear
-- Put a warning notice in position to tell persons not to operate the sys- S Apply COMMON GREASE to:
tems during the aircraft storage procedure -- the sliding tube of the shock absorber, the actuator rods and the uplock
S Do a check of the hydraulic components for external leakage mechanism.
S Apply SPECIAL MATERIALS (Material No.05--005) on: S Apply talcum to all the rubber parts but not the tyres
-- all the hydraulic unions in the wheel wells S Ensure that there is no corrosion on the brakes and on each half wheel.
-- the bolt heads of the hydraulic reservoirs Tyre Storage (for a period < 2 months)
-- the pipe clamps Check the inflation pressure.
-- the trailing edge of the wing

Tyre Storage (for a period > 2 months)
S Apply SPECIAL MATERIALS on the solenoids of the hydraulic flap manifold
It is recommended to install old tyres or wheels with old tyres.
S Inspect the flight controls
S Check the oil level of the flap PCU and slat PCU gearbox.
Drains
Visually inspect the drains.
Water Removal
Remove the water from the pitot/static lines.

STORAGE Part -66
Figure 415 A/C Storage - Inspection Intervals

STORAGE Part -66
Protection (for a period of 0 to 2 months) Protection and Lubrication of the Landing Gear
S Apply SPECIAL MATERIALS on the electrical components (microswitches,
S Open the cockpit and cabin window shades connectors, proximity detectors)
S Cover the cockpit and passenger seat with a STORAGE PRESERVATION S Apply COMMON GREASE to the towing and debogging fittings
S Apply BONDING AND ADHESIVE COMPOUNDS on the cockpit and cabin S Put tarpaulins on the bottom sections of the landing gear (this includes the
windows. tyres and brakes).
Protection of the Engines (for a period of 0 to 90 days) Removal of Components

S Carry out the preservation of the engines. Remove the following:
S digital flight data recorder
Protection of the Engines (for a period of 90 days - 1 year)) S cockpit voice recorder
S Remove the IDG S oxygen cylinder/valve assys
S Carry out the preservation of the engines. S crew portable oxygen--equipment
S cabin emergency lights
Protection of the Engines (for a period of > 1 year) S emergency power--supply units
Ref. TASK 72--00--00--600--805. S first aid kits
S emergency locator beacon
Protection of the APU S portable and toilet fire--extinguishing bottles
Carry out the preservation of the APU. S life vests
S escape slide
Protection of the Fuel System S escape slide/raft
S Fill S autonomous standby power supply unit
-- all the fuel tanks at 90%of their total capacity S wiper arm and wiper blade
-- all the fuel system lines S engine fire--extinguishing bottles
S Make the vents wet (so that the sealants will not become dry and will not S cartridges of the engine fire--extinguishing bottles
crack) S cartridge of the APU fire--extinguishing bottle

S Mix MICROBIOLOGICAL CONTAMIN. PROTECT. MATERIALS with the S APU fire--extinguishing bottles
fuel as a preventive step S cartridge of the cargo fire--extinguishing bottle
S Operate the water drains one hour after you refuel the tanks S cargo fire--extinguishing bottle
S Check all the fuel tanks for leakage S batteries
S Apply SPECIAL MATERIALS to the switches on the REFUEL/DEFUEL
panel. Put blanking caps on the disconnected electrical connectors.

STORAGE Part -66
Protection of the Water/Waste System Close Access
S Make sure that the water/waste and potable water systems are empty; dry Close the passenger/crew doors.
them with air if necessary Close all the access doors and panels that you opened during the storage pro-
S Drain,clean and deodorize the toilets. cedure.
Close the avionics ventilation extract--valve. Put the aircraft in the parking condition.
Close the overboard extract valve. Put the aircraft in the mooring condition.
Remove the batteries. Inspection Check List: Weekly Check

Disconnect and remove the batteries. Visual Inspection:
S Examine all the areas of the aircraft where birds can access. Ensure that
Protection there are no bird’s nests
Seal with STORAGE PRESERVATION Material No.15--002 attached with S Make sure that the covers and the plugs are correctly installed.
adhesive tape (record the location):
S the inlets and outlets of the air conditioning packs Make sure that there is no leakage under:
S the battery venturi S the wings
S the precooler outlets S the lower fuselage
S the anti--ice, air outlet and the anti--ice duct access panel (on the engine air S the engines
intakes) S the APU
S the scoops. S the horizontal stabilizer
Seal the two spray nozzles with plastic bags or films, fixed on the structure with S the vertical stabilizer
adhesive tape. S the landing gears.
Seal all the openings that give access to:
S the passenger compartment Inspection Check List: 15 Days Check
S the cockpit
S the cargo compartment Move the aircraft by a 1/4 turn of the wheels, to prevent damage to the tyres
S the APU and brinelling of the bearings.
S the engines
S the landing gear Visual Inspection:
with STORAGE PRESERVATION Material No.15--002 attached with adhesive S Examine all the areas of the aircraft where the birds can access.
tape. S Ensure that there are no bird’s nests. /cont’d

STORAGE Part -66
Inspection Check List: 15 Days Check (Cont’d) Inspection Check List: 3 Months Check
S Ensure that there is no leakage. Check the condition of the aircraft during the storage period:
S Ensure that the pressure/extension of the shock absorber is correct.
S Examine the condition of the wheels of the landing gear. S Do a visual inspection of the aircraft for impact by foreign objects, fluid leak-
S Do a tyre pressure check (the correct pressure is the pressure specified for ages (hydraulic fluid, fuel), missing parts, blockage and corrosion.
the aircraft storage weight).
Protection:
Inspection Check List: 1 Month Check S Apply SPECIAL MATERIALS Material No.05--027 in all holes, specially in
the areas prone to condensation.
Check the condition of the aircraft during the storage period:
S Apply COMMON GREASE Material No.04--011 on:
S Open the passenger/crew doors -- the sliding tube of the shock absorber
S Open cargo compartments -- the actuator rods
S Open all the access doors -- the uplock mechanism.
S Apply SPECIAL MATERIALS Material No.05--043 on all the seals of the
doors Inspection of Fuel Tanks:
S Make sure that all the doors operate correctly S Drain water from the fuel tanks
S Bleed the standby air--data system S If necessary,fill all the fuel tanks at 90%of their total capacity and the fuel
S Operate the air conditioning system to remove moisture through the low-- system lines
pressure ground connection or through the high--pressure ground connec- S Make the vents wet (so that the sealants will not become dry and will not
tion or with the APU. crack).
Do the following tests: Inspection of the Hydraulic System:

S operational test of the avionics equipment ventilation system
S operational test of the bulk cargo ventilation system S Check that at least the minimum level of HYDRAULIC FLUIDS is in hydrau-
S operational test of the ice protection system of the wing lic reservoirs
S operational test of the ice protection system of the engine air intake S Check for corrosion on hydraulic pipes and unions on the landing gear wells,
wings and the stabilizers.
cont’d

STORAGE Part -66
Inspection Check List: 3 Months Check (Cont’d)
Inspection of the Landing Gear:
S Remove the tool installed during the mooring procedure and the tarpaulins
S Put the aircraft on jacks
S Turn the wheels by hand to make sure that there are no defect on bearings
S Put the aircraft on its wheels.
Put the aircraft in the mooring condition. Carry out the following:
S operational test of the operation of the engine LP--fuel shut--off valves

S operational test of the operation of the ailerons and their hydraulic system
S operational test of the operation of the elevators and their hydraulic system
S operational test of the operation of the rudder and its hydraulic system
S operational test of the operation of the flap system
S operational test of the operation of the spoiler hydraulic system
S operational test of the slat system
S operational test of the landing gear doors.
Close--up:
Put the aircraft back to its Initial Configuration.


STORAGE Part -66
RETURN TO SERVICE 26--21--41--400--801 Installation of Engine Fire--Extinguisher Bottle
26--21--41--400--803 Installation of the Engine Fire--Extinguisher
Return to Service (Storage Period not more than 1 Month) Bottle Cartridge
26--22--00--200--801 Detailed Visual Inspection of the APU
Return to Service (Storage Period Up to 2 Years)
Fire--Extinguishing Distribution--Piping
To operate an aircraft again after a storage period of as long as 2 years. 26--22--41--280--801 Weight Check of APU Fire--Extinguisher Bottle
26--22--41--280--802 Hydrostatic Test of APU Fire--Extinguisher
12--12--29--611--801 Fill Hydraulic Reservoir Bottle and Check of Pressure Switch Setting
12--13--24--612--801 IDG Servicing 26--22--41--400--801 Installation of the APU Fire Extinguisher Bottle
12--13--49--612--801 Servicing of the APU Oil Reservoir 26--22--42--400--801 Installation of APU Fire--Extinguisher Cartridge
12--13--80--610--801 Drain and Replenish Oil of Starter 26--23--00--200--803 Detailed Visual Inspection of the Halon Filters,
12--14--32--614--801 Replenishment of the Tires Check Valves and Restrictors of Cargo--
12--21--11--615--801 External Cleaning Compartment Fire--Extinguishing System
12--22--32--600--801 Lubrication of Main Gear and Doors 26--23--41--280--801 Weight Check of the Cargo--Compartment
12--22--32--600--802 Lubrication of the NLG and Doors Fire--Extinguisher Bottles
12--32--28--281--801 Drain Water from Tanks 26--23--41--280--802 Hydrostatic Test of the Cargo--Compartment
12--32--28--281--802 Fuel sample. for microbiological contamination Fire--Extinguisher Bottles
21--21--41--000--801 Removal of the Forward Filter Element 26--23--41--400--803 Installation of the Fire--Extinguisher Bottle
21--21--41--400--801 Installation of the Forward Filter Element 26--23--42--400--801 Installation of the Fire--Extinguisher Cartridges
21--26--00--440--801 Reactivation of Avionics Ventilation Overboard 26--24--00--280--801 Weight Check of Portable Fire--Extinguisher
Extract Valve (13HQ) Bottles and a Visual Check
21--26--00--710--803 Operational Test of the Avionics--Equipment 26--25--00--280--801 Check of the Extinguishing Agent Pressure by
Ventilation System Reading Pressure Gauges of All the Lavatory
(SYSTEM TEST) Waste--Bin Fire--Extinguisher Bottles
23--61--00--200--801 Check the Resistance from Static Discharger 27--14--00--710--801 Operational Test of the Aileron and Hydraulic
to the base and from the base to the Aircraft Actuation
Structure 27--24--00--710--801 Operational Test of the Rudder Servo Control
23--71--35--400--801 Installation of the Cockpit Voice Recorder with each Hydraulic System
24--21--00--210--818 Check of the Oil Level and Oil--Filter 27--34--00--710--801 Operational Test of the Elevator and Hydraulic
Differential--Pressure Indicator (DPI) Actuation
24--21--51--400--801 Installation of the -- IDG 27--54--00--200--801 Visual Inspection of the Flap Transmission
24--38--51--400--801 Installation of the Batteries Assy
24--41--00--861--801 Energize the Aircraft Electrical Circuits 27--54--00--710--801 Operational Test of the Flap System
24--41--00--862--801 De--energize the Aircraft Electrical Circuits 27--64--00--710--801 Operational Test of the Spoilers
25--62--41--400--801 Escape Facilities --Installation 27--84--00--210--801 Visual Inspection of the Slat Transmission
26--21--00--720--803 Check of Engine Fire Extinguishing Distribution Assy, Slat Tracks and Rollers, Pinions and
Piping for Leakage and Obstruction Curved Rack Gears
26--21--41--200--801 Weight Check of Fire Extinguisher Bottle 27--84--00--710--801 Operational Test of the Slat System
26--21--41--200--802 Hydrostatic Test of Engine Fire Extinguisher 28--11--00--600--805 Removal of The Microbiological Particles
Bottle incl. Check of Pressure Switch Setting

STORAGE Part -66
28--24--00--710--801 Operational Test of LP Fuel Valve 52--30--00--410--802 Closing of the Cargo--Compartment Doors
29--00--00--863--801 Pressurize the Hydraulic Systems with the Hand Pump
29--00--00--864--801 Depressurize the Hydraulic Systems 53--00--00--200--801 Visual Check of the Drain Holes in the Lower
29--31--00--200--801 Check of the Reservoir Fluid Level Part of the Fuselage at FR1 and FR80
30--11--00--710--801 Operational Test of Wing Ice--Protection System 53--39--00--200--801 Operational Test of the Drain at the Upper Aft
30--21--00--710--801 Operational Test of Engine Air Intake Ice End of the Wing Centre Box
Protection 54--50--00--200--801 Operational Test and General Visual Inspection
30--45--00--440--801 Reactivation of the Rain Repellent System of the Pylon Drain System
30--45--52--400--801 Installation of the Wiper Arm 71--00--00--400--801 Installation of the Engine
31--33--55--400--801 Installation of the Digital Flight Data Recorder 71--00--00--720--806 Power Assurance Check
32--11--00--220--801 Detailed Inspection of Main Gear Structure 71--00--00--860--802 Engine Manual Start
32--12--00--010--801 Open the gear doors for Maintenance 71--00--00--860--804 Engine Shut--down
32--12--00--410--801 Close the gear doors after Maintenance 72--00--00--600--806 Depreservation
32--21--00--220--801 Detailed Inspection of Nose Gear Structure
32--31--00--710--801 Operational Test of the Normal Extension and
Retraction System
32--40--00--200--801 Inspection/Check of the Brakes
32--40--00--210--804 Check of Normal and Alternate Brake Manifold
Accumulators Nitrogen Charge
32--41--00--210--802 General Visual Inspection of Tires, Wheels and
Brakes (for Hydraulic Leaks)
32--41--11--400--801 Installation of the MLG Wheel
32--41--12--400--801 Installation of the NLG Wheel
33--51--11--400--801 Installation of the Cabin Emergency Light
33--51--38--400--801 Installation of Emergency Power--Supply Unit
34--11--00--170--801 Flushing of the Principal Total Pressure Lines
34--11--00--170--802 Flushing of the Principal Static Pressure Lines
34--11--00--170--803 Draining and Flushing of the Standby Static
and Standby Total Pressure Lines
35--11--41--400--801 Installation of the Oxygen Cylinder/Valve Assy
35--30--00--210--801 Check Pressure of Portable Oxygen Cylinder

38--10--00--720--801 Functional Test of Potable--Water Preselect
System
38--31--00--720--802 Functional Test of the Toilet Assemblies
49--00--00--710--801 Operational Test of the APU
49--11--11--400--801 Installation of the Auxiliary Power Unit (APU)
51--74--11--300--801 Repair of Corroded Areas
52--10--00--010--801 Opening of the Passenger/Crew Door
52--30--00--010--802 Opening of the Cargo--Compartment Doors
with the Hand Pump

STORAGE Part -66
AIRCRAFT REFUELLING/DEFUELLING
’No Smoking’ signs should be displayed at a minimum distance of 15m (50’) Spillage
from fuelling equipment and aircraft tank vents. Actions to be taken should there be a spillage of fuel will depend on the size
A Fuelling Zone at least 6m (20’) from filling/venting points on both aircraft and location, the type of fuel and prevailing weather conditions.
and fuelling equipment should be established prior to fuelling/defuelling opera- S Spillage onto the aircraft structure must be cleared prior to the engines be-
tions. Within this zone ing started.
S no electrical system should be switched on or off, and only those circuits S Minor spillage onto the ground must be cleared and the area allowed to dry
necessary for the operation should be on. prior to any engines being started in the vicinity.
S Strobe lighting must not be on. S If there is a major spillage, fuel-flow must stop, all personnel evacuated from
S There must be no use of naked lights. This includes the engines of equip- the area and the Fire Services alerted.
ment/vehicles unless they have been designed for that purpose. S Every attempt must be made to prevent contamination of drains and cul-
S If necessary for the refuelling/defuelling operation, an APU (Auxiliary Power verts by damming the area with specialist equipment and using absorbing/
Unit) must be started prior to filler caps being removed or connections mopping agents designed for the job, which are subsequently disposed of in
made. suitable containers in accordance with local regulations.
S GPUs (Ground Power Units) should be as far as practicable from aircraft
fuelling points and vents.
S Fire extinguishers should be at hand.
S The aircraft should be earthed and bonded to fuelling equipment.
S After the fuelling operation, bonding should not be removed until hoses have
been disconnected and filler caps refitted.
S Ground equipment must be moved away from the aircraft to prevent dam-
age as the aircraft settles due to its increased weight.
S Fuel bowsers will normally position themselves facing away from the aircraft
being refuelled, for rapid emergency evacuation. A clear exit must be main-
tained.
S Aircraft engines must not be operated.
S People and vehicles within the fuelling zone must be kept to a minimum.
S Fuelling is suspended during electrical storms in the vicinity.

STORAGE Part -66
Figure 416 Typical Fuelling/Defuelling Safety Zone

STORAGE Part -66
DE-ICING AND ANTI-ICING

General
Safe operation of aircraft in cold weather conditions raises specific problems.
Aircraft downtime and delays in flight schedules caused by cold weather prob-
lems can be minimized by a program of preventive cold weather servicing.
Procedures for cold weather servicing must be developed by the operator.
This servicing must meet their specific requirements based on:
S their cold weather experience
S available equipment and materials
S the climatic conditions existing at their bases
This topic contains information defining, developing and implementing cold
weather preventative maintenance procedures that will minimize aircraft down-
time and improve the safe operating level of aircraft in adverse climatic
conditions .
The aircraft is in cold-soak configuration when it is parked in cold weather (Out-
side Air Temperature (OAT) lower than 0oC/32oF) and there is no supply of
power to the aircraft (no air-conditioning).

STORAGE Part -66
Figure 417 Anti-Icing 1

STORAGE Part -66
De-icing De-icing and Anti-icing

De--icing is a procedure to remove frost, ice, snow and slush from the aircraft De--/Anti--icing is a combination of de--icing and anti--icing procedures and is
surfaces. De--icing fluids are normally applied heated. performed in one or two steps.
Typical de--icing fluids are :
One step De--/Anti--icing is carried out with an anti--icing fluid, normally heated.
S Heated water
The aircraft is de--iced and the fluid that remains on the aircraft gives limited
S Newtonian fluids (ISO- SAE- or AEA-Type I) anti--ice protection.
S Mixtures of water and Type I fluid
S Non--Newtonian fluid (ISO- SAE- or AEA-Type II or Type IV fluid) Two step De--/Anti--Icing, as inferred, comprises two completely separate
steps:
S Mixtures of water and Type II or Type IV fluid.
1. De--ice the aircraft (remove frost, ice, slush and snow accumulations).
Anti-icing 2. Follow this immediately with an anti--icing procedure.
Anti--icing is a precautionary procedure which provides protection against the
formation of frost or ice and snow accumulation on the treated surfaces of the
aircraft for a limited period of time (the holdover time).
Anti--icing fluids are normally applied cold directly onto clean aircraft surfaces.
Typical anti--icing fluids are :
S Newtonian fluids (ISO- SAE- or AEA- Type I). Newtonian Fluids (Type I)
have a low viscosity that only changes with temperature.
S Mixtures of water and Type I fluid
S Non--Newtonian fluids (ISO- SAE- or AEA-Type II or Type IV).
Non--Newtonian Fluids (Type II or Type IV) have a viscosity that reduces
with increased air flow over the fluid.
S Mixtures of water and Type II or Type IV fluid.
Holdover time is the estimated time during which anti--icing fluids will prevent
the formation of frost or ice and snow accumulation on the protected surfaces
of the aircraft. The holdover time starts at the beginning of the anti--icing treat-
ment.

STORAGE Part -66
Figure 418 Anti Icing 2

STORAGE Part -66
De-/Anti-icing Recommendations De-/Anti-icing Fluid Type I, II and IV

Aircraft performance certification is based upon that aircraft having an uncon- Type I fluids are normally used for aircraft de--icing and have only a limited
taminated or clean structure. Ice, snow and frost (or combinations of them) will effect when used for anti--icing purposes. Type I fluids are normally used for
disturb the airflow, affecting lift and drag. They also increase the aircraft weight. aircraft de--icing.
The aircraft, and especially its surfaces that provide lift and stability, must be These fluids contain at least 80% by volume of either :
aerodynamically clean. If they are not, safe operation is not possible.
S Monoethylene--glycol
If the fuel temperature is below freezing point and the aircraft is subject to pre-
S Diethylene--glycol
cipitation, clear ice may form on the wings (wing tank area), even if the
outside temperature is as high as 15oC (59oF). An aircraft that is ready for flight S Monopropylene--glycol
must not have ice, snow, slush or frost adhering to its critical flight surfaces S or a mixture of the above.
(wings, vertical and horizontal stabilizers and rudder). The other 20% comprise inhibitors to restrict corrosion and increase the flash--
point, together with water and wetting agents. These fluids show a low viscosity
NOTE: A FROST LAYER LESS THAN 3MM (1/8 IN) ON THE UNDERSIDE which only changes with temperature.
OF THE WING (DEPENDING ON THE AIRCRAFT TYPE) IN THE The freezing point of a water/glycol mixture will vary with the amount of water
FUEL TANK AREA IS PERMITTED WITHOUT EFFECT ON TAKE-- contained in the fluid.
OFF PERFORMANCE IF IT IS CAUSED BY COLD FUEL (LOW It should be noted that the lowest freezing point of concentrated TYPE I fluid is
FUEL TEMPERATURE, OAT HIGHER THAN FREEZING AND HIGH approximately --10oC (14oF), whereas the lowest temperature protection will be
HUMIDITY). found with a 60/40 mixture of TYPE I fluid and water, whose freezing point will
be below --50oC (-58oF). However, due to the lower viscosity, it flows off the
A pre--flight inspection of the aircraft must cover all parts of the aircraft. This wing more easily. Therefore, a 50/50 mixture of TYPE I fluids and water is nor-
visual inspection must be done from a position which gives a clear view of all mally used.
surfaces. Because accumulations of clear ice are sometimes not easily visible, Type II or Type IV fluids contain a least 50% by volume of either:
it is recommended that critical surfaces (wings, vertical and horizontal stabiliz-
S Monoethylene--glycol
ers and rudder) are inspected by hand.
S Diethylene--glycol
Weather conditions determine when the aircraft de--/anti--icing must be carried
out. During checks on the ground, electrical or mechanical ice detectors must S Monopropylene--glycol
not replace physical checks. S or a mixture of the above.
If the aircraft arrives at the gate with the flaps/slats in a position other than fully The other 50% comprises:
retracted, they must be inspected and, if necessary, de--iced before retraction. S inhibitors to restrict corrosion and increase the flash--point, water and wet-
ting agents to allow the fluid to form a uniform film over the aircraft surfaces
Fluid Dilution
S thickening agents to enable the fluid to adhere to the aircraft surfaces for
Type I, Type II and Type IV de-/anti-icing fluids can be diluted with water. This
longer periods.
may be done if, due to weather conditions, there is no requirement for a long
conservation time, or the higher freezing points are sufficient for the present NOTE: TYPE II OR TYPE IV FLUIDS HAVE A LONGER HOLDOVER TIME
climatic conditions. THAN TYPE I FLUID.

STORAGE Part -66
Figure 419 Anti Icing 3

STORAGE Part -66
Holdover Times Time of Protection

Holdover times are the estimated times that the applied anti--icing fluid will The time of protection will be shorter in very bad weather conditions. High wind
prevent the formation of frost, ice and the accumulation of snow on the pro- speeds and jet blast can cause damage to the protective film.
tected surfaces of an aircraft. If these conditions occur, the time of protection will be much shorter.
When applying first-step de/anti--icing process, the holdover time is from the The time of protection can also be much shorter if the wing temperature is
start of the de/anti--icing application. lower than the OAT.
When applying second-step de/anti--icing process, the holdover time is from Because conditions are not always the same, a pre--take--off inspection is nec-
the start of the anti--icing application. essary when you use the times given in the tables.
The holdover times given are for general information only. The indicated time of These procedures prevent the formation of ice in some zones (wings, vertical
protection may be shortened : and horizontal stabilizers, rudder) and make easier for the removal of snow
S In severe weather from the the aircraft.
S In high winds and jet blasts
S By the age and condition of the fluid
S By the method of application.
The Anti--Icing Code
It is important that the flight crew get clear and precise information from per-
sons who have carried out any de--/anti--icing procedures. In order to improve
the quality of communication between the de--/anti--icing team and the flight
crew, it is recommended that an anti--icing code be used.
This will enable the flight crew to assess the Holdover Time.
This code must contain the following information :
S Type of fluid
S Percentage of fluid to water (for Type II and Type IV fluids only)
S Time de--/anti--icing application began (preferably local time).
NOTE: THE TIME REFERRED TO IN THE ANTI--ICING CODES MUST BE

THE STARTING TIME OF THE ANTI--ICING PROCEDURE.
TWO EXAMPLES OF ANTI--ICING CODES ARE GIVEN IN THE

FIGURE OPPOSITE.

STORAGE Part -66
AEA Type II / 75/ 16.43 local
Local time of start of the application
% of fluid/water by vol: 75% fluid / 25% water
Type of fluid used
ISO Type I / 16.43 UTC
Universal coordinated time of start application

Type of fluid used
Figure 420 Anti-Icing Codes

STORAGE Part -66
GROUND SERVICING EQUIPMENT

Introduction fluid in the aircraft. Some of the fluid, however, remains in the pump and lines
From time to time, most large aircraft require some form of auxiliary power to of the unit.
start the engines, provide electricity while the aircraft is on the ground, or pro- Because of the incompatibility of different types of hydraulic fluid, such as MIL
vide cabin heating or cooling. For this reason, various types of ground power H 5606 and SkydrolTM, a different hydraulic power unit must be used with
units (GPUs) are available for supplying power when the engines are not run- each type of fluid. If the wrong type of hydraulic fluid is introduced into an air-
ning. craft’s hydraulic system the entire aircraft hydraulic system would have to be
Some GPUs are mobile units that are driven to the aircraft while others are purged and refilled with fresh, uncontaminated fluid. Should any of the aircraft’s
pulled behind a tug. Some newer airports have power and air outlets built into systems be operated with the wrong type of fluid in the system, all components
the tarmac. would have to be cleaned, flushed, or possibly disassembled for seal replace-
ment. This would be extremely expensive and may even require the services of
Electrical Ground Power Units a certified repair station.
The batteries used in most smaller aircraft have very limited capacity and,
Pneumatic Servicing Equipment
therefore, engine starting requirements may be more than the battery is capa-
ble of supplying. For this reason, most airports are equipped with battery carts Trolleys used for the replenishment of an aircraft’s air, nitrogen and gaseous
and cables that can be used to assist an aircraft’s battery. For large aircraft, a oxygen systems are all very similar and to avoid any possible confusion are
large self-propelled generator unit is used to assist in starting the aircraft. clearly marked, not only on the actual cylinders, but also on the charging
compartment.
It is extremely important when installing a battery on a battery cart that its po-
larity matches the polarity of the aircraft. Reversed polarity can damage the
alternator as well as the battery.
Most turbojet transport category aircraft carry an auxiliary power unit (APU). An
APU is a small turbine engine that supplies compressed air for engine starting
and cabin air conditioning, as well as electrical power for various aircraft sys-
tems. If the APU is not working, a ground unit is used for these purposes.
Hydraulic Power Units

Many aircraft have hydraulically retracted landing gear that must be periodically
tested for operation. To do this, the aircraft is lifted off the hangar floor with
jacks and a hydraulic power unit is connected to the aircraft’s hydraulic system
so the landing gear can be cycled through its retraction and extension cycles to
verify that it operates properly.
These hydraulic power supplies connect into the aircraft hydraulic system with
quick disconnect fittings. When the fitting is screwed onto the hydraulic power
supply, it automatically opens so it can supply hydraulic pressure to the aircraft.
Before connecting a hydraulic power supply, ensure that all of the lines are
clean so no dirt or contamination gets into the aircraft’s system. Normally,
these power supplies do not furnish fluid for the aircraft; rather, they use the

STORAGE Part -66
Charging Compartment Reducing

Inlet High-Pressure Gauge
Valve Outlet Low-Pressure Gauge
Gas Cylinder
Outlet
Gas
Cylinder
Key
Gas Charging Trolley Outlet Stop

Inlet Stop Valve System Supply Hose
Valves
Charging Regulator Assembly

’Power On’ Indicators
Obstruction Warning Lamps
Control Panel
AC Supply Socket
Electrical Servicing/Starting Trolley
Figure 421 Examples of Ground Servicing Equipment

STORAGE Part -66


M7.18 DISASSEMBLY, INSPECTION,
REPAIR AND ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES Part -66
M7.18 DISASSEMBLY, INSPECTION, REPAIR AND ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES


INSPECTION OF METAL AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

Introduction
This section gives general guidance on the inspection of those parts of a metal At the periods specified in the appropriate publications, examination or renewal
aircraft structure which, because of their remoteness, complexity or boxed--in of the parts will be required. These periods are usually in terms of flying time or
design, are not readily accessible for routine maintenance or require special the number of landings, or from readings logged by load recording instruments.
attention in the light of operational experience. With certain materials and structures, renewal or sampling checks may be re-
Deterioration may arise from various causes and can affect various parts of the quired on a calendar basis.
structure according to the design of the aircraft and the uses to which it is put. It is important to note that some parts of a structure may be liable to fatigue
Essentially, the main types of defect being inspected for are corrosion and damage resulting from unforeseen causes, e.g. parts damaged or strained on
metal fatigue. assembly, invisible damage to the structure during assembly or maintenance
work, or fretting. When carrying out inspections it is important to check care-
Corrosion fully for any signs of cracks emanating from points of stress concentration such
The different types of corrosion encountered are covered in Module 6.4. as bolt--holes, rivets, sharp changes in section, notches, dents, sharp comers,
etc.
The presence of corrosion in aircraft structures is liable to result in conditions
which may lead to catastrophic failures. It is therefore essential that any corro- Fatigue damage can also be caused by pits and notches created by corrosion,
sive attack is detected and rectified in the earliest stages of its development. although the corrosion may no longer be active. During the application of re-
peated stress cycles, crevices can be opened up and may eventually result in a
By the nature of their operation, aircraft are exposed to frequent changes of
fatigue failure.
atmospheric temperature and pressure and to varying conditions of relative
humidity; therefore, all parts of the structure are subject to some form of con- NOTE: Poor fitting or malassembly can reduce fatigue life considerably. A spar
densation. The resultant water takes into solution a number of corrosive agents has been known to fail under tests at a fraction of its normal life as a result of
from the atmosphere or from spillages (which convert the water into a weak the stress concentration caused by a tool mark in a bolt--hole. Defects such as
acid) and will corrode most metal surfaces where the protective treatment has a burr on a bolt can cause a scratch inside the bolt--hole, which can seriously
been damaged or is inadequate. Cases of serious corrosion have been found accelerate fatigue damage in a stressed member.
in both closed and exposed parts of structures of aircraft operated under a
Cleanliness
wide variety of conditions.
It is important that aircraft should be thoroughly cleaned periodically. Care
Metal Fatigue should be taken not to damage protective treatments when using scrubbing
Metal fatigue can be briefly described as a weakening of a metal part under brushes or scrapers. Any cleaning fluids used should have been approved by
repeated applications of a cycle of stress. The weakening effect can be seri- the aircraft constructor. For final cleaning of a boxed--in type of structure an
ously accelerated by corrosion of the metal. In the early stages, fatigue dam- efficient vacuum cleaner, provided with rubber--protected adaptors to prevent
age is difficult to detect by visual inspection and the method of non--destructive damage, should be used. The use of air jets should be avoided as this may
examination is usually specified (the method used depending on the type of lead to dirt, the products of corrosion, or loose articles, being blown from one
structure and material concerned). part of the structure to another.
In the majority of cases the presence of fatigue damage is revealed by the
formation of a small hairline crack or cracks. Those parts of a structure where
fatigue damage may occur are determined by design calculations and tests
based on the expected operational use of the aircraft and substantiated by op-
erational experience.

Crack emanating from lightning strike
Exfoliation corrosion Intergranular corrosion

Crevice corrosion Stress cracking
Figure 422 Defect Examples

Inspection Techniques
The structure should be maintained in a clean condition and a careful check ing the permissible extent of corrosion, the manufacturer should be con-
should be made for any signs of dust, dirt or any extraneous matter, especially sulted.
in the more remote or ’blind’ parts of the structure. Loose articles such as riv- 4. The edges of faying surfaces should receive special attention; careful prob-
ets, metal particles, etc., trapped during construction or repair, may be found ing of the joint edge with a pointed instrument may reveal the products of
after the aircraft has been in operation for some considerable time. It is impor- corrosion which are concealed by paint. In some instances slight undula-
tant to examine these loose articles to ensure that they did not result from tions or bumps between the rivets or spot welds, or quilting in areas of
damaged structure. It is generally easy to determine if a loose article has double skins due to pressure from the products of corrosion, will indicate an
formed part of the structure by its condition, e.g. an unformed rivet could be advanced state of deterioration. In some cases this condition can be seen
considered as a loose article, but a rivet which had been formed would be in- by an examination of the external surface, but dismantling of parts of the
dicative of a failure. structure to verify the condition of the joints may be required.
NOTE: To avoid damage to the structure, the probing of a joint with a
General
pointed instrument should be carried out with discretion by an experienced
The structure should be examined for any signs of distortion or movement be- person. Any damage done to the protective paint coating, however small,
tween its different parts at their attachment points, for loose or sheared fasten- should be made good.
ers (which may sometimes remain in position) and for signs of rubbing or wear
in the vicinity of moving parts, flexible pipes, etc. Visual Examination
NOTES Nearly all the inspection operations on aircraft structures are carried out visu-
1. A wing structure has been known to have had a rib sheared at its spar at- ally and, because of the complexity of many structures, special visual aids are
tachments due to the accidental application of an excessive load, without necessary to enable such inspections to be made. Visual aids vary from the
any external evidence of damage, because the skin returned to its original familiar torch and mirrors to complex instruments based on optical principles
contour after removal of the load. and, provided the correct instrument is used, it is possible to examine almost
any part of the structure.
2. (For the inspection of bolted joints) The protective treatment should be
NOTE: Airworthiness Requirements normally prescribe that adequate means
examined for condition. On light alloys a check should be made for any
shall be provided to permit the examination and maintenance of such parts of
traces of corrosion, marked discolouration or a scaly, blistered or cracked
the aeroplane as require periodic inspection.
appearance. If any of these conditions is apparent the protective treatment
in the area concerned should be carefully removed and the bare metal ex- In order that the necessary repair procedures can be determined, the type and
amined for any traces of corrosion or cracks. If the metal is found satisfac- extent of damage must be properly and thoroughly investigated.
tory, the protective treatment should be restored. To determine the damage category, the suspected or affected area must be
NOTE: To assist in the protection of structures against corrosion some prepared by removing any foreign matter deposits from the component surface,
constructors may attach calcium chromate and/or strontium chromate sa- cutting out any broken, bent, heated, burnt or otherwise obviously damaged
chets to the vulnerable parts of the structure. The presence of chromate in areas of the component and removing loose rivets where apparent.
the sachets can be checked by feel during inspection. After handling these S In addition to the damaged or affected area itself, any adjacent attachment
materials, the special precautions, e.g. hand washing, given in the points and/ or connections, through which abnormal loads may have been
constructor’s manual, should be followed. transmitted, must be fully investigated.
3. In most cases where corrosion is detected in its early stages, corrective S If misalignment or twisting of the airplane structure is suspected, alignment
treatment will permit the continued use of the part concerned. However, and/ or levelling checks must be carried out.
where the strength of the part may have been reduced beyond the design
value, repair or replacement may be necessary. Where doubt exists regard-

Mk 1 Eyeball
Figure 423 Visual Examination

Endoscopes
An endoscope (also known as an introscope, boroscope or fibrescope, depend-
ing on the type and the manufacturer) is an optical instrument used for the in-
spection of the interior of structure or components. Turbine engines, in particu-
lar, are often designed with plugs at suitable locations in the casings, which can
be removed to permit insertion of an endoscope and examination of the interior
parts of the engine.
In addition, some endoscopes are so designed that photographs can be taken
of the area under inspection, by attaching a camera to the eyepiece; this is
useful for comparison and record purposes.
One type of endoscope comprises an optical system in the form of lenses and
prisms, fitted in a rigid metal tube. At one end of the tube is an eyepiece, usu-
ally with a focal adjustment, and at the other end is the objective head contain-
ing a lamp and a prism. Depending on the design and purpose of the instru-
ment a variety of objective heads can be used to permit viewing in different
directions.
The electrical supply for the lamp is connected near the eyepiece and is nor-
mally supplied from a battery or mains transformer.
These instruments are available in a variety of diameters from approximately
6mm and are often made in sections which can be joined to make any length
required.
Right--angled instruments based on the periscope principle are also available
for use where the observer cannot be in direct line with the part to be ex-
amined.
A second type of endoscope uses ’cold light’; that is, light provided by a remote
light source box and transmitted through a flexible fibre light guide cable to the
eyepiece and thence through a fibre bundle surrounding the optical system to
the objective head. This type provides bright illumination to the inspection area,
without the danger of heat or electrical sparking and is particularly useful in

sensitive or hazardous areas.
A third type of endoscope uses a flexible fibre optical system, thus enabling
inspection of areas which are not in line with the access point.

Eyepiece
Focus control
Fibre optic cable from light box

Operating handle
Igniter plug hole
By-Pass Duct
Flame Tube
Control handles for

Eyepiece lens
4--way tip articulation
Nozzle guide vanes
Burner
Typical Endoscope Combustion
Application chamber
Dioptre ring Image guide
Interchangeable tips
Objective lens
Focusing ring Light
guide
Protective
sheath
Projection lamp Light guide exit
Figure 424 Endoscope

Light Probes
It is obvious that good lighting is essential for all visual examinations and spe- When using any form of magnifier it is most important to ensure that the sur-
cial light probes are often used. For small boxed--in structures or the interior of face to be examined is sufficiently illuminated.
hollow parts such as the bores of tubes, special light probes (fitted with minia-
ture lamps) are needed. Current is supplied to the lamp through the stem of the
probe from a battery housed in the handle of the probe.
These small probes are made in a large variety of dimensions, from 5mm di-
ameter with stem lengths from 50mm upwards.
Probes are often fitted with a magnifying lens and attachments for fitting an
angled mirror. Such accessories as a recovery hook and a recovery magnet
may also form part of the equipment.
Inspection Mirrors
Probably the most familiar aid to the inspection of aircraft structures is a small
mirror mounted at one end of a rod or stem, the other end forming a handle.
Such a mirror should be mounted by means of a universal joint so that it can be
positioned at various angles, thus enabling a full view to be obtained behind
flanges, brackets, etc.
A useful refinement of this type of mirror is where the angle can be adjusted by
remote means, e.g. control of the mirror angle by a rack and pinion mechanism
inside the stem, with the operating knob by the side of the handle, thus permit-
ting a range of angles to be obtained after insertion of the instrument into the
structure.
Mirrors are also made with their own source of light mounted in a shroud on the
stem and are designed so as to avoid dazzle. These instruments are often of
the magnifying type, the magnification most commonly used being 2x.
Magnifying Glass
The magnifying glass is a most useful instrument for removing uncertainty re-
garding a suspected defect revealed by eye, for example, where there is doubt
regarding the presence of a crack or corrosion. Instruments vary in design from
the small simple pocket type to the stereoscopic type with a magnification of
20x. For viewing inside structures, a hand instrument with 8x magnification and
its own light source is often used.
Magnification of more than 8x should not be used unless specified. A too- pow-
erful magnification will result in concentrated viewing of a particular spot and
will not reveal the surrounding area. Magnification of more than 8x may be
used, however, to re--examine a suspected defect which has been revealed by
a lower magnification.

Magnifying lens
Sleeve with elliptical mirror
Light probe
Battery handle Lamp

Figure 425 Typical Light Probe

NON-DESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION
General Radiographic Examination
In cases where examination by visual means is not practicable or has left some The use of radiography will often facilitate the examination of aircraft structures
uncertainty regarding a suspect part, the use of one of the methods of non--de- and it is used for the detection of defects in areas which cannot be examined
structive examination will normally determine the condition of the part. by other means because of inaccessibility or the type of defect.
A brief outline of the methods of non--destructive examination most commonly Radiography can be a valuable aid to visual inspection and the examination of
used on aircraft structures is given in the following paragraphs. The selection of certain parts of an aircraft structure by an X--ray process will often result in a
the method to be used will depend largely on the design of the structure, its more comprehensive inspection than would otherwise be possible. However,
accessibility and the nature of the suspected defect. radiographic methods can be both unsatisfactory and uneconomical unless
great care is taken in the selection of suitable subjects. In this respect the opin-
Penetrant Dye Processes ion of the aircraft manufacturer should be sought.
These processes are used mainly for checking areas for those defects which During routine inspections, the use of radiography based on reliable techniques
break the surface of the material, which may be too small for visual detection of examination can result in more efficient and rapid detection of defects. In
by 2x magnification and where checking at higher magnifications would be im- some instances, defects such as cracking, loosening of rivets, distortion of
practical. parts and serious corrosion of the pitting type can be detected by this method.
Basically, the process consists of applying a red penetrant dye to the bare sur- It should be borne in mind, however, that a negative result given by a general
face under test, removing after a predetermined time any excess dye and then NDT method such as radiography is no guarantee that the part is free from all
applying a developer fluid containing a white absorbent. Any dye which has defects.
penetrated into a defect (e.g. crack) is drawn to the surface by the developer Where radiography is used for the detection of surface corrosion it is recom-
and the resultant stain will indicate the presence and position of the defect. mended that selected areas should be radiographed at suitable intervals, each
NOTE: Penetrant dye processes of inspection for the detection of surface de- time simulating the original radiographic conditions, so that the presence of cor-
fects require no elaborate equipment or specialised personnel. It is emphasised rosion will become apparent by a local change in the density of succeeding ra-
that the cleanliness of the surface to be tested is of prime importance if this diographs.
process is to reveal microscopic cracks.
The accurate interpretation of the radiographs is a matter which requires con-
The manufacturer’s detailed instructions regarding the applications of the pro- siderable skill and experience if the maximum benefits are to be obtained. It is
cess should be carefully followed. The most suitable processes for testing parts essential that the persons responsible for preparing the technique and viewing
of aircraft structures ’in situ’ are those which employ water--washable dye the results have an intimate knowledge of the structure.
penetrants, with the penetrant and developer contained in aerosol packs. NOTE: Close contact should be maintained with the aircraft manufacturer who
The characteristics of the red marks, such as the rapidity with which they de- will be aware of problem areas on an aircraft and be able to advise on particu-
velop and their final size and shape, provide an indication as to the nature of lar inspection techniques.
the defect revealed.
After test, the developers should be removed by the method prescribed by the
process manufacturer and the protective treatment should be restored.
NOTE: A similar process to the Penetrant Dye Process is the Fluorescent
Penetrant Process. However, this process is less adaptable for testing aircraft
parts ’in situ’ because portable ’black light’ lamps are used to view the parts
and dark room conditions are generally required.

Penetrant
(A) When performing a liquid penetrant in-

spection, the penetrant is spread over the sur-
face of the material being examined, and al-
Penetrant lowed sufficient time for capillary action to
take place.
(B) The excess penetrant is then washed from
the surface, leaving any cracks and surface
Developer flaws filled.
Penetrant bleed-out
(C) An absorbent developer is sprayed over
the surface where it blots out any penetrant.
The crack then shows up as a bright line
against the white developer.
Figure 426 Penetrant Dye Process

Ultrasonic Examination
In some instances ultra--sonic examination is the only satisfactory method of electronic equipment should be considered and it should be ensured that the
testing for certain forms of defects. Ultrasonic flaw detectors can be used to magnetic ink or powder can be satisfactorily removed. If this method is used,
check certain aircraft parts ’in situ’ and it is sometimes an advantage to use this demagnetisation and a test for remnant magnetism must be carried out to en-
method to avoid extensive dismantling which would be necessary in order to sure that there will be no interference with the aircraft avionics systems and
use some other method. The chief value of ultrasonic examination in such cir- magnetic compasses.
cumstances is that cracks on surfaces which are not accessible to visual ex-
amination should be revealed. Thus solid extrusions, forgings and castings
which are backed by skin panels, but which have one suitably exposed smooth
surface, can be tested for flaws on their interface surface without breaking
down the interface joint. On some aircraft, spar booms and similar extruded
members require periodic examination for fatigue cracks, but the areas of sus-
pected weakness may be inaccessible for examination by the penetrant dye
method. In such cases radiography may be recommended, but where ultra-
sonic testing can be used it will give quicker results on those parts which lend
themselves to this form of testing and may also be useful to confirm radio-
graphic evidence.
Eddy Current Examination
Eddy current methods can detect a large number of physical and chemical
changes in a conducting material and equipment is designed specifically to per-
form particular types of test, e.g. flaw detection, conductivity measurement and
thickness measurement.
The main advantages of this method of inspection are that it does not require
extensive preparation of the surface or dismantling of the part to be tested and
does not interfere with other work being carried out on an aircraft. In addition,
small, portable, battery--operated test sets can be used in comparatively inac-
cessible parts of the structure.
Eddy current testing is usually of the comparative type, indications from a refer-
ence piece or standard being compared with indications from the part under
test. A technique for detecting a particular fault is established after trials have
indicated a method which gives consistent results.
Magnetic Flaw Detection
Magnetic flaw detection methods are seldom used on aircraft structures and
are generally restricted to the manufacturing, fabrication and inspection of
parts. The method has, however, sometimes been used where other non--de-
structive testing methods have proved to be unsatisfactory. Before using the
method, the effects of magnetisation on adjacent structure, compasses and

N
S
Coil or Solenoid Magnetization

Current
DC Input
Yoke Magnetization
Current
When a part is magnetized in a coil or solenoid, the lines of flux pass When current passes through a part, lines of flux encircle
through the material longitudinally. the part making it circularly magnetized.
The same holds true if a part is magnetized using a coil wrapped around The same hold true when a circular or tubular part is
a soft iron yoke. placed over a current-carrying conductor.
In both cases, as the flux lines pass through the part longitudinally, This circular magnetization allows for the detection of
faults that run across the part are detected. faults extending lengthwise along the part.
Figure 427 Magnetic Flaw Detection

DAMAGE CATEGORIES
After cleaning and investigating the damage and surrounding area, it must be
classified into one of the following categories (taking into account the location
of the damage).
REPAIRABLE DAMAGE
The damage must be classified either as ”Allowable Damage” or ”Non-Allow-
able Damage” (requiring a repair).
Allowable Damage
Allowable damage is defined as damage which is slight or of little significance,
and is unlikely to be of sufficient severity to propagate further damage in the
immediate vicinity.
NOTE: ALLOWABLE DOES NOT MEAN THAT REPAIR IS UNNECESSARY.
FOR EXAMPLE, SCRATCHES AND BURRING ARE INCLUDED IN
THIS CATEGORY, AND IT IS NECESSARY TO REMOVE ROUGH
AND SHARP EDGES AND SMOOTH OUT THE DAMAGE.
ADDITIONALLY, ANY DAMAGE TO SURFACE COATINGS AND/
OR PROTECTIVE TREATMENT MUST BE REPAIRED USING AM
APPROVED PROCEDURE DEALT WITH UNDER SRM CHAPTER
51.
Non-Allowable Damage
Damage which exceeds the ”Allowable Damage” limits must be repaired by
removing the damaged area of a structural component and inserting or attach-
ing a reinforcing piece. These specific repairs are to be found in each chapter
of the SRM.
NON-REPAIRABLE DAMAGE
Non-repairable damage is defined as damage to structural components which

cannot be repaired and where replacement of the complete component is rec-
ommended as a repair is not practical or economical.



TYPES OF STRUCTURAL DAMAGE

General
In order to facilitate the classification of different repair procedures, the various
types of damage are grouped as follows:
Mark
S A mark is to be understood as a damage area of any size where an accu-
mulation of scratches, nicks, chips, burrs or gouges etc is present in such a
way that the damage must be treated as an area and not as a series of indi-
vidual scratches, gouges etc.
Scratch
S A scratch is a line of damage of any depth and length in the material and
results in a cross-sectional area change. It is usually caused by contact with
a object.
Gouge
S A gouge is a damage area of any size which results in a cross--sectional
area change. It is usually caused by contact with a relatively sharp object
which produces a continuous, sharp or smooth channel-like groove in the
material.
Crack
S A crack is a partial fracture or complete break in the material with the most
significant cross-sectional area change.
Dent
S A dent is normally a damage area which is depressed with respect to its
normal contour. There is no cross sectional area change in the material;
area boundaries are smooth.

Distortion
S Any twisting, bending or permanent strain which results in misalignment or
change of shape. May be caused by impact from a foreign object, but usu-
ally results from vibration or movement of adjacent attached components.
This group includes bending, buckling, deformation, imbalance, misalign-
ment, pinching and twisting.

Scratch Gouge Crack

Dent Distortion Crease
Figure 428 Types of Structural Damage 1

TYPES OF STRUCTURAL DAMAGE (CONTINUED)

Corrosion
S The destruction of metal by chemical or electrochemical action.
Crease
S A damage area which is depressed or folded back upon itself in such a
manner that its boundaries are sharp or well defined lines or ridges.
Abrasion
S An abrasion is a damage area of any size which results in a cross-sectional
area change due to scuffing, rubbing, scraping or other surface erosion; it is
usually rough and irregular.
Nick
S A small loss of material, due to a knock etc at the edge of a member or
skin.
Crazing
S A mesh of minute hairline surface cracks.
Delamination/ Debonding
S Delamination or debonding is the separation of a laminate into its constitu-
ent layers.
Hole
S A hole constitutes a complete penetration of the surface. It is usually
caused by impact of a sharp object.
Burn Marks (Lightning Strikes)

S Burn marks/ lightning strikes are usually spot formed welded damages with
discoloration of the material.

Delamination Abrasion Nick

Debonding (Stringer) Hole Burn Marks
Figure 429 Types of Structural Damage 2

DISASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES
Removal of Damage Sealant
In some instances it will be necessary to cut away the damaged material and Repairs in pressure cabin and integral fuel tank areas may involve separation
dress back the surrounding structure. Although it should be ensured that no of members riveted and sealed together. Some sealants have considerable
more material than is necessary is removed, it is necessary to make sure that adhesion and may cause difficulty in separating the members after the rivets
the adjacent structure to which the repair is to be applied is in a sound condi- have been removed. Where such separation is necessary, the solvents speci-
tion. fied and methods of separation detailed in the Repair or Maintenance Manual
must be strictly followed.
Riveted Structure NOTE: After repairs in a pressurised area or a fuel tank, either a leak test or a
When removing riveted structure, care must be taken not to damage those pressure test may be specified in the appropriate manual.
rivet holes which are to be used again (e.g. by burring, enlargement or under-
cutting) since circular, smooth--edged holes are essential if the risk of failure by Wear
fatigue is to be kept to a minimum. Where holes are found to be elongated by stress the part must be renewed.
However, if elongation is due to wear and is beyond the limits permitted by the
Bolt Holes Repair Manual, rectification schemes are usually given.
Bolt holes should be treated with equal care, it being particularly important that The corresponding pin or bolt assemblies should be inspected for wear, distor-
the holes in stressed parts should be free from scores or burrs. Where neces- tion, ’picking--up’ and shear and where necessary renewed. Lubricating ducts
sary, bolts should be eased with penetrating oil before extraction but it is also should be checked for obstruction.
necessary to ensure that the oil does not damage adjacent sealing media.
Where bushed holes are fitted it is usual to renew the worn bush, but where the
Bolts on which the nuts were locked by a peening over process must have the hole in the fitting has become enlarged so that the new bush is loose, a repair
burrs removed to remove the nuts and these bolts must not be used again. scheme is usually available for reaming out the hole and fitting an oversize
NOTE: A check should be made to note whether the structure ’springs’ as bolts bush.
are withdrawn. If this occurs, interchangeability fixtures should be used when
When excessive wear has taken place in unbushed holes the fitting should be
rebuilding the structure to ensure correct alignment and prevent the introduc-
renewed unless there is an approved scheme available whereby the hole can
tion of locked--in stresses.
be reamed oversize and a bush fitted; in some cases an oversize bolt or pin
Cutting Structure may be specified.
When damaged panels are to be removed by cutting (i.e. not by dismantling at Wear in ball and roller bearings should be checked.
a production joint), all edges must be free from burrs and notches and trimmed
to a smooth finish. It is important that the comer radii of stressed panels are
correct and that the dimensions and locations of cuts are within the limits speci-
fied in the repair drawing.
Special care is necessary when damaged parts are removed by cutting, to en-
sure that the remaining structure or material is not damaged by drills, rotary
cutting tools, hack--saw blades, etc.

Figure 430 Drilling Out Seized Screw

CORROSION REMOVAL
Introduction Appearance
The early identification and removal of corrosion will help to maintain the ser- When inspecting a painted surface, corrosion is usally seen as:
viceability, safety and function of the aircraft. This is only possible if the inspec- S a scaly or blistered surface,
tion for corrosion is done regularly and precisely.
S a change of colour,
All corrosion found must be immediately and completely removed. This is es-
S blisters in the paint.
sential because corrosion which remains will cause new corrosion and further
decrease the strength of the structure. When there is corrosion on a metallic surface you will usually see a dulled or
darkened area and a pitted surface. White, grey or red dust or particles may
After the corrosion is completely removed the extent of the damage must be
also be observed.
examined and compared with the allowable damage limits (Chapter 51--11--00
of the AMM).
Ensure that the repair area is given the correct surface protection to prevent
further corrosion (Chapter 51--21--00).
Inspection
Corrosion can be found by the following methods:
S visual inspection,
S dye penetrant inspection,
S ultrasonic inspection,
S eddy current inspection,
S X--ray inspection.
The applicable procedures are given in the Nondestructive Testing Manual
(NTM).
Visual Inspection
The following list details some of the equipment to help do a visual inspection
for corrosion:
S magnifying glass,
S mirrors,
S borescope, fiber optics,
S other equivalent equipment.



CORROSION REMOVAL (CONT’D)

1. All areas of structural items or parts that are affected by corrosion are to be Preparation
treated immediately. 1. Before starting to remove corrosion, protect all adjacent areas/equipment
NOTE: It is advisable to make an initial assessment of the extent of the corro- against the effect of chemical strippers, cleaning agents and surface treat-
sion. It may be less costly (Man--hours and/or materials), to make a repair than ment materials. Use suitable masking paper and tape.
proceeding with the steps that follow. WARNING: CLEANING AGENTS ARE DANGEROUS.
2. In order to determine the extent of the damaged area, all corrosion must 2. Remove all dirt, grease and other foreign matter from the affected area with
first be removed. Removal of corrosion should be done by trained personel. cleaning agent.
Refer to the applicable Chapter 52 - 57 to determine the type of repair if
NOTE: Do not use cleaning agent (Material No. 11--004) on titanium parts lo-
required.
cated within high temperature areas (above 150oC (300oF)).
3. Ensure that all corrosion is completeiy removed before starting a repair.
3. Two methods of paint removal are possible; mechanical and chemical.
Minor residues of corrosion can act as a starting point for further corrosion.
4. Where the corrosion is light and contained within a small area, use the me-
4. The following are a series of steps as a guide to corrosion removal. De-
chanical method. Where the corrosion is heavy and covers a large area,
pending on the situation not all steps will be applicable:
the use of paint strippers is recommended.
S clean the corroded area,
5. Any fasteners located within the area of corrosion and affected by the cor-
S remove paint from the corroded area, rosion must be removed to prevent cross contamination between dissimilar
S further cleaning of the area, metals whilst the corrosion is being removed. Removal of the fasteners will
S removal of corrosion, also permit a check for corrosion in the bore of the fastener holes.
Check for complete removal of corrosion. If corrosion is still present, proceed
with the above work step removal of corrosion,
S blending out of affected area,
S check of allowable damage and repair if required,
S final cleaning,
S surface treatment.
NOTE: In case of installed fasteners in the area of corrosion, it is necessary to
remove all fasteners before starting with the removal procedure (refer to Chap-
ter 51--42--00).
5. Refer to Chapter 51--22--00 for information on the various types of corro-
sion and methods available for preventing corrosion.
6. Peening the surface after corrosion removal.
S For areas up to 10000 mm2 (15.50 in2) peening is recommended but not
required.
S For areas > than 10000 mm2 (15.50 in2) but < than 19000 mm2 (29.45 in2),
flap peen (Refer to Chapter 51--29--11) or shot peen with steel balls.
S For areas > 19000 mm2 (29.45 in2) shot peen with steel balls.

Commercial drum sander with aluminium Commercial mushroom sanding pad with
oxide abrasive sleeves of various grades, aluminium oxide abrasive discs of various
lengths and diameters. grades.
Commercial flexible sanding Diameters approx 25mm, 50mm or 75mm.
wheel, aluminium oxide abrasive
Grade 80.
Commercial rotary files of

ball and conical shape. Commercial Spirapoint cones
with adaptor cone.
Figure 431 Corrosion Removal Tools

Corrosion Removal Techniques
Abrasion by Hand Rotary Files
Abrasion by hand is only suitable for areas of light corrosion. Emery cloth and The use of a rotary file or hand scraper is necessary when the corrosion is
abrasive pads are the most common methods used. heavy. Rotary files are suitable for use on aluninium and steel alloys.
Wire Brushing 1. Do the necessary preparation steps (previous page).
S Wire brushing is a mechanical abrasive operation that can be done with ei- WARNING: THE USE OF SAFETY GOGGLES OR A FACE SHIELD IS MAN-
ther a hand brush or motor driven brush. DATORY WHEN USING MOTOR-DRIVEN ROTARY FILES.
S Wire brushing, as described below, is a typical procedure used to remove 2. Remove corrosion as necessary using a rotary file.
heavy corrosion and embedded paint or dirt. 3. Using fine abrasive paper, polish the surface to a standard suitable for final
1. Do the necessary preparation steps (previous page). treatment.
2. Remove any loose corrosion with a hand scraper. Abrasive Blasting
WARNING: THE USE OF SAFETY GOGGLES OR A FACE -SHIELD IS MAN- NOTE: Abrasive blasting is not recommended for use internally.
DATORY WHEN USING MOTOR-DRIVEN WIRE BRUSHES. Abrasive blasting is a widely used method of cleaning or finishing metal sur-
CAUTION: ONLY USE STAINLESS STEEL OR ALUMINUM OXIDE-COATED faces. In this procedure the metal surface is bombarded with a stream of abra-
BRUSHES. sive particles. It is also a quick method of removing filiform corrosion and scale
3. Using a wire brush , remove all traces of corrosion. from metal surfaces. Suitable portable abrasive blasters are available.
Grinding 1. Do the necessary preparation steps (previous page).
S Grinding is a procedure used to remove corrosion using motorised grinding WARNING: THE USE OF SAFETY GOGGLES OR A FACE SHIELD IS MAN-
wheels. DATORY WHEN USING ABRASIVE BLASTING.
1. Do the necessary preparation steps (previous page). WARNING: AVOID INHALATION OF ABRASIVE DUST. GOOD VENTILATION
IS NECESSARY.
WARNING: THE USE OF SAFETY GOGGLES OR A FACE SHIELD IS MAN-
DATORY WHEN USING MOTOR-DRIVEN GRINDING WHEELS. 2. Remove the corrosion by blasting with glass beads.
CAUTION: AVOID GENERATING HIGH TEMPERATURES WHEN GRIND- NOTE: To obtain the best results, the gun nozzle should be positioned so that
ING. THIS MAY CHANGE THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF THE MA- the glass beads remove the corrosion in a path approximately 25mm wide.
TERIAL.
CAUTION: GRINDING IS NOT SUITABLE FOR USE ON ALUMINUM AL-
LOYS.
2. Remove corrosion by grinding until a firm corrosion free surface is
achieved. Continue grinding to remove any coarse irregularities.
3. Using fine abrasive paper, polish the surface to the desired finish.

Figure 432 Abrasive Bead-Blasting

Checks for Corrosion Removal
Ensure that the corrosion has been completely removed. A x10 magnifying
glass is recommended for this check.
When a check for cracks is required, refer to the Non Destructive Testing
Manual (NTM) Chapter 51--10--02, Page Block 101, and Chapter 51--60--00,
Page Block 601.
Blending of the area after corrosion removal is recommended in order to obtain
a smooth surface for the application of the final surface treatment. Blending
can be done with emery cloth or an abrasive pad.
Neutralization
CAUTION: THIS PROCEDURE IS NOT SUITABLE FOR USE WHERE THE
NEUTRALIZING AGENT CAN GET INTO AREAS WHERE IT CANNOT BE
WASHED OFF.
CAUTION: ONLY USE NEUTRALIZING AGENT WHEN WASH PRIMER IS
TO FOLLOW.
Neutralization can be used to complete the corrosion removal where deep cor-
rosion was found on aluminium alloys. The following is a typical neutralizing
procedure.
WARNING: NEUTRALIZING ACID Cr03 IS DANGEROUS.
1. Prepare a solution, 90g of Cr03 to 1 litre (O.198 lb to 0.2642 US gaL) of
water. Apply the solution to the area with a brush.
2. Allow the neutralizing agent to work for approximately 5 to 20 minutes.
3. Rinse off the neutralizing agent with running water, remove any brown or
yellow discolouration with a brush.
4. Dry the area with clean, lint-free cloths.



CORROSION ON ALUMINIUM ALLOYS REMOVAL OF CORROSION FROM CARBON STEEL

Aluminum alloys are the most widely-used materials in the construction of air- Carbon steel in its heat-treated form is used in those areas where high struc-
craft. The most obvious sign of corrosion is a whitish deposit on the surface of tural or aerodynamic loads occur on the aircraft.
the metal, caused by chemical action. General etching, pitting or roughness of Red iron rust is one of the more familiar types of corrosion found on carbon
the surface gives an indication of the early stages of corrosion. Procedures for steel. This type of corrosion is generally caused by the formation of ferrous ox-
the removal of corrosion are as follows. ides due to atmospheric exposure. Red iron rust attracts moisture from the at-
mosphere which promotes additional corrosion. Red rust first shows on unpro-
Corrosion Removal
tected aircraft hardware such as bolts, nuts and exposed fittings.
1. Do the necessary preparation steps (previous pages).
Slight corrosion on highly stressed steel parts is potentially dangerous and the
CAUTION: DO NOT USE CARBON STEEL BRUSHES OR STEEL WOOL ON rust must be removed and controlled. Corroded steel parts should be removed
ALUMINIUM ALLOY SURFACES. TINY DISSIMILAR METAL PARTICLES from the aircraft where possible, for treatment.
WILL BECOME EMBEDDED IN THE ALUMINIUM ALLOY AND CAUSE FUR-
THER CORROSION WITH RESULTING DAMAGE TO THE PART. Corrosion Removal
2. Remove light corrosion with the use of emery cloth (Grade 240 to 400). 1. Do the necessary preparation steps (previous pages).
CAUTION: AVOID GENERATING HIGH TEMPERATURES WHEN USING CAUTION: HAND-HELD POWER TOOLS MUST NOT BE USED ON HIGH
SCRAPERS, ROTARY FILES OR STAINLESS STEEL BRUSHES. THIS MAY STRENGTH STEEL. TO AVOID OVERHEATING, EXERCISE EXTREME
CHANGE THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF THE MATERIAL. CARE WHEN REMOVING CORROSION WITH TOOLS.
3. Remove heavy corrosion using scrapers, rotary files or stainless steel 2. Remove the corrosion using abrasion by hand, stainless steel brushes or
brushes. abrasive blasting.
4. Do the ’Checks for Corrosion Removal’ and ’Neutralization’ work steps 3. Clean the area with cleaning agent.
as applicable. 4. Do the ’Checks for Corrosion Removal’ and ’Neutralization’ work steps
WARNING: CLEANING AGENTS ARE DANGEROUS. as applicable.
5. Clean the area with cleaning agent. 5. Refer to the NTM, Chapter 51--10--04, Page Block 101, and establish the
6. Refer to the NTM, Chapter 51--10--04, Page Block 101, and establish the remaining material thickness.
remaining material thickness. 6. Refer to Chapters 52 - 57 (Page Block 101) as applicable and establish if
7. Refer to Chapters 52 - 57 (Page Block 101) as applicable, and establish if further action is necessary.
further action is necessary. 7. Apply the appropriate surface protection as given in Chapter 51--75--12.
8. Apply the appropriate surface protection as given in Chapter 51--75--12. 8. If applicable, renew any special coatings in the area (Chapter 51--23--12).
9. If applicable, renew any special coatings in the area (refer to Chapter
51--23--12).



CORROSION REMOVAL FROM STAINLESS STEEL AND

NICKEL CHROMIUM ALLOYS
Stainless steel and nickel chromium alloys are used where corrosion resistance
is one of the major considerations in the design of structural parts and compo-
REMOVAL OF CORROSION FROM CADMIUM-PLATED PARTS
nents. In most applications these steels will have no other surface protection
except for matching colour schemes of the surrounding structure, dissimilar The following process is suitable for removing and repairing corrosion damage
metal protection or organic coatings. Stainless steels however, are not to be to cadmium plated parts in situ.
considered free from the possibility of corrosion occurring. 1. Do the necessary preparation steps (previous pages).
Corrosion on these steels usually appears as pitting, usually black in colour. WARNING: PARTICLES OF CADMIUM ARE DANGEROUS. WEAR COR-
The existence of corrosion prevents a passivated environment on the surface RECT PROTECTIVE CLOTHING TO PREVENT THE INHALATION OF CAD-
of the steels, and creates an active--passive corrosion cell. It is necessary MIUM PARTICLES.
therefore, that the corrosion is removed completely.
2. Remove corrosion with a dampened abrasive pad.
Corrosion Removal
NOTE: All contaminated cloths and abrasive pads must be collected and
Use the same procedures as those given for carbon steel (refer to previous placed in polythene bags for disposal in accordance with local instructions.
pages).
WARNING: CLEANING AGENTS (MATERIAL No. 11--003 AND 11--004) ARE
CORROSION REMOVAL FROM TITANIUM ALLOYS DANGEROUS.
3. CLean the area with cleaning agent (Material No. 11--003 or 11--004).
Titanium alloys are used in various areas in the aircraft structure, especially in
high temperature areas and areas where high strength members are exposed 4. Renew the cadmium plating using the DALIC process (refer to Chapter
to a corrosive environment. Exposure of the surface of titanium to fire resistant 51--21--11, paragraph 3. A.. Alternatively, use the phosphating procedure
hydraulic fluids (Skydrol) causes hydrogen embrittlement with subsequent pit- given in Chapter 51--21--11, paragraph 3.B..
ting of the surface. 5. Apply the appropriate surface protection as given in Chapter 51--75--12.
Titanium alloy is generally resistant to corrosion. Corrosion however, when it 6. If applicable, renew any special coatings in the area (Chapter 51--23--12).
does occur is recognized as a black or white coloured oxide.
Corrosion Removal
WARNING: SMALL CHIPS OR SLIVERS OF TITANIUM THAT RESULT
FROM MACHINING CAN EASILY IGNITE, AND ARE TO BE CONSIDERED
AS AN EXTREME FIRE HAZARD. IN THE CASE OF A FIRE DEVELOPING,

EXTINGUISH WITH DRY TALCUM POWDER, CALCIUM CARBONATE,
SAND OR GRAPHITE. DO NOT USE WATER, CARBON DIOXIDE, CARBON
TETRACHLORIDE OR ORDINARY DRY CHEMICAL FIRE EXTINGUISHERS.
1. Do the necessary preparation steps (previous pages).
2. Remove the corrosion or surface deposits by hand polishing. Use a soft
clean cloth together with aluminum polish.
3. Clean the area with cleaning agent (Material No. II--003 or 11--004).



TYPES OF CORROSION PROTECTION PROCEDURES

The maximum possible corrosion protection is given to the aircraft before it is
delivered. The good corrosion resistance of the aircraft structure is the result of
the interaction of different types of corrosion protection.
Pretreatments
Pretreatment is the initial treatment of the metal and has the following func-
tions:
S To increase the corrosion resistant properties of the metal by chemical or
electrolytical procedures,
S To give a good surface for the adhesion of the subsequent paint coats.
One procedure that is used to prevent corrosion is to apply a thin layer of differ-
ent metal. This layer has a lower electrolytical potential than the main metal. If
corrosion occurs it will remove the thin layer first. This is referred to as sacrifi-
cial corrosion prevention.
The table gives you the pretreatments which are usually used to give the maxi-
mum resistance to corrosion. For details of each treatment and its use refer to
Chapter 51--21--11.

Material Pretreatment Remarks
Chromic or sulphuric
Electrolytical treatment (surface gets an oxide coating)
anodizing
Aluminium
Chemical conversion
Alloys Chemical treatment (same function as anodizing)
coating
Wash-Primer Usually used in field repairs
Cadmium
Electrolytic application of cadmium sacrificial protection
Plating
Phosphatisation Chemical treatment, application of zinc or manganese phosphates (sacrificial protection)

Steel
Alloys
Hard Chromium or Electrolytical treatment to prevent contact of moisture and oxygen with the steel alloy. Highly resistant to
Nickel Plating wear, low coefficient of friction.
Silver Plating Electrolytical treatment, good resistance against fretting corrosion under hot conditions.
Cadmium Plating Used when in contact with aluminium alloys. Decreases galvanic effects. Sacrificial protection.
Corrosion-
Resistant
Steels Thin layer of pure zinc. Used when in contact with aluminium alloy. Decreases galvanic effects. Sacrificial
Zinc Spraying
protection.
Titanium Anodizing Electrolytical treatment. Decreases galvanic effects.
Pretreatments

PREPARATORY TREATMENT OF SURFACES

Anodizing Sulphuric Acid Anodizing
the term “anodizing“ means an anodic treatment (a direct current chromic acid Since about 1987 Airbus Industries have used sulphuric acid anodization.
treatment)
This treatment is called “CAA“ by the manufacturers.
SAA
CAA Sulphuric
Acid
Chromic
Anodizing
Acid
Anodizing
In this case a hard and brittle layer is created, which is very resistant to wear
but cracks easily.
Eloxadizing 1/3 outside of the Al-Alloy
This process is comparable to anodizing but is done with sulphuric acid.

CAA--Layer
Al - Alloy
EL OX AL
2/3 Diffusion into the material
Electric
Oxidize When eloxadizing the natural oxide skin is thickened by chemical means.
Aluminium
Disadvantage
S Eloxation layers have ceramic properties - that means they are not elastic.
Parts that are subject to bending or other distortions can crack more easily
because of their eloxation layer.
Anodizing is used with all integrally milled structural components of Airbus air-
planes. In addition it is used on all bonded surfaces and on the outer skin of the
fuselage. On the A300--600 and A310 airplanes almost all surface sheet metals
(as shown in the illustration) are anodized in addition to the plated coat.

51
10 18 26/32 39 55/58 72 80/82 91

FIBREGLASS (NO PRETREATMENT)
ALODINE
CHROMIC ACID ANODIZING

Chemical Conversion Coating (CCC)
Alodine 1000 is used by the airplane manufacturer for coating plated alumin- When chromium plating the thickness of the layers is not more than 0.001mm.
ium. Lufthansa has replaced Alodine 1000 by Iridite 14E or Alodine 1200, be- Phosphate plating layers can reach a thickness of up to 0.003mm.
cause the protection provided by Alodine 1000 is insufficient. In the maintenance manuals, standard processes manuals and structural repair
By chemical conversion coating the surface is roughened which provides a manuals you will find notes for the application of these surface protection pro-
good contact for paint coatings. Also, an aluminium-chromium-oxide cover is cedures.
formed which is up to 0.001mm thick and provides for a certain corrosion
protection even without paint coating. This coating is insoluble by water and
organic solutions and can endure minor deformation without cracking. Cutting
edges, bores and worked out scratches are chemical conversion coated with
Iridite 14E or Alodine 1200.
Components that are subjected to operating temperatures of more than
70oC should not be treated with CCC because the adhering property of
the coating will decrease.
In case of larger areas the paint is applied at Lufthansa without CCC, but the
first layer of paint (washprimer) also effects a chemical surface treatment and
provides, together with the following layers, a good corrosion protection.
NOTE: THE FOLLOWING SAFETY INSTRUCTIONS HAVE TO BE OB-
SERVED WHEN USING SOLUTIONS, CLEANERS, CORROSIVES,
ADHESIVES, CHROMIUM TREATMENT AND PAINTS:
S Do not inhale the fumes for a long time. Do not use the above-mentioned
materials in small rooms without sufficient ventilation.
S Avoid contact of these materials with your skin. Rubber or plastic gloves
must be worn when working with solutions, cleaning agents, corrosives,
etching mediums, and CCC material (Alodine and Iridite).
Chemical treatment of the surface is used when anodic oxidation (eloxation) is
not possible or not advisable.
The protective covers that are created present a good contact area for paint
and improve chemical continuity.

A number of methods exist for chemical treatment. In recent years, acidic sur-
face treatments without electrical current have been introduced for aluminium
and aluminium alloys. These are procedures for chromium or phosphate plat-
ing. the corrosion protection is not quite as high as with the eloxation process,
but much more economical.
Chromium and phosphate plating procedures differ in the kind and strength of
the created layers.



PAINT FINISHES PAINT FINISHES IN THE AREA OF THE CABIN/FUSELAGE

All coatings that are manually painted or sprayed on components are called OUTER SKIN
paint finishes. Technical paint finishes in airplane construction are usually multi-layer paint
We talk about a paint finish when the applied substance builds a layer whose systems.
thickness can be measured after drying.
Airbus
Another property of a paint finish is that the paint can be removed with corro-
sives or by any other means in case of repair. A “paint system“ is the complete The following three layers comprise the paint system for the Airbus outer fuse-
build up of all layers of a paint finish. lage skin:
The build-up of consecutive individual layers is carried out by following precise S Wash Primer (for cohesion): a passivating cohesion primer on a Polyvinyla-
working instructions which are established in close cooperation with the paint cetate base (PVA).
manufacturers and the paint shops. S Paint Primer (Intermediate Primer): a Polyurethane lacquer with corrosion
In the course of the production of a certain aircraft type over many years, modi- inhibitors like zinc-chromate or strontium-chromate, fully cured, and
fications to the surface preparatory treatment, the composition of primers and S Coating Lacquer: a Polyurethane topcoat.
coating lacquer are common.
Boeing
A paint system that has been specified by the respective authorities is princi-
pally applicable to all aircraft types. The layers consist of type-approved speci- Boeing use a two-layer system.
fied products. These layers are applied to the completely pretreated sheet metal surfaces.
The first layer is applied to the chromium-treated or anodized sheet metal sur-
face.

Topcoat: Polyurethane lacquer or Desmophen-Desmodur (DD)
Primer: Polyurethane-based or Epoxy Primer
Wash Primer: FCR (Filiform Corrosion Resistant)
Pretreatment: CAA (Chromic Acid Anodized) or

CCC (Chemical Conversion Coating)
Airbus Three-Layer System
2024 or 2024 CLAD

7075 or 7075 CLAD
Topcoat: Polyurethane lacquer or Desmophen-Desmodur (DD) (BMS 10--72)
Primer: Polyurethane-based or Epoxy Primer (BMS 10--11 or BMS 10--79)

Pretreatment: CCC (Chemical Conversion Coating)
Boeing Two-Layer System

2024 or 2024 CLAD
7075 or 7075 CLAD
Figure 433 Different Paint Systems

Purpose
There are two main reasons for paint finishes on airplanes and airplane parts:
S a pleasant finish to the outside airplane surface, and
S The protection of the cabin, the structure and parts against corrosion, ero-
sion, mechanical damage etc.
Only approved paint finishes can satisfy these requirements.
The wear of paint finishes in operation varies strongly from aircraft to aircraft. It
depends on the area of operation, long or short haul distances etc.
Apart from the normal ageing process, mechanical and chemical stresses and
maintenance occurrences affect paint deterioration. Because of this, it is not
laid down how and when the overhaul and renewal of the paint finish should
take place. Usually the person responsible for the analysis test will determine
the extent of the repair, taking into account whether there are any special re-
quests (such as paint removal for crack testing or colour change etc).
Paint finish has to be checked for general condition; that means surface polish,
brittleness, cracks, colour change, satisfactory adhesion, separation due to
chemicals, etc. It has to be checked very carefully to make sure there is no cor-
rosion below the finish. If in doubt, small test areas have to be removed.
When checking paint finish, the type of future stresses and duration till the next
overhaul have to be taken into consideration.
Types of Surface Protection Repairs
1. Fixing. Fixing means the cleaning and maintenance of the existing paint
finish. It includes the repair of small imperfections as long as they can be
carried out with a paintbrush and appear to be optically justifiable.
2. Partial or Total Renewal. This requires that the existing paint finish is solid
in structure and has a satisfactory adhesion. Partial or total renewal means
a paint finish that is aged or damaged is partially or totally sanded and re-
painted (depending on analysis test).

3. Basic Renewal. Heavily-aged paint finishes with cracks, poor cohesion, dis-
solved by Skydrol or visible corrosion of the metal have to be completely
removed. A basic renewal includes paint removal, corrosion inhibition if re-
quired and the build up of the complete paint system.

Polyurethane
Topcoat
Intermediate Primer
Wash Primer
FCR
Aluminium Alloy
Figure 434 Paint Build-Up

PRIMER
Wash-Primer FCR (Filiform Corrosion Resistant)
The FCR primer consists of phosphoric acid parts (which chemically react with
aluminium) and zinc-chromate pigments (which act as moisture inhibitors).
The primer is not to be used as a one-layer primer but must be covered with a
paint or intermediate primer layer.
In the interior structure the FCR primer acts as corrosion protection for the
sheet metal parts.
On the outer surface the FCR primer acts primarily as adhesion contact.
The FCR primer improves the adhesion of the three-layer paint system on the
prepared, corrosion-protected sheet metals, which have been plated, chrome-
plated, or anodized with chromatic acid.
The pot time is 8 hours at 20oC.
Depending on the humidity and temperature the curing time is between 2 and 8
hours.
The thickness of the layers should be between 0.08 and 0.012mm (equivalent
to one cross-coat).
CAUTION: IF THE MINIMUM CURE TIME IS NOT OBSERVED BEFORE
THE NEXT COAT, CORROSION PROTECTION AND ADHE-
SION WILL BE IMPAIRED.
In cases of humidity higher than 75% or temperatures below 15oC, the use of
FCR primer is not recommended.
If its use cannot be avoided, a decrease in adhesion and corrosion protection
will result and the curing time will be increased.
Coating lacquer must not be applied directly to the FCR primer. It must also not
be used as the only corrosion protection.
It is always necessary to subsequently apply Aerodur S15/90 or CF Primer

37047.
Wash Primer FCR must not be applied to steels with a breaking strength of
more than 180 KSI (1240 N/mm2 ). In these cases Epoxy Primer is used.
When using alternative products it is important to ensure that the primer is
compatible with the component to be coated (if in doubt consult the manufac-
turer or refer to the current specification sheets). Not observing this can lead to
loss of airworthiness.

Curing Time
2.5
Curing at 30 - 35 %
2.25
Humidity
Time
2
1.75
Curing at 45 - 75 %
Humidity
1.5
o
C
15 20 25
Temperature
Figure 435 Influence of Humidity by Application of Primer I

INTERMEDIATE PRIMER
The following products are widely used:
S Aerodur S 15/90 (contains strontium (SrCrO4) with intensive green/yellow
colour)
S Aerodur CF 37047 (chromate free, light grey-white and dull)
The intermediate primer is applied to the Wash Primer or to Alodine-treated
aluminium surfaces.
The paint primer used by the Airbus manufacturers contains zinc-chromate and
has a similar function as the above mentioned.
Pot life time after preparation is 6 hours at temperatures of 18--22oC.
Cure Times
S Dry so that dust will not cling after 30 minutes.
S Can be sprayed over after a minimum of 4 and a maximum of 72 hours. Af-
ter that it has to be sanded.
Depth hardening after about 4 hours (can be shortened by heating up to
125oC).
Thickness of layer of one cross-coat 0.012 up to 0.015mm (dry film).

Influence of Temperature and Humidity

to the Time to Overcoat
Curing at 30 - 35 %
3 Humidity
2.75
2.5
TIME
Curing at 45 - 75 %
Humidity
2.25
2
o
15 20 25 C
TEMPERATURE
Figure 436 Influence of Humidity by Application of Primer II

EPOXY PRIMER
After chemical reaction has taken place (thermo--setting), the primer is rela-
tively resistant to chemical attack.
Resistance to hydraulic oils is not guaranteed at curing times less than 72
hours.
Epoxy Primers can contain zinc-chromates but no phosphoric acid. This makes
them very suitable for coating steel parts with a breaking strength of more than
180 KSI / 1240 N/mm2.
Phosphoric acid would cause hydrogen embrittlement.
Pot life time: 4 hours
Cure time: 24 hours at 18oC
Resistant to hydraulic oil (short contact) after 36 hours.
Resistant to hydraulic oil for 5 hours at 80oC (before oven-drying a vapourizing
time of one hour is needed).
If you do not observe the minimum cure times before the application of new
paint, decreased adhesion and corrosion protection can result.

Nose Landing Gear
Cowlings (inside)
Main Landing Gear

Flaptracks
Figure 437 Epoxy-Primer Application

COATING LACQUERS
The coating lacquer is applied as the last layer on previously-applied wash
primers and intermediate primers. The application of coating lacquer is per-
formed on all outer cabin parts which are subject to weather conditions and to
such components of the interior structure as have contact with hydraulic oils or
other aggressive fluids.
The coating lacquer is not part of the decorative paint finish. This is applied
onto the coating lacquer, but is not a technical part of the three-layer finish sys-
tem.
At present, airplane manufacturers and operators use identical coating lac-
quers.
These are Polyurethane products (PU or PUR coating lacquers).
Products from the following manufacturers are currently being used:
S Sikkens (C21/100 or HF-High Flexible)
S Cellomer
S Finsh
S De Soto
S ICI
The Sikkens Aerodur Finish HF is identical to the widely-used DD Finish.
DD-Coating
Desmo-
(Base
phenLacquer)
Desmodur
(Hardener)
Coating lacquers can be protected against general aging and decay by an addi-
tional clear varnish. The life--span of a multi-layer paint finish system can thus
be increased by 25 - 50%.
For aviation use, a special “Clear Coat UVR“ (Ultra violet Resistant) is avail-
able. Several manufacturers have already integrated this protection into their
respective coating lacquers.

Pot Life Time for Sikkens Aerodur C 21 / 100 white/grey

Time h
30 - 50 % Humidity
60 - 75 % Humidity
o
C
15 20 25
Temperature
Figure 438 Top Coat

ELECTRICALLY-CONDUCTIVE PAINTS
These products are identical to antistatic paints and antistatic primers.
Antistatic primers are electrically-conductive primers for plastic components. All
plastic components of the outer skin (basically in the secondary structure) must
have this priming.
The exception is antennae covers. Since the antistatic primer is not exposed
any more after application of the coating lacquer, it is not possible to localize it
optically. This means that before application of the coating lacquer and after
complete hardening has been achieved, a resistance test or conductivity test
must be performed by trained personnel.
Direct Current Measuring - Ohmmeter
S Measuring range 1 - 20 MOhm
S Resistance smaller 10 MOhm
S Distance between feelers 305mm
S Minimum curing time 1 - 2 hours
To achieve sufficient conductivity a minimum of 75% of all countersinks in com-
posite components must be covered with electrically-conductive paint.
If pore fillers are used, the antistatic primer must be applied first.
In the areas of antennae covers where the antistatic primer must not be ap-
plied, the paint finish is to be applied as if it were a normal outer skin.

Black areas = antenna covers

Figure 439 Electrostatic Coating

WATER-REPELLENT FLUID AND CORROSION INHIBITORS

Water-displacing inhibitors are applied:
S to stop corrosion that has already started for a certain time (until the repair
can be carried out)
S in areas that do not permit corrosion removal or permit corrosion removal
only to a certain extent and where the build-up of correct paint finish sys-
tems is also impossible.
S to make the surface in susceptible areas water-repellent in addition to the
paint finish systems and other surface protection treatments, to enhance
corrosion protection.
Water repellents have wax-like characteristics after they have dried. Their ef-
fectiveness is based on a good wetting ability and penetrating properties.
They penetrate existing corrosion products to the metal surface and build a
constant film. This prevents moisture and oxygen from contact with the metal
and prevent the spread of corrosion.
The following products are currently available in the aviation world:
S LPS 3
S Boeshield T9 H5 *
S Tectyl *
S Adrox
S Dinitrol
* carcinogenic
When using these materials it is imperative to cover the following components
before starting work:
S Electrical plug connections
S Oxygen system components
S Silicon parts (door seals, bearing seals, pipe fixtures)

S Piston rods of hydraulic cylinders
S Control cables, pulleys, cable covers
DINITROL
The most commonly-encountered water-displacing inhibitors are manufactured
by Dinitrol.

Figure 440 Corrosion Inihibitor & Water Repellent

Dinitrol AV 8 is a highly viscous water-displacing compound with strong sur-
face-wetting and gap-penetrating (capillary action) characteristics.
After drying, this compound builds up a dry film of about 8 thickness.
DINITROL AV 8 is used as a precautionary corrosion protection in the landing
gear areas, pylon areas and on fittings.
Existing corrosion can be stopped or inhibited by AV 8 if it cannot be removed
by maintenance immediately.
AV 8 can be removed with naphtha (Varsol) or with tri- or per- chlorethylene.
Alkaline degreasing agents are also applicable to a certain extent.
DINITROL AV 8 replaces AV 5, AV 5--2, AV 5B, AV 5 B-2.
Dinitrol AV 30 is a thixotropic, special, yellowish-brown, transparent wax that

doesn’t melt or bond at temperatures below 70oC.
’Thixotropic’ means ’thickened’. The compound can only be processed with
some difficulty.
The product builds up an elastic film which does not crack when being de-
formed. The product is used in airplane overhaul for long term protection of the
entire cell structure.
DINITROl AV 30 replaces AV 25, AV 25B, AV 50.
DINITROL AV 100 (Type D) is a strong, wax-like film. Applied as a thixotropic

fluid, AV 100 builds up a resistant, even mechanically abrasion-proof film. Un-
der special conditions the penetration of AV 100 into narrow capillary tubes can
be improved by pretreating with AV 8.
Under these circumstances an intermediate cure time of the AV 8 is required.
This cure time must last at least 1 hour (refer to specification sheet).
Cure time of AV 100 D about 6 hours.
AV 100 can be rinsed off with tri- or per- chlorethylene or Varsol.

DINITROL AV 100 D replaces AV 100 and AV 100 B.



REPAIR TECHNIQUES
Introduction Holes
A repair to a stressed structure usually involves the removal of damaged pan- Particular attention should be given to the drilling of holes, which should be cir-
els, the complete or partial removal of structural members such as frames, ribs cular and free from scores and sharp edges in order to satisfy design require-
and stringers and the rebuilding of the structure in accordance with the repair ments. In some cases it may be specified or recommended that holes in
scheme. The particular procedure involved will obviously vary with the design stressed parts should be drilled with a drill reamer, or drilled and then reamed
of the aircraft but the following paragraphs cover the general aspects of a re- to size. It is also important that drills are sharpened correctly so as to produce
pair. the intended hole diameter; a drill running off--centre will produce an oversize
hole.
Materials
Materials used for the repair should be checked for correct specification and Replacement Fasteners
gauge thickness and, where applicable, heat treated in accordance with specifi- Where existing rivet holes are to be used again, repair schemes may often call
cation requirements. for special repair rivets to be used. These rivets have a slightly larger shank
On completion of bending or forming operations the material must be free from diameter but the same size head. However, when necessary (eg due to hole
defects such as scratches, scribe marks, hairline fractures on the outside of damage), the use of rivets the next size larger than the original may be per-
bends, cracks at edges adjacent to bends, tool marks, twisting and warping. mitted, in which case it should be ensured that the landing limits between the
new rivets and the sheet edge or other rivets are maintained. In instances
NOTE: Complete detail parts must be manufactured by suitably Approved Or-
where blind rivets are used it is usually necessary to replace the original rivet
ganisations in accordance with the appropriate drawings.
by the next size larger and the same precautions regarding landing limits apply.
The holder of an Aircraft Maintenance Engineer’s Licence in Category B
With some repair schemes the method of riveting may be very similar for a
is not authorised to certify the manufacture of aircraft parts.
wide range of applications, but may vary in detail according to the location of
Panels the repair (e.g. the type of rivet or the pitch may vary).
Where panels are concerned, care is necessary to prevent buckling and distor- Sealant
tion, particularly in the case of large panels, which should be allowed to attain
Similar variations may also apply to the type of jointing compound used (e.g. in
the ambient temperature of the repair site before being fitted. Where the ap-
pressurised areas) and to the protective treatment required. The repair drawing
plication of heat (e.g. by means of an electric blanket) during the fitting of a
should therefore be studied very carefully for any special instructions.
panel is specified, it is important that the heat application and control should be
strictly in accordance with the requirements of the applicable Repair Data. Debris
Manufacturer-Supplied Parts Care is necessary, particularly with large repairs, in keeping swarf out of places
where it may present a hazard. This applies to joints, wiring looms, exposed
In some instances the aircraft manufacturer may provide preformed and par-
moving surfaces (e.g. jack rams and pulley assemblies) and unsealed bear-
tially built--up parts for incorporation into the repair (e.g. sections of leading
ings, all of which should be protected before work is commenced. When drilling
edge fitted with nose ribs, panels fitted with stringers, saddle pieces, bridging
through laminations or lap joints which cannot subsequently be separated for
joints in stringers, etc.) and it should be ensured that such parts are correctly
cleaning, it is essential to ensure that the parts comprising the joint are held
identified and bear evidence of prior inspection.
firmly together during the drilling operation.

Figure 441 Clamping Prior To Assembly

Pre-Assembly
Before assembling a joint it should be ensured that the contacting surfaces are
clean and free from swarf and that all holes and edges are deburred. If speci-
fied, jointing compound should be applied evenly before final assembly and
riveting and should form a fillet at the edges of the joint when assembly is com-
plete. The manufacturer’s instructions regarding the mixing, working and curing
time of the jointing compound should be carefully followed.
Control Surfaces
When repairs have been made to control surfaces, the balance may have been
upset by the additional weight of metal or paint. Such surfaces should be
checked for balance by the method given in the appropriate manual and the
balance corrected as necessary. For reasons of balance the repairs permitted
on control surfaces are often limited in area and position.
Metal-to-Metal Adhesive
Since a metal adhesive often requires special heating and pressing equipment,
its use may be impracticable for repair work. The damaged part should there-
fore be cut out as shown in the approved Repair Scheme and a new part riv-
eted in position.
It is possible, however, in certain large repairs to obtain from the aircraft
manufacturer a built--up section or pre--formed skin panel with parts secured in
position by adhesive. The repair then consists of removing the damaged sec-
tion complete and riveting the replacement section into position.
When it is necessary to remove parts which are secured with adhesive, e.g. a
stringer, this can be done as shown opposite. Care should be taken to avoid
damaging any parts or material other than those to be removed.
NOTE: When paint is removed in the area of a metal--to--metal adhesive joint,
only the paint stripper stipulated should be used. Some strippers may have a
deleterious effect on metal--to--metal adhesives.

Old machine hacksaw blade

ground to knife-edge
Bonded Length of damaged

joint stringer to be removed
Figure 442 Removal of Bonded Component

SEALANT COMPOUNDS / GENERAL

Sealing is a vital process in the manufacture of today’s commercial aircraft. Functions of Seals
Sealants are used to contain fuel, maintain cabin pressure, reduce fire hazards,
exclude moisture, prevent corrosion and fill gaps and smooth discontinuities on Fuel Areas
the aircraft exterior. In integral fuel tanks, seals must contain fuel for the life of the airplane under
All of these sealing functions are important and affect the performance of the various conditions of temperature, pressure and structural loading.
aircraft. For example, fuel tank sealing is critical because fuel leakage is a
Pressurized Areas
safety item and can result in grounding the aircraft until the problem is cor-
rected. Sealing for corrosion prevention must be done properly or in-service Seals maintain pressure at a predetermined minimum level under all flight con-
problems requiring extensive maintenance may result. ditions.
These considerations show how important the sealer’s job is. It directly affects Environmental Areas
the quality and reliability of airplanes. This training manual has been prepared Seals on exterior surfaces prevent water and other fluids from entering and
to provide you with information you will need to perform your job as effectively also function as aerodynamic smoothers.
as possible.
Corrosion Areas
Definition of Sealing
Seals protect the structure by preventing entry of corrosive fluids.
Sealing is a process that confines liquids and gasses within a given area or
prevents them from entering areas from which they must be excluded. Sealing Electrical Areas
is accomplished by closing all structural passages that these fluids can pene- Seals provide protection for electrical components.
trate.
The material used to seal these passages is applied as a wet, flowable paste. Firewall Areas
After a period of time, the sealant “cures” to form a rubbery solid compound Seals prevent spread of flames beyond the firewall until fire can be extin-
that adheres firmly to the surface it contacts. guished.
Levels of Sealing Acid Areas
The level of sealing required for a given area is defined by the applicable draw- Seals protect structure from attack by battery acids.
ing and is dictated by engineering considerations. The four levels of sealing are
Environments
S absolute
Sealants must maintain adhesion to the structure and have sufficient flexibility
S extensive
to function effectively under a variety of environmental and stress conditions:
S intermediate and
S Differential pressure may vary from small negative values to positive values
S limited. of approximately 11lb/in2.
The absolute level of sealing represents the most demanding requirements and S The operating temperature range is approximately --65°F to 160°F (400)F in
the limited level the least. Precise definition of which types of structure must be some localized high-temperature areas).
sealed for each level of sealing are found in the general sealing process speci-
S Structural loads during flight and ground operations cause deflections,
fication BAC 5000.
which the sealant must be able to withstand at all operating temperatures.



SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
S Keep cleaning solvents away from sources of heat, fire or sparks to prevent
an explosion.
S Avoid contact of solvent with skin, eyes and clothing. Wear eye protection
and use mechanical ventilation or respiratory protection when working in a
confined space or area. Breathing vapours or allowing solvent to contact
skin or eyes is hazardous.
S Mix sealant in a well ventilated area. Do not mix sealant within the confines
of the airplane. Avoid contact of the sealant with skin and eyes. Wear rub-
ber gloves and eye protection when mixing. Sealant materials are highly
toxic and can cause personal injury.
S Purge and ventilate the fuel tanks as per chapter 28 of the Aircraft Mainte-
nance Manual before entering the fuel tanks. Fuel vapours are hazardous
and explosive.
S For all cleaning operations, use only those wiping materials and solvents
that are approved by the applicable process specification or instructions in
the manuals.
S Solvents are flammable and/or toxic.
S Components of some sealants are toxic and can be absorbed through the
skin. Skin contact should be avoided. Use gloves as required. When skin
contact occurs, remove the sealant and wash the affected area. Never use
your fingers to smooth fillets; always use a fairing tool.
S Most sealant compounds are highly flammable in unmixed condition.



FILLET SEAL
General
Fillet seals are applied at the edges of structural joints. They consist of beads
of sealant that must adhere firmly to the structure on both sides of the seam
being sealed and must conform to the dimensional requirements of the process
specification. Fillet seals are used where maximum protection from fluid leak-
age is required, such as in fuel and pressure areas.
Work Sequence: Fillet Seal
1. Apply sealant with a Semco-type flow gun, or equivalent.
2. Point nozzle tip into the seam and maintain the line of travel.
3. Force a bead of sealant ahead of the nozzle tip (Step 1).
4. Press sealant firmly into place with a fairing tool to obtain a shaped and
smooth fillet (Step 2).
5. Apply second application of sealant to produce a full-bodied fillet (Step 3).
Second application of sealant is required only for integral fuel tank sealing.
NOTE: THE NOZZLE TIP MAY BE CUT AND SHAPED TO GIVE A FULL-
BODIED SEAL CONTOUR. FOR TYPICAL FINISHED FILLET DI-
MENSIONS GIVEN IN THE SKETCH.
6. Obtain final configuration by formlng the fillet with a fairing tool.
7. Press tool against the sealant and move parallel to the bead.
NOTE: CARE MUST BE EXERCISED SO THAT FOLDS, FLAPS AND EN-
TRAPPED AIR ARE NOT CREATED DURING WORKING. ANY EVI-
DENT AIR BUBBLES MUST BE WORKED OUT. AT COMPLETION
OF WORKING, WHICH MUST OCCUR BEFORE END OF WORK
LIFE, BEAD SHOULD HAVE THE SHAPE OF A FAIRED FILLET OF
APPROXIMATELY THE PROPER SIZE AND BE QUITE SMOOTH.

Figure 443 Fillet Seal

INJECTION SEAL
Injection seals are applied to fill channels and holes that occur as the result of
structural design. Quite often, injections are required to continue or to back-up
a fillet seal.
Work Sequence: Injection Seal
1. Completely fill, with sealant, holes and joggles that require continuity of seal
or block-off seals.
2. Inject sealant into one end of the cavity or, if an injection hole is provided,
with a Semco-type flow gun, or equivalent, until sealant emerges from all
other openings.
NOTE: TO PREVENT INCLUSION OF AIR IN SEALANT, NEVER COM-
PLETELY EMPTY A FLOW GUN. NEVER SEAL FROM BOTH
ENDS OF CAVITY AS THIS TENDS TO CREATE AIR POCKETS
AND POSSIBLE LEAKS WITHIN SEAL.
NOTE: WHEN AN OPENING IS TO BE CLOSED ONLY FOR SUPPORT OF
SEALANT, IT IS NOT NECESSARY TO INJECT THE ENTIRE
DEPTH OF THE OPENING.
3. When a seal is made at the bottom of a slot, apply the sealant so as to fill
and have continuous contact with the bottom and sides of the slot.

Figure 444 Injection Seal

FAYING SURFACE SEAL

Faying surface seals consist of a layer of sealant sandwiched between two fas-
tened mating surfaces. These seals are used primarily to prevent corrosion of
aircraft structure and to facilitate leak tracing in the fuel tank.
Work Sequence: Faying Surface Seal
1. Sealant is applied to one faying surface with a roller to obtain a thin, uni-
form, continuous coating of sealant over entire faying surface area. Sealant
shall be applied sufficiently thickly to completely mask surface underneath,
yet thin enough to minimize size of the continuous bead required.
Recommended thickness range is 0.005 to 0.015 inch.
2. Sufficient sealant shall be applied so the space between the assembled
faying surface is completely filled and a small excess is extruded continu-
ously along the joint. Extruded sealant shall then be faired with a fairing tool
so that a continuous, smooth fillet of approximately 0.06 inch depth is
formed along the joint.
This small fillet is necessary to assure adequate sealant contact with later
applied fillet seals.
3. If possible, installation of all permanent fasteners shall be completed within
the application time or squeeze-out life of sealant. If permanent fasteners
cannot be installed within the required time, temporary fasteners (eg wing--
nuts, Clecos or bolts) shall be used in each fastener hole to hold parts
firmly together until permanent fasteners can be installed.
Removal of each individual temporary fastener shall be immediately fol-
lowed by installation of a permanent fastener. If the drawing requires the
fastener to be sealed, fresh sealant shall be applied.
Maximum allowable separation of faying surfaces at shank of all permanent
fasteners is 0.004 inch.

Figure 445 Faying Surface Seal

AERODYNAMIC SMOOTHER
On the exterior of the aircraft, skin gaps are filled and surface discontinuities
faired in with sealant to provide an aerodynamically smooth surface and to ex-
clude water.
Work Sequence: Aerodynamic Smoother
1. Remove all defective compound from the repair area and taper the remain-
ing compound in order to produce a scarf joint.
2. Clean thoroughly surface and recess to which compound is to be applied.
3. Cover the skin adjacent to the recess with masking tape.
4. Apply the compound with a flow gun, or a spatula.
5. Using a spatula, smooth the compound level with the masking tape .
6. Remove the tape immediately after smoothing or leave in place for the cur-
ing period.
7. Smooth down the edges of the compound (which tend to lift with the tape)
and remove excess compound with a wooden or plastic tool.
NOTE: SMOOTHING, FAIRING, AND SEALING MATERIALS SHALL NOT
BE APPLIED OVER ZINC-CHROMATE PRIMER UNTIL PRIMER
HAS BECOME HARD AND TOUGH.
NOTE: MAKE CERTAIN NO AIR IS TRAPPED IN THE RECESS DURING
THE FILLING PROCEDURE. OVERFILL THE RECESS TO ALLOW
FOR SMOOTHING AND LEVELLING. BECAUSE OF COMPOUND
SHRINKAGE, SPOT FACED RECESS MAY REQUIRE TWO FILL-
INGS APPROXIMATELY EIGHT HOURS APART TO BRING THEM
LEVEL.

Flow Gun
Masking Tape
Taper Remaining
Compound Masking Tape
Direction of Fill
Spatula
Sealant Application
Masking Tape Removal Sealant Finish

Unwanted Sealant Removal
Figure 446 Aerodynamic Smoother

FASTENER SEAL
All fastener sealing is a variation of one of the basic sealing processes.
Wet Installation
S Flush head. Apply sealant either to the underside of to the head or the
countersink immediately prior to installation.
S Protruding head. Apply sealant to the underside of the head immediately
prior to installation.
Fillet Sealing
S Fillet seal collar and threaded end of fastener to the given dimensions (BAC
5000).
Work Sequence: Fastener Seal

NOTE: FASTENERS INSTALLED THROUGH A FAYING SURFACE SEAL
WITHIN THE WORK LIFE OF THE SEALANT NEED NO FURTHER
SEALING.
Seal all fasteners installed through a faying surface seal after the sealant work
life has been exceeded, and fasteners installed through a seal plane where no
faying surface sealant is used, by one of the following methods:
S Applying sealant to the fastener or hole at installation. Extruded sealant
shall be continuously evident to indicate adequate sealing.
S Applying the sea!ant to the fastener after installation.
S Filleting around fastener after installation.
Sealing of Fasteners with Metal Seal Covers

1. Fill over 1/2 to 2/3 full of sealant and press cover down over fastener until
flange contacts structure.
2. Remove excess sealant from top of seal cover.

3. Fair out sealant around base of cover.
NOTE: SEALANT MUST BE EXTRUDED CONTINUOUSLY AROUND THE
BOTTOM OF THE SEAL CAP. AVOID AN EXCESS OF MATERIAL
AROUND THE CAP.

Figure 447 Fastener Seal

PREPACK SEALS
Prepack seals are used to fill structural cavities that are enclosed after assem-
bly and cannot be properly injected.
Work Sequence: Prepack Seal
Apply a small bead of sealant along each corner of the cavity and then pack
the entire cavity with an excess of sealant. After assembly, fair extruded seal-
ant to a fillet configuration within the sealant application time.
BRUSH COAT SEALS

Brush coat seals, as the name implies, are formed by brushing the sealant into
place. The sealant is a low-viscosity material that is easily applied in this man-
ner. The method is principally used in applying a sealant precoat prior to fillet
sealing the integral fuel tank. Brush coating is also commonly used to seal ex-
posed ends of fastener against corrosion.
Work Sequence: Brush Coat Seal
Using a stiff-bristled brush, apply sealant to locations specified. In the case of
fasteners, apply sealant liberally both to the exposed area of the fastener and
the immediately adjacent area. In the fuel tank, apply sealant so that the area
covered will extend beyond the width of subsequently applied fillets.
ELECTRICAL SEALING
Where required, fillet seal electrical fittings in accordance with procedures de-
scribed in the fillet sealing section. In wire bundle sealing, coat each individual
wire with the specified sealant prior to installation. Installation must be com-
pleted within the sealant application time. Sealing of some wire bundles that
pass through bulkhead fittings is done according to a special injection method.
Wire bundles that pass through bulkheads are routed through special fittings.
The fittings and wires are sealed in accordance with specifications like Boeing
BAC 5108 to prevent leakage of cabin air pressure. The wires are encased in a
mould made from tape. Sealant is then injected through a hole to completely
encapsulate all the wires.

Figure 448 Electrical Seal

SEAL PLANE
The seal plane is the structural boundary on which the continuity of seal is es-
tablished. For example, in integral fuel tanks (conventional aircraft structure
sealed for the containment of fuel), the seal plane consists of the barrier be-
yond which fuel may not pass. This barrier consists of structural components,
fasteners and sealant.

Figure 449 Seal Plane

SEALANT MATERIALS
Sealing compounds are synthetic rubber materials that are applied in a flow-
able consistency and cure by chemical reaction to a solid with elastomeric
properties. Most of the sealants are known chemically as polysulfides. Some
silicone sealants are used where their special properties are required. All poly-
sulfides are two-part materials, and cure is initiated when the rubber polymer
base is combined with an accelerator. Some silicones cure in the same man-
ner, and others are one-part materials that cure by reaction with atmospheric
moisture.
Most two-part sealants are purchased in kit form and must be mixed, quick fro-
zen, and stored under refrigeration. Some two-part materials, however, are pur-
chased premixed and frozen.
Logistical considerations, such as maintenance of sealing inventories in the
shops, usually make it impractical to use a sealant immediately after mixing.
Therefore, quick freezing and frozen storage are used to prevent initiation of
the curing reaction. When thawed for use on the airplane, the sealant is then
essentially in the same condition as when it was first mixed.
Categories of Compounds
Sealing compounds are divided into two categories, silicone and non-sili-
cone.
S Silicone compounds are usually white, red or grey in colour and are used in
general where heat resistance is required.
S Non-silicone compounds can be any colour and are used where heat resist-
ance is not required.
Specification / Classification
The classification system for sealants in Boeing Material Specifications (BMSs)
is as follows:
S Class A: Brushcoat Sealant. Thinned with solvent to provide viscosity suit-

able for brushing.
S Class B: Filleting Sealant. Relatively heavy consistency with good thixo-
tropic (low-slump) properties.
S Class C: Faying Surface Sealant. Medium consistency for good spreadabil-
ity.
S Class D: Hole-Filling Sealant. Similar to Class B but with very low slump.
S Classes E and F: Sprayable sealant.

Figure 450 Sealant Materials

PROPERTIES
Each individual sealant is compounded to provide the specific combination of
properties desired.
Application Time
Application time is the time in hours after thawing during which the sealant can
be readily extruded from the sealant gun and applied to the structure. The ap-
plication time is included in the BMS classification system as a dash number
following the classification letter (except for Class C). For example, Class B-2
indicates a fillet sealing material with a minimum application time of two hours.
Application time is not applicable to one-part sealants.
Squeeze-Out Life
Squeeze-out life is the time in hours after thawing during which a faying surface
sealant can be squeezed out of a joint when fasteners are installed. The
squeeze-out life is included in the BMS classification system as a dash number
following the Class C designation. For example, Class C-20 indicates a faying
surface sealant with a minimum squeeze-out life of 20 hours.
Tack-Free Time
Tack-free time is the time in hours after thawing (after application for one--part
silicones) that is required for the sealant to cure sufficiently so that it will not
transfer to the finger or to a plastic film.
Cure Time
For manufacturing purposes, cure time is the time in hours after thawing (after
application for one-part silicones) that is required for the sealant to cure firmly
enough to be handled without damage or deformation. After cure time has
elapsed, manufacturing operations such as drilling and fastening can be per-
formed without damage to the sealant. Maximum allowable cure time are speci-
fied in the applicable BMS, and typical cure time for most sealants are given in
process specification BAC 5000.
Curing of two-part materials is greatly retarded by temperatures below 60°F
and/or relative humidities below 40%. The curing may be accelerated by ap-
plication of heat to accelerate the cure of sealant already applied. Heat may be
furnished by the use of hot air blower, heat lamps, etc, or by prewarming the
structure.
NOTE: IF THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SEALANT EXCEEDS 120°F
BUBBLING WILL OCCUR.

Figure 451 Sealant Materials

Environmental Effects
All the properties listed are related to each other and are a function of the cure
rate. The cure rate is strongly influenced by temperature and humidity and is
directly proportional to both; ie lower than normal temperature and humidity
retard the cure rate and higher than normal temperature and humidity increase
the cure rate.
Special Precautions for Silicones

S Uncured silicones readily absorb carbon dioxide (CO2). This will cause se-
vere bubbling or foaming of the sealant. Therefore, all uncured silicone seal-
ants, even those in plastic cartridges, must be protected from contact with
CO2 sources, especially dry ice. Under no circumstances shall mixed, two--
part silicones be stored in CO2-type freezers. Mechanical freezers only shall
be used.
S Silicones must be stored separately from other sealants to prevent cross-
contamination.
S When applying silicone sealants, do not contaminate adjacent areas. Sili-
cones act as a release film and will prevent adhesion of any subsequently
applied finishes.
S Tools used for silicone sealant shall be used for these sealants only. Do not
use for any other material.
NOTE: COMPONENTS OF SOME SEALANTS ARE TOXIC AND CAN BE
ABSORBED THROUGH THE SKIN. SKIN CONTACT SHOULD BE
AVOIDED. USE GLOVES AS REQUIRED. WHEN SKIN CONTACT
OCCURS, REMOVE THE SEALANT AND WASH THE AFFECTED
AREA. NEVER USE YOUR FINGERS TO SMOOTH FILLETS. AL-
WAYS USE A FAIRING TOOL.

Figure 452 Sealant Substitution

INTEGRAL FUEL TANK SEALANT

Requirements for sealing in integral fuel tanks are covered by specification
BAC 5504 and/ or by instructions given in the AMM chapter 28.
Fuel Tank Sealing Methods

S Fillet sealing is the basic method used for fuel retention within the integral
tank. This is the only method that provides a reliable barrier against fuel
leakage.
S Injection seals are used where fillet backup is required or where structural
complexity prevents a continuous fillet.
S Prepack seals are used for large structural fittings, such as at tank corners.
Structure that is prepacked is always fillet-sealed as well.
S Faying surface seals are used for isolating leakage. These seals are applied
at regular intervals along a joint during the assembly phase prior to installa-
tion of fasteners. Any leakage that may occur through a subsequently ap-
plied fillet will be confined to the distance between two isolation seals, mak-
ing the source of leakage easy to locate.
Some leak isolation seals are made from thin rubber gaskets. These are
installed by mechanics prior to automatic riveting of stringers to wing skins.
Upon rare occasions, faying surface seals are also used as primary fuel
seals where it is impossible to apply a fillet seal and structural deflections
will not damage the seal.
Apply all seals in the fuel tank in accordance with the methods previously de-
scribed. All seals except faying surface seals require application of a Class A
brush coat (precoat) prior to application of the basic seal.
Special Fillet Sealing Requirements
A three-phase system is presently used for sealing the integral fuel tank. The
process sequence is as follows:

1. Apply brush coat/ precoat.
2. Apply small first fillet. Use fairing tool to force sealant into corner of joint.
3. Apply full-size final fillet.

Class A-2 Fillet Bead

sealant
Force sealant
ahead of gun
APPLICATION OF FIRST FILLET

APPLICATION OF PRECOAT
Figure 453 Fuel Tank Fillet Seal Build-up



Cut nozzle material to fit size of fillet
APPLICATION OF FINAL FILLET

Fairing Tool
Remove trapped
air from faired fil-
let by brushing
Press sealant
firmly into seam
PRESSING FIRST FILLET INTO SEAM
Figure 454 Fuel Tank Fillet Seal Build-up

FASTENER SEALING
Some fasteners within the fuel tank require sealing to prevent leakage. Metal
seal caps are generally used. These are lightweight aluminium shells that fit
over the protruding end of the fastener.
Follow standard cleaning procedures, then fill the cap with an excess of sealant
and press into place on the fastener. When the cap is pressed into position,
excess sealant will extrude from around the bottom and from the hole in the top
of the cap.
Fair the extruded sealant to blend smoothly onto and around the cap. Where
seal caps are not used, fillet seal the fastener, as previously described, to con-
form to the configuration required by the manufacturer.

Extruded
sealant
Nozzle size depends
Cov on size of cover
Pressing Seal
er
Cover Into Position
Filleting of Metal Seal Cover
METAL COVER INSTALLATION
Seal Cover
Extruded
Faired sealant
sealant
.06 thick (min)
Figure 455 Installation of Seal Caps in Fuel Tank Areas

FAYING SURFACE SEALING OF REPAIRS TO FUSELAGE

SKIN
All fuselage skin repairs must be fay sealed to prevent loss of pressure and to
provide corrosion protection to the contacting surfaces.
Work Sequence
NOTE: TOOLS USED TO REMOVE SEALANT SHOULD NOT BE HARDER
THAN 2024-T3 ALUMINIUM. AVOID SCRATCHING STRUCTURE.
1. For repairs at the fuselage skin lap splices, remove existing fay sealant.
2. Apply a chemical conversion coating to the faying surfaces of the repair
parts and bare or cut edges of the original parts as per operator’s standard.
3. If sealant is to be applied over existing decorative finish, lightly sand to re-
move the gloss. Use 320-grit or finer sandpaper. Do not penetrate the fin-
ish.
4. Apply one coat of primer to the faying surfaces . Primer is not required on
surfaces with existing decorative finish.
5. Clean faying surfaces.
6. Select a class of BMS 5-95 sealant that will permit installation of repair
parts and fasteners within the application time and squeeze-out life .
7. Mix sealant.
8. Apply sealant and install repair parts.
9. Seal all fasteners on the interior of the repair.
10.Let sealant cure.
11. Restore original finish.



SEALING OF UPPER SURFACES ON COMPOSITE PANELS CONTAINING ARAMID
NOTE: THIS PROCEDURE APPLIES ONLY TO THE EXTERIOR SURFACE

OF THE PANELS OF B 737 AS SHOWN IN THE ATTACHED
ILLUSTRATION.
Work Sequence
1. Clean the area to be sealed with 50/50 MEK/Toluene solvent.
2. Sand the surface with 180 grit or finer abrasive to remove gloss.
3. Wipe with a clean cheese--cloth wet with 50/50 MEK/Toluene solvent.
4. Wipe dry with a dry cheese--cloth.
5. Mix BMS 5-95, Class F sealant and thin the mix 10% - 30% with 50/50
MEK/Toluene.
6. Spray sealant onto repair area to a dry film thickness of 0.008 +0.002 inch.
NOTE: USING AIR SPRAY EQUIPMENT, A WET COAT OF 0.006 INCH

DRIES TO AN APPROXIMATE THICKNESS OF 0.004 INCH.
USING AIRLESS SPRAY EQUIPMENT, A WET COAT OF 0.007
INCH DRIES TO AN APPROXIMATE THICKNESS OF 0.004 INCH.
APPLICATION OF A MINIMUM OF TWO COATS IS RECOM-
MENDED. SPRAY EACH COAT OF SEALANT IN CONTINUOUS
MULTIPLE PASSES TO THE REQUIRED WET FILM THICKNESS.
ALLOW 15 MINUTES MINIMUM BETWEEN COATS.
7. Cure sealant.
8. Restore original finish per operators standard procedure.

Figure 456 Aramid Composite Panels B 737

MIXING OF SEALANT COMPOUNDS

Two-part sealants must be completely mixed. If sealant is completely mixed,
colour will be uniform throughout. A streaked appearance is evidence of incom-
plete mixing. Incomplete mixing may affect cure and performance properties of
the sealant.
NOTE: BEFORE STARTING THE MIXING PROCESS MAKE SURE THAT
THE ACTIVATOR AND THE BASE COMPOUND IS NOT OVER-
AGED AND FROM THE SAME REPAIR KIT OR BATCH.
Machine Mixing
Most of the sealant you use will be mixed by specialized machines, dispensed
into labelled plastic cartridges, quick-frozen and stored in freezers at a maxi-
mum temperature of --40°F. Machine mixing provides the most reliable, consis-
tent material and is the only way that high-volume usage requirements can be
met. Machine mixing is done on a full--time basis by specially trained person-
nel.
Obtain cartridges of the frozen sealant needed from the freezer in the shop.
Verify that you have the correct material and expiration data has not been ex-
ceeded.

Figure 457 Mixing of Sealant Compounds

Thaw Sealant to Room Temperature
Allow sealant to thaw to room temperature before using. 5-10 minutes in warm
water or approximately 30 minutes at room temperature.
NOTE: MAKE SURE THAT SEALANT IS COMPLETELY THAWED, AS
COLD SEALANT WILL NOT ADHERE TO THE STRUCTURE.
PROPERLY THAWED SEALANT WILL FLOW EASILY FROM THE
GUN AND WILL READILY WET THE SURFACE. NEVER RE-
FREEZE THAWED SEALANT.
Hand Mixing
For special jobs, it may occasionally be necessary to hand-mix a small quantity
of sealant. Pre-measured kits of the material needed may be obtained at your
tool stores.
To hand-mix sealant kits, proceed as follows:
1. Check label to verify that you have the correct material and that the expira-
tion data has not been exceeded.
2. Stir accelerator thoroughly until all solids are dispersed and a smooth, uni-
form material is obtained (accelerator may be either a liquid or a paste.)
3. Add all of the accelerator to the base container and mix thorough, using a
spatula or other suitable tool until a uniform blend with no evidence of
streaking is obtained. Verify that there is no unmixed base or accelerator in
the container.

Dasher rod valve
Accelerator stored in
dasher rod
Plunger
Base material stored

Piston in body of cartridge
Dasher:internal mixing
device
Ramrod
Figure 458 Semkit Cartridge

Cartridge Hand Mixing
The following mixing instructions are only for the SEMKIT two-part material car-
tridge injection type.
1. Wear safety glasses.
2. Hold cartridge, grasp dasher rod and pull back approximately one inch.
3. Insert ramrod into hollow of dasher rod, break piston loose and inject about
1/3 of the contents into the cartridge.
NOTE: USE EVEN PRESSURE, DO NOT USE FORCE, TAP, POUND OR
JOLT RAMROD IF PISTON DOES NOT BREAK LOOSE READILY.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 until all of the contents of the rod are emptied into the
cartridge. Then remove ramrod.
5. Hand mix: mix material for the total number of 50 strokes; a stroke is one
complete in-and-out cycle. Hold cartridge and rotate dasher rod 90° in a
spiral clockwise motion with each stroke.
6. Remove bottom cap.
7. Pull dasher rod back to neck of cartridge, grasp cartridge firmly at neck,
unscrew dasher rod and remove.
8. Screw nozzle into cartridge, insert into Semco Extrusion Gun and use as
required. For hand extrusion, press used dasher rod against plunger to
force material from cartridge.

Figure 459 Hand-Mixing with SEMKIT Cartridge

CLEANING PROCESS CLEANING EQUIPMENT

The importance of cleaning cannot be over emphasized. Sealant will not ad- The most commonly-used cleaning equipment for sealant is as follows:
here to any surface that is contaminated. A thorough cleaning job is one of the S Vacuum Cleaner. The vacuum cleaner removes aluminium swarf and other
most important responsibilities. debris from areas to be sealed.
Preliminary Cleaning S Brushes. Brushes are used for removing loose material and for preliminary
solvent cleaning to remove heavy soiling. Stencil brushes or trimmed paint
Remove all swarf, shavings and other loose materials with a vacuum cleaner.
brushes with short stiff bristles are best.
Remove all heavy soils and contaminants, using a stiff-bristled brush and sol-
vent. Cheese-cloth or other approved wipers may be used if desired instead of S Cheese-Cloth (or other approved wiping materials). Wipers are used for
a brush. If there is no debris or severe contamination in the area to be sealed, preliminary and final solvent cleaning of areas to be sealed.
preliminary cleaning may be omitted. S Plastic Squeeze Bottles. These are used for dispensing solvent onto wip-
ing materials when cleaning surfaces prior to sealing. Transfer solvent from
Final Cleaning safety-can to squeeze bottle for cleaning operations.
Perform final cleaning immediately prior to sealing. Dampen clean wiping mate- S Solvents. these are used for cleaning structure prior to sealing. Solvents
rial with solvent and wipe the area to be sealed. Before the solvent evaporates, used for cleaning must be approved by the applicable sealing process spec-
wipe the area again with clean, dry wiping material. Repeat these steps until ification. Methyl-ethyl-ketone (MEK) is commonly used. Approved metal
there is no visible contamination on the wipers. Remove all solvents from the safety-cans are to be used for solvent storage.
area with a blast of oil-free and waste-water-free air. Finally, clean with a clean
wiping cloth dampened with solvent. Traces of primer that may be present on
wiping materials do not constitute contamination.
S If the total area to be cleaned is large, do not try to clean it in one operation.
This will allow the solvent to evaporate and wipers to become contaminated.
Clean smaller areas progressively until the total area has been cleaned.
S Always clean an area wider than the area to which sealant will be applied.
NOTE: FOR ALL CLEANING OPERATIONS, USE ONLY THOSE WIPING
MATERIALS AND SOLVENTS THAT ARE APPROVED BY THE AP-
PLICABLE PROCESS SPECIFICATION. SOLVENTS ARE FLAM-
MABLE AND/OR TOXIC.

VACUUM CLEANER BRUSHES
SOLVENT SAFETY CAN

CHEESE CLOTH PLASTIC SQUEEZE BOOTLES
Figure 460 Cleaning Equipment

SEALANT APPLICATION TOOLS

Sealant Removal/Cutting Tools
Sealant removal or cutting tools should be made of hardwood or metal not
harder than 2024-T3 aluminium to minimise the possibility of damaging the
structure. Make cuts in the sealant so that edges are scarfed. The most com-
mon used application equipment tools are as follows:
S Sealant Gun. Initial application of sealants is generally made with a stan-
dard air--operated sealant gun. A sealant-fllled cartridge is inserted into the
barrel of the gun. The sealant is contained by a plunger at the upper end of
the cartridge and a cap at the reduced diameter lower end. After removal of
the cap, a nozzle of the desired configuration is attached to the lower
threaded end of the cartridge. Sealant is extruded when the trigger is de-
pressed to open an air valve, allowing pressure to be applied against the
plunger.
S Nozzles. Nozzles are available in assorted sizes and shapes for various
sealing requirements and are made of the same type of plastic as the car-
tridge. Some types of nozzles may be cut at the tip to provide a more con-
venient angle or diameter for application of sealant. Multiple-orifice nozzles
are available for more rapid spreading of sealant over relatively large areas
for faying surface sealing.
S Rollers. Both metal and rubber rollers are available to spread sealants for
faying surface sealing. Rubber rollers of approximately 50 Shore “A” durom-
eter hardness are superior and recommended for use. These rollers do a
better job of spreading the sealant and are effective in keeping it out of pre-
viously drilled fasteners holes.
S Scrapers. Plastic scrapers are also used to spread sealant over a surface.
These are recommended for situations where using a roller would be awk-
ward because of access or other considerations.
S Mirrors. Occasionally, cleaning and sealing operations must be accom-

plished in areas that are out of direct line of sight. In such situations, a swiv-
el-handled mirror provides the visibility needed to perform the job success-
fully.

SEALANT GUN NOZZLES

ROLLERS SCRAPERS
Figure 461 Sealant Application Tools

IMPORTANT NOTES
Check the following before applying sealant:
S Apply sealants to clean surfaces only. Before applying any sealant, verify
that cleaning has been accomplished in accordance with the requirements
previously described.
S Verify that you have the correct sealant for the job and that the sealant has
not been stored beyond its expiration date (see label for expiration date).
S Verify that the sealant is completely thawed and that the temperature of the
structure is 50°F or greater. Application of cold sealant or application to cold
structure results in poor adhesion because of condensation.
S Insert the sealant cartridge in the gun and install a nozzle suitable for the
sealing job.

8 Inches
Large Sealant
Cutting Tool
Bevelled Sur-
face
6 Inches
Note 6 Inches Note
These tools should be made of hardwood or Sharp Edge Sealant These tools may be made of 1/4
metal no harder than 2024--T3 aluminium to Fairing Tool
minimise the possibility of damaging the
Sealant Removal inch dia bronze or steel welding
Tool
structure. rod and may be plated to improve
the smoothness.
6 Inches
6 Inches
Small Sealant Fairing Tool
with Spoon-Type Head
Large Sealant
Cutting Tool
0.04 Inch
Bevelled Sur-
face 6 Inches
Sharp Edge
4 Inches Large Sealant

Fairing Tool
Small Sealant 1/2 Inch

Cutting Tool Bevelled Sur-
face
Sharp Edge
Sealant Removal and Cutting Tools Sealant Fairing Tools
Figure 462 Sealant Cutting Tools



M7.19 ABNORMAL EVENTS
Part -66


Part -66
LIGHTNING STRIKE
General The most likely areas for lightning strikes are the fuselage nose section and
Aircraft use all necessary and known types of lightning strike protection. The trailing-edge tips. The external components most likely to be hit are listed be-
basic protection is the almost all-metal external structure. The external struc- low:
ture acts as a shield which protects the internal areas from lightning strike. S Nose Radome
Also, the external structure protects the electrical systems and wiring from S Nacelles
electromagnetic interference.
S Wing Tips
If the airplane is hit by lightning, the following actions must be carried out:
S HorizontaL Stabilizer Tips
1. A general walk-round inspection of the airplane to find the areas of the
S Elevators
strike and discharge.
S Vertical Fin Tips
2. If signs of damage are found, carry out a detailed inspection of the dam-
aged area to establish the amount of damage. S Ends of the Leading Edge Flaps
Lightning strikes usually result in two types of damage: S Trailing Edge Flap Track Fairings
S Direct Damage - Surface is burned, melted or shows signs of metallic distor- S Landing Gear
tion at two or more attachment points. S Water Waste Masts
S Indirect Damage - Large electrical transients on the wiring which might S Pitot Probes
cause damage to electrical systems equipment. S External Lights.
If a lightning strike has caused a system malfunction, a full inspection of that
defective system must be carried out. (Ref. AMM) Lightning strikes usually travel rearward from the initial lightning strike touch
A lightning strike will usually cause small circular melt marks approximately 1/8 point on the fuselage and the engine nacelle surfaces aft of the engine inlets.
inch in diameter. The melt marks may be confined to one area or may be ran- Cases have occurred where airplane components have become strongly mag-
domly placed over a large area. Holes with a 1/4 inch diameter or greater are netized due to a lightning strike. It is possible that a lightning strike discharge
possible if a high intensity lightning strike occurs. Other signs of lightning strike could send a heavy electrical current through the metal airframe structure.
might be burnt or discoloured skins and rivets.(Ref. SRM) This electric current creates a magnetic field and magnetizes components.
The lightning strike conditional inspection covers these areas: Possible internal damage to the airplane due to lightning strike could be to
S External Surfaces electrical power systems and external light wire. While the electrical system is
S Static Dischargers designed to be resistant to lightning strikes, a high intensity lightning strike
could damage these components:

S Fuel System Valves
S Fuel Valves
S Integrated Drive Generator (IDG) and Related Wires
S Generators
S Hydraulic Fittings in the Tail Section
S Power Feeders
S Radio Systems
S Electrical Distribution Systems
S Navigation Systems
S Bonding Jumpers

Part -66
Figure 463 Typical Lightning Strike Areas

Part -66
HIGH INTENSITY RADIATED FIELDS (HIRF)

Introduction
Modern aircraft use digital control systems to perform critical functions. Such
control units installed on aircraft are vulnerable to external phenomena such as
high intensity electromagnetic fields. Electromagnetic interference from exter-
nal sources can cause an upset of the digital system’s control unit and major
damage to the aircraft.
HIRF Protection
Aircraft have been required to comply with HIRF requirements since early
1992. They have therefore been certificated to various HIRF standards, which
range from no requirement through to the current policies and standards.
The basic concern for better identification and protection from HIRF has arisen
for the following reasons:
A. Operation of modern aeroplanes is increasingly dependent upon electri-
cal/electronic systems, which can be susceptible to electromagnetic in-
terference.
B. The increasing use of non--metallic materials like carbon or glass fibre in
the construction of the aeroplane reduces their basic shielding capability
against the effects of radiation from external emitters.
C. Emitters are increasing in number and in power. They include ground--
based systems (military systems, communication, television, radio, ra-
dars and satellite uplink transmitters), as well as emitters on ships or
other aircraft.
Modifications to aircraft should be assessed by the manufacturer for the effects
that could be caused by exposure to HIRF, irrespective of the original certifica-
tion basis.
New aircraft designs must be tested, before being certified, against electro-
magnetic penetration. If a problem is identified, the aircraft must be redesigned
to effectively reduce the intensity level of the penetrating fields.

Part -66
Figure 464 Radiation Source

Part -66
HARD LANDING
General
The inspection is divided into two phases. When the conditional inspection tells you to examine a component, check for
The Phase I inspection is applicable when a Hard Landing or a High Drag/Side the following faults and replace or repair components (if necessary):
Load Landing occurs. S Cracks
If the inspection during Phase I does not indicate that damage has occurred, S Pulled-apart structure
no further inspections are necessary. S Loose paint (paint flakes)
If, however, the Phase I inspection indicates that damage has occurred, the S Twisted parts (distortion)
Phase II inspection is necessary.
S Bent components
S Fastener holes that become enlarged or elongated
Hard Landing S Loose fasteners
The hard landing procedure is for hard landings at or below the maximum de- S Fasteners that have pulled out or are missing
sign landing weight limits.
S Delaminations
The pilot is responsible for making the decision whether a structural inspection
S Misalignment
is necessary.
S Interference
If the landing is also overweight, the Overweight Landing Inspection, not the
Hard Landing Inspection, must be done. S Other signs of damage.
High Drag/Side-Load Landing

A high drag/side-load landing occurs if the airplane makes a landing with one or
more of the following conditions:
S The airplane skidded or overran the prepared surface
S The airplane made a landing short of the prepared surface
S The airplane made a landing and two or more tyres were blown
S The airplane skidded on the runway sufficiently to make you think damage
occurred.

Part -66
Figure 465 Hard Nose Gear Contact

Part -66
SEVERE OR UNUSUAL TURBULENCE OVERLIMIT INSPECTION

Severe or Unusual Turbulence. Stall. Buffet. or Speeds in Excess of the Design
General
Limits Conditional Inspection
The structural inspection in this task is applicable after a severe turbulence or
buffet condition. General
It also applies to stalls (after the initial buffet or stick shaker condition) or air- The data that follows applies to a severe or unusual turbulence condition.
plane speeds above the design speed.
NOTE: SEVERE TURBULENCE IS IDENTIFIED AS TURBULENCE WHICH
When the conditional inspection tells you to ”examine” a component, look for CAUSES LARGE, ABRUPT CHANGES IN ALTITUDE AND/OR
these conditions (replace or repair components, if it is necessary). ATTITUDE. THE AIRPLANE COULD BE OUT CF CONTROL FOR
S Cracks SHORT PERIODS. IT USUALLY CAUSES LARGE VARIATIONS IN
S Pulled apart structure AIRSPEED. PASSENGERS AND CREW ARE MOVED VIOLENTLY
AGAINST THEIR SEAT BELTS AND LOOSE OBJECTS ARE
S Loose paint (paint flakes)
MOVED AROUND THE AIRPLANE.
S Twisted parts (distortion)
S Bent components
S Wrinkles or buckles in the structure
S Fastener holes that became larger or longer
S Loose fasteners
S Fasteners that have pulled out or are missing
S Delaminations (a component with one or more Layers pulled apart)
S Parts that are not aligned correctly
S Fibre breakouts
S Misalignment
S Interference (clearance that is not sufficient between the parts)
S Discoloration (heat damage)
S Nicks or gouges
S Other signs of damage.

Part -66
Figure 466 Example of Designed-In Safety Factors

Part -66


M7.20 MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES
Part -66
M 7.20 MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES


Part -66
AIRCRAFT MANUALS
General Non-Customized Manuals but not Type-Effective
Aircraft Manuals are prepared by the manufacturers, eg Boeing Commercial These manuals are non--customized and not type-effective.
Airplane Company or Airbus Industries, in accordance with the Air Transport They contain cross-references, typical procedures and standard information.
Association of America Specification Number 100:
CMM Component Maintenance Manual
S ASA 100 - Specifications for Manufacturers’ Technical Data.
NDT Non--Destructive Testing Manual
This specification is the industry’s recommended format and contains standards
SM Standards Manual
for technical manuals written by aviation manufacturers and used by airlines and
others within the aviation industry. SPM Standard Practice Manual
TEM Illustrated Tool and Equipment Manual
TYPES OF MANUALS WBM Weight and Balance Manual
Customized Manuals SOPM Standard Overhaul Practice
The following manuals are supplied to the customer, they are type-effective
and reflect the customers configuration.
AMM Aircraft Maintenance Manual
MM Maintenance Manual
IPC Illustrated Parts Catalogue
AIPC Aircraft Illustrated Parts Catalogue
WDM Wiring Diagram Manual
Non-Customized Manuals but Type-Effective
Other manuals are non--customized, but type effective. This means that the
content belongs to the whole fleet of that type.
SRM Structural Repair Manual
TSM Trouble Shooting Manual
EIPC Engine Illustrated Parts Catalogue
PBM Power Plant Build--Up Manual

EM Engine Manual
ARM Aircraft Recovery Manual
SSM System Schematics Manual
FIM Fault Isolation Manual
FRM Fault Reporting Manual

Part -66


Part -66
MANUAL ARRANGEMENT
The subject matter in each manual is divided into chapters and groups of chap-
ters to facilitate the location of information by the user.
This chapterisation provides a functional breakdown of the entire airplane.
Information on all units comprising a system will be found in the chapter identi-
fied by the name of that system, or by a general name indicative of the several
systems which may be covered in that chapter.
Thus, all units relating to the generation and distribution of electrical power are
covered in Chapter 24 ELECTRICAL POWER, while electrically-driven pumps
and valves serving the fuel system are covered in Chapter 28 FUEL.
All units in the elevator control system, which includes hydraulic, mechanical
and electrical units are included in Chapter 27 FLIGHT CONTROLS.

Part -66
39 Electronic Panels And Multi-Purpose
ATA 100 (CHAPTER AND TITLE)
49 Airborne Auxiliary Power
AIRCRAFT
STRUCTURES
5 Time Limits
51 Structure General
6 Dimensions and Areas
52 Doors
7 Lifting and Shoring
53 Fuselage
8 Levelling and Weighing
54 Nacelles and Pylons
9 Towing and Taxing
55 Stabilizers
10 Parking and Mooring
56 Windows
11 Required Placards
57 Wings
12 Servicing
13 Processes And Procedures PROPELLERS / ROTOR
60 Propellers and Rotors Standard Practice
AIRFRAME SYSTEMS
61 Propellers
20 General
65 Rotors
21 Air Conditioning
22 Autopilot POWER PLANT
23 Communications 70 Engine Standard Practices
24 Electrical Power 71 Power Plant General
25 Equipment and Furnishings 72 Engines
26 Fire Protection 73 Engine and Fuel Control
27 Flight Controls 74 Ignition
28 Fuel 75 Air
29 Hydraulic Power 76 Engine Controls
30 Ice And Rain Protection 77 Engine Indicating
31 Instruments 78 Exhaust
32 Landing Gear 79 Oil
33 Lights 80 Starting
34 Navigation 81 Turbines
35 Oxygen 82 Water Injection
36 Pneumatic 83 Accessory Gear Boxes
37 Vacuum
For detailed usage of each manual, refer to the INTRODUCTION section in the
38 Water and Waste
appropriate manual.

Part -66
REVISION SERVICE
LIST OF EFFECTIVE PAGES
A list of effective pages is provided in each printed manual.
The list is in numerical order and is located at the beginning of the chapter.
The pages are identified at the lower outside corner by the words:
“List of Effective Pages and are numbered separately, starting with page 1“
Revisions
Revision service to these manuals will be issued frequently. Pages that are
revised will be so indicated on the list of effective pages by an asterisk (*) and
identified by both a date and a page code.
On each individual page, the revised area is indicated by a revision bar on the
left margin.
Temporary Revisions
Temporary revisions, printed on yellow paper, will be issued as necessary
to alert the customer of configuration differences and to provide temporary
instructions prior to the next scheduled revision.

Part -66


Part -66
AMM AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE MANUAL
MM MAINTENANCE MANUAL
General PAGE IDENTIFICATION
The Maintenance Manual contains the information necessary to enable the me- The four elements of page identification are (located at the lower page margin):
chanics to service, troubleshoot, functionally check and repair all systems and S Chapter--Section--Subject Number
equipment installed in the aircraft.
S Page Number
It includes information necessary for the mechanic to perform maintenance
S Page Data
procedures or make minor repairs to any item on the aircraft either on the line
or in a maintenance hangar. It also covers the configuration of the aircraft as S Page Code Number
delivered to the customer. The subjects are divided into reasonably small topics and sub--topics to enable
The Maintenance Manual does not contain information relative to work the user to locate the desired information more rapidly.
normally performed on items or assemblies removed from the aircraft.
The topics are:
SUBJECT NUMBERING
S Description and Operation
The chapters of the Maintenance Manual are broken down into sections and
S Troubleshooting and Maintenance Practices.
subjects. They are numbered in a three--part subject--numbering system.
S The first number in the subject number is the CHAPTER number and
The sub--topics are:
serves to identify the major functional system.
S Servicing
S The middle part of the number is the SECTION number and serves to iden-
tify all of the coverage pertaining to a particular system, subsystem or group S Removal and Installation
of related assemblies, including all items that are functionally a part of the S Adjustment Test
system or related assemblies. S Inspection Check
S The last part of the number is the SUBJECT number and serves to identify S Cleaning and Painting
all information relative to a specific unit, minor assemblies, simple system or
S Approved Repairs.
simple circuit.
Complete system information is included in subjects, identified by the third part
The page blocks for these topics and sub--topics are as follows:
of the subject number being a <--0> number.
The descriptions of items which comprise the system or sub-system are also
TOPIC OR SUB--TOPIC PAGE BLOCK
included with complete system information to the extent necessary for under-
standing how they work in performing their function within the system. Description and Operation 1 to 100
In those cases where the items are sufficiently complex, additional description Troubleshooting 101 to 200
and operation type information is given at item level. Maintenance Practices 201 to 300
Servicing 301 to 400
Removal and Installation 401 to 500
Adjustment / Test 501 to 600

Part -66


Part -66
IPC ILLUSTRATED PARTS CATALOGUE
AIPC AIRCRAFT ILLUSTRATED PARTS CATALOGUE

The Illustrated Parts Catalogue contains information for use in provisioning,
requisitioning, storing and issuing replaceable aircraft parts and in identifying
parts.
SUBJECT NUMBERING
The subject numbering is the same as for the Maintenance Manual.
INDEX SYSTEM
The Numerical Index is a complete alpha--numerical listing of all part numbers
contained in the Detailed Parts List of the Illustrated Parts Catalogue.
The index is divided into two sections :
S Numerical Index -- Alpha
S Numerical Index -- Numeric.
The Numerical Index also displays substitution information on interchangeable
standard part numbers.
The Specification Cross Reference Index is divided into two sections and is
common to all customers.
S The first section is titled ”Specification Number Sequence”, cross-- referenc-
ing the Manufacturer Specifications to the vendor part number and vendor
code.
S The second section is titled ”Vendor Part Number Sequence”, cross--refer-
encing the vendor part number and code to the Manufacturer specification.
The Aircraft Customer Manufacturing and Registry Number Index relates
the effectivity code shown in the Detailed Parts List to the corresponding:
S aircraft effectivity number

S manufacturing number
S and registry number.
The Vendors Name and Address Index, with supply codes, is a list of ven-
dors referenced in the Detailed Parts List and is common to all customers. The
list is arranged in vendor code number sequence.
The Major Drawing Number Index is an indentured breakdown denoting only
the major aircraft sections and system installation drawing numbers.

Part -66


Part -66
COMPONENT MAINTENANCE MANUAL (CMM )

General
The Manual describes maintenance of a component in the workshop. It does The Component Maintenance Manual contains all necessary information for
not describe maintenance of the component when it is installed in the aircraft. the description and operation, disassembly, cleaning, inspection/check, repair,
This manual contains technical data, maintenance and repair procedures for assembly, fits and clearances, testing and fault isolation, storage instructions
components. The data and figures of component parts are given a separate and the illustrated parts list of the component.
IPC. This information allows overhaul of the units, after their removal from the air-
The Aircraft Manufacturer’s Component Maintenance Manual is comprised of: craft, in specialized workshops.
S A record of revisions
Component Maintenance Sheet (CMS)
S A letter of transmittal
This document is applicable to small items for which no CMM is required. The
S A list of effective pages not exclusive to topics corresponding to overhaul- component maintenance sheet will include the following :
able units
S Description
S An introduction
S Characteristics of the item
S A list of chapters
S Diagram
S An alpha--numerical index
S Fits and clearances
S A tab divider per chapter
S Testing
S A table of contents per chapter
S Storage instructions
S A Component Maintenance Manual for specific items and a Component
S Illustrated parts list.
Maintenance Sheet for specific items.
Component Maintenance Manuals For Specific Items
A revision service is provided in accordance with the purchase agreement
between the manufacturer and the customer.
Each Component Maintenance Manual for a specific item comprises :
S A title page
S A record of revisions
S A record of temporary revisions

S A list of effective pages
S A list of temporary revisions
S A service bulletin list
S A list of approved repairers
S A list of materials
S A table of contents.

Part -66


Part -66
IDENTIFICATION OF THE CMM/CMS

General List Of ATA Chapters
The CMM and CMS are classified into systems (Chapters) and sub--systems
(Sections), each item being identified by a part number (P/N) and assigned an 23 Communications
ATA 100 reference. 25 Equipment and furnishings
Information concerning all items of a system are identified by the reference of 27 Flight controls
that system, eg
28 Fuel
System (Chapter), 27 -- Flight Controls.
30 Ice and rain protection
In each system, the information concerning all items of a sub--system are
32 Landing gear
identified by the reference of that sub--system. Thus, all components relating to
the ailerons and tabs of system (Chapter) 27 --Flight Controls are included in 33 Lights
sub--system (Section) 10 -- Aileron and Tab. 34 Navigation
36 Pneumatic
How to use the CMM and CMS
49 Airborne aux. power
Using the ATA reference, the manuals are classified inside the chapters in
ascending numerical order. Using the unit reference, identify the ATA manual 52 Doors
reference in the alpha--numerical index. 53 Fuselage
55 Stabilizers
The Alpha--Numerical Index
56 Windows
This is the alpha--numerical index of items having a specific Component
Maintenance Manual or CMS within the document. 57 Wings
It comprises two columns : 76 Engine control
S The first column gives the part number of the item classified alpha--numeri-
cally,
S and the second, the references of the corresponding manuals.
The Table Of Contents
The table of contents gives a list of Component Maintenance Manual and CMS
for specific items, classified in ascending numerical order according to their

ATA 100 reference.

Part -66


Part -66
SECTION PAGE BLOCK NUMBERING

INTRODUCTION INTRO 1 and on ASSEMBLY 701 and on
General General
Revision Service Equipment and Materials
List of Abbreviations List of Procedures
Procedure
DESCRIPTION AND OPERATION 1 and on
Storage after Assembly
General
Description and Operation SPECIAL TOOLS, FIXTURES and EQUIPMENT 901 and on
Special Tools, Fixtures and Equipment List
TESTING AND FAULT ISOLATION 101 and on
General
Equipment and Materials
Procedure
DISASSEMBLY 301 and on
General
List of Procedures
Procedure
CLEANING 401 and on
Procedure
CHECK 501 and on
General
Procedure
REPAIR 601 and on
General
Normal Repair
Special Repair

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Part -66
MAINTENANCE PLANNING DATA

MPD General
The Maintenance Planning Data (MPD) document provides maintenance Temporary requirements in the form of Service Letters, Service Bulletins and
planning information necessary for each aircraft operator to develop a Airworthiness Directives are the responsibility of the individual airline to
customized scheduled maintenance program. incorporate.
This document lists all manufacturer-recommended scheduled maintenance Maintenance tasks recommended in engine, APU and vendor manuals should
tasks and satisfies (in part) the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and Joint also be considered.
Aviation Authorities (JAA) requirement that a manufacturer provide ”instructions
for continued airworthiness” as specified in FAR 25.
Periodic (scheduled) maintenance tasks outlined in this document may include,
but are not limited to, the following sources:
S JAA/FAA Maintenance Review Board (MRB)

S Service Bulletins (SB)*
S Service Letters (SL)*
S JAA/FAA Airworthiness Directives (AD’s)*.
* NOTE:IF MANDATORY ACTION TERMINATES THE PERIODIC

MAINTENANCE TASK WITHIN APPROXIMATELY 18 MONTHS,
THEN THE TASK IDENTIFIED IN THE SB, AD OR SL IS NOT
INCLUDED IN THE MPD.
The manufacture’s recommended scheduled maintenance tasks outlined in this

document are applicable to current production and existing aircraft as follows:
S AIRCRAFT -- i.e. A340 / B747 etc

S ENGINES -- i.e. P&W PW4000 / RR Trent 500 etc.
The scheduled maintenance tasks in this document should not be considered

as all--inclusive. Each individual airline has final responsibility to decide what to
do and when to do it, except for those maintenance requirements identified as
”Airworthiness Limitations” (AWL‘s) or ”Certification Maintenance
Requirements” (CMR’s).

Part -66
VOL 9
VOL 8
VOL 7
VOL 6
MSG-3 MAINTENANCE
VOL 5
VOL 4
AIRLINE/ REQUIREMENTS
MANUFAC- REVIEW & PRO-
VOL 3
TURER MAINTE- POSAL DOC-
VOL 2
NANCE PRO- MANUFACTURER UMENT
GRAM PLAN-
AIRLINES VOL 1
NING DATA
JAA / FAA
MAINTENANCE
TASK CARDS PLANNING DOC-
UMENT MAINTENANCE
& REVIEW BOARD
MAINTENANCE (MPD)
MANUAL INDEXES REPORT
JAA/FAA
SERVICE LET-
TERS
AIRWORTHINESS
DIRECTIVES
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE
(AD NOTES) PROGRAMME
JOB
CARDS
VENDOR
MANUALS
SERVICE
BULLETINS
Figure 467 Maintenance Steering Group (MSG-3)

Part -66
SCHEDULED MAINTENANCE PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT

Maintenance Steering Group (MSG-3)
Most of the scheduled maintenance tasks outlined in this planning document
were developed using the process guidelines of the ATA Airline/Manufacturer
Maintenance Program Development Document:- MSG--3.
In addition, this document includes all scheduled maintenance tasks recom-
mended by the manufacturer (with the exception of temporary requirements as
described in Section A) based on world-wide fleet service experience.
There are no additional sources of the manufacturer-recommended scheduled
maintenance tasks.
Some structural inspection requirements arise from aircraft type certification
activities with the FAA and JAA. These are identified as ”Airworthiness
Limitations” and are specified in the MPD.
The inspection requirements for these ”Airworthiness Limitations” are covered
in the Structural Inspection Program. Also included in the MPD of an aircraft
type are a list of the Structural Safe--Life Parts.
Certification Maintenance Requirements (CMRs)
A few maintenance requirements in the Systems Section were developed as a
result of the safety analysis for certification of the aircraft. These tasks, called
”Certification Maintenance Requirements” (CMRs), are identified with a hash
sign (#) placed under the frequency of the specific task.
Airworthiness Limitations and Certification Maintenance Requirements is the
approved document that lists all CMRs for the aircraft type. This section of the
document is controlled separately from the rest of the MPD and is approved by
the relevant authorities and is released as a separate document.
Prior to MSG--3, scheduled maintenance programs were developed from
analysis which began at the component level. The effect of failures in these
components was considered and, where appropriate, scheduled maintenance
tasks were assigned.
Using such an approach, an inclusive list of component level ”Maintenance
Significant Items” (MSIs) was generated from the initial list of items subjected
to analysis.
Components which had no scheduled maintenance were assigned the
”Condition Monitoring” maintenance process category and were considered
candidates for a reliability program.

Part -66
VOL 9
VOL 8
VOL 7
VOL 6
VOL 5
VOL 4
MSG-3 MAINTENANCE
VOL 3
AIRLINE/ REQUIREMENTS
MANUFACTURER REVIEW & PRO-
VOL 2
MAINTENANCE POSAL DOC-
PROGRAM PLAN- MANUFACTURER UMENT
NING DATA AIRLINES VOL 1
JAA / FAA
TASK CARDS MAINTENANCE

MAINTENANCE & PLANNING DOC- MAINTENANCE
MANUAL UMENT REVIEW BOARD
INDEXES REPORT
(MPD)
JAA/FAA
SERVICE LET-
TERS
AIRWORTHINESS
DIRECTIVES AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE
(AD NOTES) PROGRAMME
JOB
CARDS
VENDOR
MANUALS
SERVICE
BULLETINS
Figure 468 Maintenance Steering Group (MSG-3)

Part -66
MAINTENANCE CHECKS
General C-Check (cont..)
Many of the scheduled maintenance tasks listed in the MPD document are to The original Maintenance Review Board Report (MRBR) S 1C interval was
identify the frequency of accomplishment in terms of a letter check, eg 1A, 2A, 3,000 flight cycles or 15 months (whichever came first) and the S 2C, S 3C and
1C, etc. These letter checks and the other checks are defined as follows. S 4C intervals were multiples thereof.
A revision of the MRBR (issued 11/90), was based on current accumulated ser-
Transit Check
vice experience. The MRBR calendar time limit for S 1C, S 2C, and S 3C was
The Transit Check (TC) is intended to assure continuous serviceability of a escalated to 18, 36 and 54 months respectively with the S 4C remaining at 60
transiting aircraft. This check is planned for use at an en-route stop and is months.
basically a ”walk--around” inspection which requires a check of both the aircraft
However, based on fleet--wide corrosion findings, the initial (starting point) in-
interior and exterior for obvious damage, leaks, correctly operating equipment,
terval for a selected number of structural inspection tasks was kept at 15, 30,
security of attachments and required servicings.
and 45 months. Consequently, the MRBR interval for these tasks was changed
A-Check from S1C, S 2C and S 3C to 3,000 cycles/15 months, 6,000 cycles/30 months
and 9,000 cycles/45 months, respectively.
There are two different A--Check intervals specified for Boeing 757
maintenance. These are identified in the interval column of the Systems, The interval for any of these calendar-based tasks (15, 30, 45 or 60 months)
Structural,and Zonal programs. can be adjusted, as with any other structural inspection task, by an operator,
based on their service experience as noted in the Maintenance Program Rules
S The Systems (including lubrication) and Zonal A--Check interval is 500 flight
and Operating Rules of the MRBR.
hours. The Systems/Zonal A--Check is designated ”1A”.
The Systems Maintenance and Zonal Inspection Programs are flight-hour sen-
S The Structural A--Check interval is 300 flight cycles and is designated ”S
sitive; whereas, the Structural Inspection Program is flight cycle or calendar
1A”.
time sensitive.
C-Check Separation of these A and C check definitions provides an operator with maxi-
There are also two different C--Check intervals specified for Boeing 757 mum flexibility in scheduling and packaging the systems/structural/zonal tasks
maintenance. These are identified in the interval column of the Systems, based on aircraft utilization.
Structural and Zonal programs. The table opposite summarizes the Basic Maintenance Check Intervals appli-
S The Systems (including lubrication) and Zonal C--Check interval is 6,000 cable to the Boeing 757. The maintenance program utilizing these check inter-
flight hours or 18 months, whichever comes first. The Systems/Zonal vals is intended for normal aircraft/airline daily utilization.
C--Check is designated ”1C”. No multiple C--Check intervals should be Task intervals are expressed in hours, cycles, calendar time or a letter check.
escalated until at least one aircraft inspection has been accomplished at Individual operators may convert intervals (based on aircraft utilization) to their
12,000 flight hours for 2C items, 18,000 flight hours for 3C items and 24,000 desired units provided such conversion does not result in exceeding the
flight hours for 4C items. frequencies identified herein.
S The Structures C--Check interval is 3,000 flight cycles or 18 months, which- An operator may package any or all of the tasks not specified at one of the ba-
ever comes first. The Structures C--Check is designated ”S 1C”. Some sic check intervals into one of the basic checks, provided such packaging does
structures tasks have a calendar limit interval instead of the normal letter not exceed the interval shown for the task.
check interval described above. The following provides an explanation for
the interval difference.

Part -66
MAINTENANCE CHECKS INITIAL INTERVALS
1 TRANSIT CHECK (TR) PRIOR TO FLIGHT

1 A--CHECK (SYSTEMS/ZONAL) 500 FLIGHT HOURS
1 A--CHECK (STRUCTURES) 300 FLIGHT CYCLES
1 C--CHECK (SYSTEMS/ZONAL) 6,000 FLIGHT HOURS OR 18 MONTHS *
1 C--CHECK (STRUCTURES) 3,000 FLIGHT CYCLES OR 18 MONTHS *
1 4C--CHECK (STRUCTURES) 12,000 FLIGHT CYCLES OR 72 MONTHS *
*whichever comes first
Figure 469 Maintenance Checks

Part -66
MODIFICATION PROCEDURES
Introduction
A modification is any change to the design of a product.
Certificate of Airworthiness
The internationally-recognised standard for the airworthiness of a civil aircraft is
a Certificate of Airworthiness issued in accordance with the Convention on In-
ternational Civil Aviation (ICAO Chicago Convention). An aircraft which cannot
show compliance with the standards required for the award of a Certificate of
Airworthiness, but nevertheless can be considered airworthy (subject to speci-
fied limitations), may be granted a Permit to Fly.
To qualify for a Certificate of Airworthiness the design of an aircraft must be
shown to comply with appropriate design standards, and the individual aircraft
must be shown to have been constructed in conformity with the approved de-
sign.
Type Certificate
Certification of the design of an aircraft is normally declared by the granting of
a Type Certificate, for which a pre--requisite will be Type Certification of any
engines and/or propellers fitted.
Subject to compliance with any additional requirements that may be imposed,
an aircraft that conforms with the type certificated design will be eligible for a
Certificate of Airworthiness.
Modification
Whenever a UK--registered aircraft (or an engine, or propeller fitted to such an
aircraft) is modified, the Certificate of Airworthiness is invalidated until such
time as the modification is approved by the CAA (either directly or through the
procedures of an organisation approved by the CAA for the purpose).

Part -66


Part -66
STORES PROCEDURES
Stores and Supplies Procedures
Systems must be in place to ensure that parts and materials used in the Once the stores inspector is satisfied he will issue a Release Voucher and
maintenance of aircraft are approved parts and conform to the required transfer the part to the Bonded Store. A register is kept detailing all Release
specifications. It is obvious that there are significant safety implications if parts Vouchers that have been issued. This contains details of the component and
are installed that are bogus or have not been correctly repaired. the identity of the issuer.
Parts and materials must come from organizations that are approved by the
National Airworthiness Authority (NAA). These organizations can be aircraft Parts and components are issued from the Bonded Store to be installed onto
manufacturers, original equipment manufacturers (OEM), approved repair the aircraft.
organizations and authorized material suppliers.
Part of the release voucher is returned to the stores with the removed item.
To make sure that parts and materials are examined before being cleared for Information from the returned voucher will have been completed by the me-
use on aircraft, stores premises and procedures are designed with this chanic or engineer installing the new part.
protection in mind. All parts and material enter the engineering organization
This information is used by Technical Records to track the part and serial num-
stores system through “Goods Inwards“ into a Quarantine Store.
ber of components installed on a particular aircraft.
A certificate indicating that the item comes from an approved source must
accompany all components, parts and assemblies. In JAA member states this
certificate is the “JAA Form One“. Parts originating in the USA may have an
equivalent “FAA Form 8130“. Other approved forms are the Canadian TCA
Form 24--0078 or specific “Authorized Release Tags“ acceptable to the NAA.
Standard parts, i.e. nuts, bolts, washers, diodes etc, which are manufactured to
a common standard and are designated by the Type Certificate Holder or
Design Authority do not require an Authorized Release Tag and must be
accompanied by a Certificate of Conformity.
All material and parts must be logged in a Register of Quarantined Items.
The stores inspector then examines every item, checking details from the JAA
Form One (Part Number, Serial Number etc) against the component or part.
Parts are also examined for general condition, that they have not been
damaged in transit and that transport blanks are in place etc.

Parts that fail this inspection remain in the quarantine stores and must be
returned to the supplier as soon as possible. Regular checks of the Quarantine
Register are carried out to ensure parts failing to conform to specification do
not remain in the store.

Part -66
OIL
Goods Inwards Quarantine Store Bonded Store Aircraft

Figure 470 Store and Supplies Procedures

Part -66
CERTIFICATION/RELEASE PROCEDURES
A certificate of release to service is issued by the appropriately authorised cer-
tifying staff on behalf of the JAR--145 approved maintenance organisation once
he is satisfied that all maintenance required by the customer of the aircraft or
aircraft component has been properly carried out.
An aircraft component which has been maintained off the aircraft requires:
S the issue of a certificate of release to service for such maintenance and
S another certificate of release to service in regard to being installed properly
on the aircraft when such action occurs.
A certificate of release to service must contain:
S basic details of the maintenance carried out
S the date such maintenance was completed and
S the identity (including approval reference) of the JAR 145-approved mainte-
nance organisation and certifying staff issuing such a certificate.

Part -66
Figure 471 Sample: Release-To-Service Certificate

Part -66
MAINTENANCE INSPECTION/QUALITY CONTROL/QUALITY

ASSURANCE
A EASA Part--145 approved maintenance organisation will have a quality policy
for that organisation.
It will have established procedures to ensure good maintenance practices and
compliance with all relevant requirements in EASA Part--145 (Approved Main-
tenance Organisations).
The organisation will have established a quality system that includes:
S Independent audits in order to monitor compliance with required aircraft/
aircraft component standards and adequacy of the procedures to ensure
that such procedures invoke good maintenance practices and airworthy air-
craft/aircraft components.
S A quality feedback reporting system to the person or group of persons spe-
cified in JAR 145.30(a) and ultimately to the accountable manager that en-
sures proper and timely corrective action is taken in response to reports re-
sulting from the independent audits.

Part -66


Part -66
MAINTENANCE RECORDS
A EASA Part--145 approved maintenance organisation must record all details
of work carried out in a form acceptable to the JAA full member Authority.
It must provide a copy of each certificate of release to service to the aircraft
operator, together with a copy of any specific approved repair/modification data
used for repairs/modifications carried out.
It must retain a copy of all detailed maintenance records and any associated
maintenance data for two years from the date the aircraft or aircraft component
to which the work relates was released from the organisation.

Part -66


Part -66
CONTROL OF LIFE-LIMITED COMPONENTS

Introduction 2. On-Condition. This is also a preventative process but one in which the
This section gives general information on the concepts and practices of aircraft item is inspected or tested, at specified periods, to determine whether it can
maintenance control by the use of Condition Monitored Maintenance. continue in service. On-Condition philosophy is to remove an item before it
fails, not ’fit until failure’ or ’fit and forget it’.
Confidence in continued airworthiness has long been based on the traditional
method of maintaining safety margins by the prescription of fixed component 3. Condition Monitoring. This process is one in which information on items
lives and by aircraft ’strip-down’ policies. gained from operational experience is collected, analysed and interpreted on a
continuing basis as a means of implementing corrective procedures.
However, there has been a need for change to this basic philosophy of aircraft
maintenance, influenced by It is applied to items whose failure does not have a direct adverse effect on op-
erating safety and no adverse age reliability relationship has been identified.
S the economic state of the industry
S changes in aircraft design philosophy, and
S progress in engineering technology.
Primary Maintenance
There are three types of primary maintenance processes practised today.
1. Hard Time. This is a preventative process in which known deterioration of
an item is limited to an acceptable level by the maintenance actions which are
carried out at periods related to time in service (eg calendar time, number of
cycles, number of landings).
These actions normally include
S servicing
S overhaul
S partial overhaul and
S replacement.
This process is applied to an item when
S the failure of the item has a direct adverse effect on airworthiness and
where evidence indicates that it is subject to wear or deterioration

S there is a hidden function which cannot be checked with the item in-situ
S wear or deterioration exists to such an extent that a time limit is economi-
cally desirable
S component condition or ’life’ progression sampling is practised, and
S limitations are prescribed in a Manufacturer’s Warranty.

Part -66
Figure 472 Time to Change

Part -66


P66 B1 M7 E
TABLE OF CONTENTS
M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 PROPER WORKING POSITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
M 7.1 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS - AIRCRAFT AND WORKSHOP . . . . . 2 FILE TECHNIQUE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 FILING OF RADII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
MANUAL LIFTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 DRAW FILING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
PERSONAL PROTECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 CLEANING DIRTY FILES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 DRILLING . 92
COMPRESSED GASSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
OILS AND CHEMICALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 TWIST DRILL NOMENCLATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
FIRE FIGHTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 DRILL TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
FIRE PRECAUTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 DRILL GRINDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
FOREIGN OBJECT DEBRIS (FOD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
M 7.2 WORKSHOP PRACTISES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 DRILLING SAFETY PRECAUTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
TOOL HUSBANDRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 TYPES OF DRILL MACHINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
TOOL CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 HAND-HELD DRILL MOTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
TOOL CALIBRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 HAND DRILL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
STANDARDS OF WORKMANSHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 THE CHUCK OF A DRILL MACHINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
USE OF WORKSHOP MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
DRILLING WORK SEQUENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
DIMENSIONS, ALLOWANCES & TOLERANCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
DEBURRING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
MEASUREMENT UNIT SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
COMMON DRILLING PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
RULES AND SCALES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
WORK CLAMPING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
SQUARES AND GAUGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
BALL GAUGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 DRILLING AIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
TEMPERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 ADDITIONAL TOOLS FOR DRILLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
MARKING OUT AND TOOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 DRILL AGENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
VERNIER HEIGHT GAUGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 DRILLING SIZES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
M7.3 TOOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 DRILL SPEEDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
PUNCHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
SAWING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 REAMING . 155
SAW BLADE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 LIMITS AND FITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
FILING . . . 76 THE ISO SYSTEM OF LIMITS AND FITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
FILE SHAPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 REAMING GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
FILE CUTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 REAMER DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
GRADE OF CUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 TYPES OF REAMERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
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REAMING SPEED AND AGENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 AIRCRAFT ENGINEERING DRAWINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
REAMING ADVICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 SCALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
COUNTERSINKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 PICTORIAL (ISOMETRIC) VIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 STANDARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
COUNTERSINKING TOOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 TITLE BLOCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
GUIDELINES FOR COUNTERSINKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 ZONES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
COUNTERSINK CUTTING AGENTS / SPEEDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 REVISION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
PARTS LIST (BILL OF MATERIALS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
THREAD CUTTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
TYPES AND USE OF LINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
HAND THREADING TOOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
SYMBOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
HAND TAPPING TOOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
SYMBOLS -- RECESSED HOLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
TYPE OF TAPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
SYMBOLS -- CONVENTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
HOLES FOR TAPPING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
SYMBOLS -- SURFACE TEXTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
HOW TO TAP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
PERSPECTIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
TORQUE WRENCHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
SKETCHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
MICROMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
PROJECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
VERNIER CALLIPER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
SECTIONAL VIEWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
DIAL INDICATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
DIMENSIONING FROM A COMMON DATUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
ABRASIVE WHEELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
LUBRICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
DRAWING READING FUNDAMENTALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
GENERAL LUBRICATION INSTRUCTIONS - BOEING . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
DETAIL DRAWINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
EXAMPLE: B737 LUBRICATION FITTINGS
REMOVAL/INSTALLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 ASSEMBLY DRAWINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
EXAMPLE: A320 MLG AND DOORS LUBRICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 INSTALLATION DRAWINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
ELECTRICAL TEST EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 EXPLODED--VIEW DRAWING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
SCHEMATIC DRAWING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
M7.4 AVIONIC GENERAL TEST EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
ELECTRICAL WIRING DIAGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
DRAWING STORAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
METER MOVEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 M 7.6 FITS AND CLEARANCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
CURRENT MEASUREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 SYSTEMS OF FITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 KINDS OF FIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
POWER MEASUREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 ISO SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
FREQUENCY MEASUREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 FASTENERS -- HOLE AND DRILL DATA -- METALLIC
STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
M 7.5 ENGINEERING DRAWINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 WEAR LIMITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
ENGINEERING DRAWINGS (GENERAL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 TWIST LIMITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382

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STANDARD METHODS FOR CHECKING SHAFTS & BEARINGS . . 384 CLOSED END SPLICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND CONNECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 SPARE WIRE CAPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON AIRCRAFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 MULTIPLE CONDUCTOR CRIMPING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
GENERAL NOTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390 CRIMPING-INSPECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
GENERAL NOTES (CONTINUED) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 PHASE IDENTIFICATION OF THREE PHASE POWER WIRES . . . . 492
WIRE SEPARATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 TERMINAL STRIPS, BLOCKS & MODULES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
WIRE AND CABLE SUPPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 MAXIMUM BENDING OF TERMINALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
PRESSURE SEALING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 CIRCUIT BREAKER CONNECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
WIRE BUNDLE TIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 TERMINAL BLOCKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
REPAIR OF WIRE AND CABLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 BONDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
CIRCUIT BREAKER TERMINAL INSULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 BONDING RESISTANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
DEAD ENDING OF WIRES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 GROUNDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS - GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
STRIPPING WIRE AND CABLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 MEASUREMENT OF GROUNDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
ELECTRICAL CONNECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432 INSULATION RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
CONTACT CONFIGURATION -- NUMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 CONTINUITY TESTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
CONTACT CONFIGURATION -- LETTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 COAX CABLE TESTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
ENVIRONMENTAL SEALING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 M7.8 RIVETING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
CONNECTOR ALTERNATIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
COAXIAL CONNECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452 RIVETED JOINTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
POLARISATION KEYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
CONNECTOR TOOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458 INTER-RIVET BUCKLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
CONTACT INSERT & REMOVAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458 DIMPLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
CONNECTOR CONTACT CRIMPING-TOOL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462 TOOLS USED FOR SOLID RIVETING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
CRIMPING OF CONTACTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464 HOLE PREPARATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
SOLDERING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466 INSTALLATION PROCEDURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
SOLDERING WIRES INTO CONTACTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466 INSPECTION AND PERMITTED LIMITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
SOLDER SLEEVE PIGTAIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 SOLID RIVET REMOVAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
CRIMPED BREAKOUT SLEEVES (K-GRIP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472 M7.9 PIPES AND HOSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
PRE INSULATED DIAMOND GRIP (PIDG) TERMINALS AND SPLICES . . TUBES AND PIPES / TUBE ASSEMBLIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
474
CLAMPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
CRIMPING OF PIDG TERMINALS AND SPLICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
TUBE FITTINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
CRIMPING OF PIDG SPLICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
FLARELESS FITTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
AMP STRATOTHERM TERMINALS AND SPLICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
FLARE-TYPE FITTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
CRIMPING OF POST INSULATED TERMINALS AND SPLICES . . . 482

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SWAGE FITTING/HARRISON TYPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574 CABLE TIGHTENING AND MEASURING TENSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
PERMASWAGE FITTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 CABLE TENSIOMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
BENDING TUBES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578 CONTROL CABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658
TUBE BENDING COMING UP TO REQUESTED DIMENSIONS . . . 582 TELEFLEX CONTROLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
TUBING REPAIR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590 BOWDEN CONTROLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
HOSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592 M7.14 MATERIAL HANDLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677
TIGHTENING PRACTICES - HYDRAULIC CONNECTIONS . . . . . . . 600
M7.14.1 SHEET METAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677
TIGHTENING TORQUES - HYDRAULIC FITTINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
M7.10 SPRINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607 BENDING PROCESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680
EXAMPLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608 FLAT-LAYOUT CALCULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682
M 7.11 BEARINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611 DEVELOPED LENGTH CALCULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684
BEARINGS (GENERAL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612 BENDING BY HAMMERING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
SLIDING BEARINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612 FOLDING MACHINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696
ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612 BENDING SEQUENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
LUBRICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612 M7.14.2 COMPOSITE AND NON-METALLIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
BEARING DEFECTS AND THEIR CAUSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614 CURING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618 HEATING EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708
REMOVAL OF BEARINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618 PRE-TREATMENT FOR BONDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714
INSTALLATION OF BEARINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618 NON-DESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION (NDT) TECHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . 716
INSTALLATION OF ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620 HOLOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720
BEARINGS THAT CANNOT BE DISASSEMBLED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620 ULTRASONICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720
BEARINGS THAT CAN BE DISASSEMBLED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620 RADIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722
M7.12 TRANSMISSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623 M 7.15 WELDING, BRAZING, SOLDERING AND BONDING . . . . . . . . . 725
CONTROL CHAINS, CHAIN WHEELS AND PULLEYS . . . . . . . . . . . . 624 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726
INSPECTION OF BELTS, CHAINS AND CABLES (EXAMPLE) . . . . . 634 OXYACETYLENE WELDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728
INSPECTION OF SCREWJACKS (EXAMPLE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636 STATIONARY WELDING EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728
INSPECTION OF GEARS, BACKLASH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638 PORTABLE WELDING EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730
M 7.13 CONTROL CABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641 FUSION WELDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
CABLE LINES (GENERAL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642 INERT GAS FUSION WELDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
INSPECTION OF CABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738
INSPECTION OF PULLEYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW) (CONTINUED) . . . . . . . . 740
ROLLING ON TERMINALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648 GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742
ROLLING OF SLEEVE TERMINALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650 ELECTRON BEAM WELDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746
INSPECTION OF MANUFACTURED CABLE LINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654 ELECTRON BEAM WELDING PROCEDURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748

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ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE WELDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750 MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823
RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING (RSW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750 MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING (RSEW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752 AIRCRAFT WEIGHTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827
RESISTANCE PROJECTION WELDING (RPW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754 AIRCRAFT WEIGHTS CONT’D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829
INERTIA WELDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756 ENVIRONMENTAL WEIGHT LIMITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831
SOLDERING OF METALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 758 AIRCRAFT WEIGHING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833
SOLDERING OF METALS (CONT.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760 WEIGHING PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833
HARD SOLDERING PROCESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764 TYPE CERTIFICATE DATA SHEET ( TCDS ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835
INDUCTION SOLDERING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766 AIRCRAFT LEVELING MEANS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 837
RESISTANCE SOLDERING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768 WEIGHING THE AIRCRAFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841
DIP BRAZING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768 ON BOARD AIRCRAFT WEIGHT AND BALANCE SYSTEM . . . . . . . 843
INFRARED SOLDERING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768 TARE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845
CLEANING AFTER SOLDERING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768 PREPARATION OF THE AIRCRAFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847
REACTION OF MATERIALS TO SOLDERING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769
CALCULATION EXAMPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849
SOLDERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771
CALCULATION WEIGHT AND BALANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849
FLUX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 772
EXAMPLE 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851
RADIOGRAPHIC AND ULTRASONIC WELD INSPECTION . . . . . . . . 774
EXAMPLE 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853
BONDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 776
EXAMPLE 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 855
TYPES OF BONDING MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 776
EXAMPLE 4 CONT’D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857
WETTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
APPENDIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859
CAPILLARY ACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
WEIGHT AND BALANCE CALCULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863
ADHESION AND COHESION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
FORMULAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863
EFFECTS OF BOND THICKNESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790
EXERCISE 1 CALCULATIONS: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866
DESIGN OF BONDED CONNECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794
EXERCISE 2 CALCULATION : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868
STRESSES IN DIFFERENT KINDS OF CONNECTION . . . . . . . . . . . 798
EXERCISE 3 CALCULATIONS : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870
PROPERTIES OF RESINS AND BONDED CONNECTIONS . . . . . . . 800
INFLUENCES OF PRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802
AIRCRAFT WEIGHT AND BALANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807
M 7.17 AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807
TAXIING AND TOWING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 876
WEIGHT AND BALANCE CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809
LIFTING AND SHORING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 882
CENTER OF GRAVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811
A/C STORAGE METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 888
CENTER OF GRAVITY CONT’D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813
PARKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 888
ARM AND MOMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815
RETURN TO OPERATION (PARKING OF NOT MORE THAN 2 DAYS) ...
THE LAW OF THE LEVER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817 890
CENTER OF GRAVITY RANGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821

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PARKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892 DINITROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 972
STORAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896 REPAIR TECHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 976
STORAGE (CONT’D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 898 SEALANT COMPOUNDS / GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980
AIRCRAFT REFUELLING/DEFUELLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 906 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 982
DE-ICING AND ANTI-ICING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 908 FILLET SEAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 984
GROUND SERVICING EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916 INJECTION SEAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986
M7.18 DISASSEMBLY, INSPECTION, REPAIR AND ASSEMBLY TECHNI- FAYING SURFACE SEAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 988
QUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919 AERODYNAMIC SMOOTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 990
INSPECTION OF METAL AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . 920 FASTENER SEAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 992
NON-DESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 928 PREPACK SEALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994
DAMAGE CATEGORIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 932 BRUSH COAT SEALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994
REPAIRABLE DAMAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 932 ELECTRICAL SEALING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994
NON-REPAIRABLE DAMAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 932 SEAL PLANE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996
TYPES OF STRUCTURAL DAMAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 934 SEALANT MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998
TYPES OF STRUCTURAL DAMAGE (CONTINUED) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 936 PROPERTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000
DISASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 938 INTEGRAL FUEL TANK SEALANT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1004
CORROSION REMOVAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 940 FASTENER SEALING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1008
CORROSION REMOVAL (CONT’D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 942 FAYING SURFACE SEALING OF REPAIRS TO FUSELAGE SKIN . 1010
CORROSION ON ALUMINIUM ALLOYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 948 SEALING OF UPPER SURFACES ON COMPOSITE PANELS CONTAI-
REMOVAL OF CORROSION FROM CARBON STEEL . . . . . . . . . . . . 948 NING ARAMID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1012
CORROSION REMOVAL FROM STAINLESS STEEL AND NICKEL CHRO- MIXING OF SEALANT COMPOUNDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014
MIUM ALLOYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 950 CLEANING PROCESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020
CORROSION REMOVAL FROM TITANIUM ALLOYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 950 CLEANING EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020
REMOVAL OF CORROSION FROM CADMIUM-PLATED PARTS . . 950 SEALANT APPLICATION TOOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022
TYPES OF CORROSION PROTECTION PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . 952 IMPORTANT NOTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024
PREPARATORY TREATMENT OF SURFACES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 954 M7.19 ABNORMAL EVENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1027
PAINT FINISHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 958 LIGHTNING STRIKE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1028
PAINT FINISHES IN THE AREA OF THE CABIN/FUSELAGE OUTER HIGH INTENSITY RADIATED FIELDS (HIRF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030
SKIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 958
HARD LANDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1032
PRIMER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962
SEVERE OR UNUSUAL TURBULENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1034
INTERMEDIATE PRIMER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 964
OVERLIMIT INSPECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1034
EPOXY PRIMER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 966
COATING LACQUERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 968 M 7.20 MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1037
ELECTRICALLY-CONDUCTIVE PAINTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 970 AIRCRAFT MANUALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1038
WATER-REPELLENT FLUID AND CORROSION INHIBITORS . . . . . 972 TYPES OF MANUALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1038
MANUAL ARRANGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040

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REVISION SERVICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1042
AMM AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE MANUAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1044
MM MAINTENANCE MANUAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1044
IPC ILLUSTRATED PARTS CATALOGUE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1046
AIPC AIRCRAFT ILLUSTRATED PARTS CATALOGUE . . . . . . . . . . . 1046
COMPONENT MAINTENANCE MANUAL (CMM ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048
IDENTIFICATION OF THE CMM/CMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1050
SECTION PAGE BLOCK NUMBERING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1052
MAINTENANCE PLANNING DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1054
SCHEDULED MAINTENANCE PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . 1056
MAINTENANCE CHECKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1058
MODIFICATION PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1060
STORES PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062
CERTIFICATION/RELEASE PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
MAINTENANCE INSPECTION/QUALITY CONTROL/QUALITY ASSU-
RANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066
MAINTENANCE RECORDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
CONTROL OF LIFE-LIMITED COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070

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Figure 1 Industrial Injuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Figure 36 Working Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Figure 2 Individual and Team Lifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Figure 37 File Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Figure 3 Workshop and Hangar Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Figure 38 Filing of Radii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Figure 4 Working with Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Figure 39 Draw Filing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Figure 5 Safety With Compressed Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Figure 40 File-Cleaning with File Brush . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Figure 6 Clean Work Containers (Fume Cabinets) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Figure 41 Twist Drill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Figure 7 Types of Fire and Relevant Extinguishers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Figure 42 Drill Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Figure 8 Fighting Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Figure 43 Machine Spindle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Figure 9 Fod Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Figure 44 Drill Grinding Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Figure 10 Tool Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Figure 45 Grinding Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Figure 11 Typical Equipment Stores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Figure 46 Pillar Drill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Figure 12 Measurement Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Figure 47 Pillar Drill Work Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Figure 13 Number Prefix Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Figure 48 Hand-Held Drill Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Figure 14 Decimal And Metric Equivalent Of Inches . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Figure 49 Special Hand Held Drill Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Figure 15 Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Figure 50 Hand Drill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Figure 16 Scale Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Figure 51 Keyed Chuck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Figure 17 Set Square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Figure 52 Using The Drill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Figure 18 Radius Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Figure 53 Deburring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Figure 19 Protractor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Figure 54 Pillar Drill Clamping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Figure 20 Feeler Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Figure 55 Hand Drill Clamping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Figure 21 Blend Out Measurement Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Figure 56 Drill Stop and Drill Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Figure 22 Ball (Hole) Gauges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Figure 57 Nut Plate Drill Jig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Figure 23 Temperature Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Figure 58 Hole Finder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Figure 24 Marking Out Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Figure 59 Drill Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Figure 25 Marking-Out Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Figure 60 Drill Size Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Figure 26 Scribing Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Figure 61 RPM Table IV - 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Figure 27 Vernier Height Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Figure 62 RPM Table IV - 1 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Figure 28 Uses of Combination Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Figure 63 RPM Table IV - 1 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Figure 29 Punches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Figure 64 RPM Table IV - 1 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Figure 30 Saws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Figure 65 RPM Table IV - 1 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Figure 31 Saw Blade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Figure 66 RPM Table IV - 1 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Figure 32 Sawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Figure 67 Table IV - 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Figure 33 File Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Figure 68 Table IV - 2 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Figure 34 File Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Figure 69 Table IV - 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Figure 35 File Cuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Figure 70 Table IV - 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
HAM US/F-5 Krueger Dec.2005

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Figure 71 Table IV - 4 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Figure 106 Holes for Tapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Figure 72 Table IV - 4 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Figure 107 Tapping Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Figure 73 Table IV - 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Figure 108 Torque Wrenches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Figure 74 Table IV - 5 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Figure 109 Torque Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Figure 75 Basic Types Of Fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Figure 110 Micrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Figure 76 ISO Fits (Hole Basis) - British Standard 4500 . . . . . . . . 159 Figure 111 Reading Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Figure 77 Table Of Defect Criteria (ATA-Chapter 51--40--05) . . . . 161 Figure 112 Reading Examples (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Figure 78 Reamer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Figure 113 Micrometer Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Figure 79 Space Of Cutting Edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Figure 114 Vernier Calliper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Figure 80 Machine Reamer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Figure 115 Vernier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Figure 81 Hand Reamer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Figure 116 Principle of a Vernier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Figure 82 Pilot and Pilot Chuck Reamer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 ............................................................ 237
Figure 83 Expansion Hand Reamer and Taper Reamer . . . . . . . . . 173 Figure 117 Vernier Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Figure 84 Adjustable Hand Reamer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 ............................................................ 238
Figure 85 Table V - 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Figure 118 Vernier Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Figure 86 Table V - 1 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 Figure 119 Vernier Reading Examples 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Figure 87 Table V - 1 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Figure 120 Vernier Reading Examples 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Figure 88 Table V - 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Figure 121 Vernier Measuring Precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Figure 89 Table V - 2 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Figure 122 Dial Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Figure 90 Table V - 2 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Figure 123 Dial Indicator Work Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Figure 91 Table V- 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Figure 124 Off-Hand Grinding Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Figure 92 Table V - 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Figure 125 Lubrication Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Figure 93 Table V - 5 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Figure 126 Lubrication Symbol Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Figure 94 Reaming Advice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Figure 127 B737 Main Landing Gear Lubrication Example . . . . . . 255
Figure 95 Example Table Of Sheet Thickness For Countersinking 193 Figure 128 Lubrication Fitting Modification and Installation . . . . . . 257
Figure 96 Standard Countersink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Figure 129 Greaser Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Figure 97 Typical Microstop Countersink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Figure 130 Greaser Table (Cont’d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Figure 98 Microstop Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Figure 131 A320 Lubrication Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Figure 99 Back Countersinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Figure 132 Electrical Test Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Figure 100 Spotfacer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Figure 133 Bond Testing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Figure 101 Cutting Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Figure 134 A-Series Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Figure 102 Cutting Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Figure 135 SCALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Figure 103 Hand Threading Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Figure 136 Standard Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Figure 104 Hand Tapping Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Figure 137 Standard Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Figure 105 Types of Taps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Figure 138 Standard Example 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

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Figure 139 Engineering Drawing -- Standard Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Figure 174 Extracts From Airbus SRM -- 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Figure 140 Types And Use Of Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 Figure 175 Extracts From Airbus SRM -- 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Figure 141 Break Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Figure 176 Extracts From Airbus SRM -- 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Figure 142 Repetitive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 Figure 177 Extracts From Airbus SRM -- 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Figure 143 Common Drawing Symbols -- Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 Figure 178 Extracts From Airbus SRM -- 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Figure 144 Common Drawing Symbols -- Recessed Holes . . . . . . 319 Figure 179 Outer Airbrakes - Wear Limits (A300) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Figure 145 Typical Conventions and Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 Figure 180 Twist Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Figure 146 Surface Texture Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 Figure 181 Using Dial Test Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Figure 147 First Angle Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 Figure 182 Safety precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Figure 148 Third Angle Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 Figure 183 General Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Figure 149 Sectional View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 Figure 184 General installation (cont) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Figure 150 PART, HALF AND STAGGERED SECTIONS . . . . . . . 331 Figure 185 Wire Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Figure 151 AUXILIARY VIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 Figure 186 Clamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Figure 152 DIMENSIONING FROM A COMMON DATUM . . . . . . 335 Figure 187 Clamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Figure 153 Dimensional Tolerance Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 Figure 188 Clamp mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Figure 154 Detail Drawing 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 Figure 189 Clamp Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Figure 155 Detail Drawing 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 Figure 190 Raceway Clamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Figure 156 Assembly Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Figure 191 Harpoon Tie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Figure 157 Installation Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 Figure 192 Pressure bulkhead sealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Figure 158 Exploded - View Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 Figure 193 Bundle Ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Figure 159 Schematic Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 Figure 194 Knots for wire bundle ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Figure 160 Wiring Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Figure 195 Tying to protect wire bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Figure 161 Drawing Storage Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 Figure 196 Wire bundle tying examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Figure 162 Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 Figure 197 Plastic wire ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Figure 163 Types Of Fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 Figure 198 Repair of wire and cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Figure 164 BS 4500: Limits and Fits For Engineering . . . . . . . . . . 360 Figure 199 Repair of cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
Figure 165 Extracts From Airbus SRM -- 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 Figure 200 Circuit breaker terminal insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Figure 166 Extracts From Airbus SRM -- 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 Figure 201 Spare Wires Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Figure 167 Extracts From Airbus SRM -- 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 Figure 202 Wire stripping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Figure 168 Extracts From Airbus SRM -- 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Figure 203 Split shell construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Figure 169 Extracts From Airbus SRM -- 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 Figure 204 Assembled connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Figure 170 Extracts From Airbus SRM -- 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 Figure 205 Contact groove codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Figure 171 Extracts From Airbus SRM -- 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 Figure 206 Contact arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Figure 172 Extracts From Airbus SRM -- 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 Figure 207 Contact marking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Figure 173 Extracts From Airbus SRM -- 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 Figure 208 Environmental seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447

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Figure 209 Seal Plug insertion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449 Figure 244 Solid Rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
Figure 210 Examples of part numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451 Figure 245 Fastener Edge Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
Figure 211 Coax connector process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453 Figure 246 Dimensions for Driving Non-Fluid-Tight Solid Rivets
Figure 212 Polarisation keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455 (Boeing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
Figure 213 Polarisation coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 Figure 247 Grip Ranges/Recommended Lengths: Standard
Aluminium Alloy Rivets (Boeing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
Figure 214 Rear release contacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Figure 248 Dimensions for Driving Non-Fluid-Tight Solid Rivets
Figure 215 Front release contacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461 (Boeing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
Figure 216 Crimping Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 Figure 249 Dimensions for Driving Fluid-Tight Solid Rivets (Boeing) . . . . . . .
Figure 217 Crimping check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465 527
Figure 218 Soldering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467 Figure 250 Standard Drill Sizes & Decimal Equivalents . . . . . . . . . 529
Figure 219 Solder contacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 Figure 251 Fuel Tank Fastener Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
Figure 220 Solder sleeve pigtails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471 Figure 252 Dimpling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
Figure 221 Crimped breakout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473 Figure 253 Rivet Guns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
Figure 222 PIDG Terminals & Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475 Figure 254 Rivet Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
Figure 223 Crimping of Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477 Figure 255 Rivet Squeezers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
Figure 224 Crimping of splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479 Figure 256 Minimum Part Thickness for 100o Countersinking . . . 541
Figure 225 Strato-therm Pre-insulated Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481 Figure 257 Underhead Radius/Chamfer Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
Figure 226 Crimping post-insulated splce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483 Figure 258 Bucking Bars - Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
Figure 227 Closed End Splice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485 Figure 259 Upset Rivet Dimension (Airbus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
Figure 228 Crimping spare wire caps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487 Figure 260 Formed Head Defects and Limits (Airbus) 1 . . . . . . . . 548
Figure 229 Multiple wire crimping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489 Figure 261 Formed Head Defects and Limits (Airbus) 2 . . . . . . . . 549
Figure 230 Crimping inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491 Figure 262 Acceptable Limits for Cracks (Airbus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
Figure 231 Phase coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493 Figure 263 Cracks Analysis: Shop Head (Boeing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
Figure 232 Terminal strips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495 Figure 264 Cracks Analysis: Non-Fluid-Tight Rivets (Boeing) . . . . 553
Figure 233 Terminal installation and bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497 Figure 265 Cracks Analysis: Fluid-Tight Rivets (Boeing) . . . . . . . . 554
Figure 234 Terminal blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499 Figure 266 Gap Analysis: Rivet Heads/Tails (Boeing) . . . . . . . . . . 555
Figure 235 Crimping terminal block contacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501 Figure 267 Solid Rivet Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
Figure 236 Terminal modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503 Figure 268 Correct Tube Alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
Figure 237 Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505 Figure 269 Clamp Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
Figure 238 Bonding resistance measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507 Figure 270 Connection Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
Figure 239 Grounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509 Figure 271 Flareless Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
Figure 240 Measurement of grounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511 Figure 272 Single Flare Fittings and Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
Figure 241 Measurement of insulation resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 Figure 273 Flared Fitting Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
Figure 242 Continuity testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515 Figure 274 Double Flare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
Figure 243 Coax Cable Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517 Figure 275 Harrison-Type Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575

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Figure 276 Permaswage Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577 Figure 311 Typical Remote Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
Figure 277 Tube Bender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 Figure 312 Types of Teleflex Cable and Typical Sliding End Fittings . . . . . . .
Figure 278 Tube Bender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581 661
Figure 279 Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583 Figure 313 Teleflex System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
Figure 280 Tube Bending to Requested Dimension 1 . . . . . . . . . . 585 Figure 314 Teleflex Distributor Box and Torsion Drive . . . . . . . . . . 665
Figure 281 Tube Bending to Requested Dimension 2 . . . . . . . . . . 587 Figure 315 Teleflex Conduit Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
Figure 282 Tube Bending to Requested Dimension 3 . . . . . . . . . . 589 Figure 316 Assembly of Teleflex Sliding End Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
Figure 283 Flexible Hoses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593 Figure 317 Bowden Control Components 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
Figure 284 Reusable Hose Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595 Figure 318 Bowden Control Components 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673
Figure 285 Installation Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597 Figure 319 Bend Radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679
Figure 286 Installation Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599 Figure 320 Bending Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
Figure 287 Lubrication of Hydraulic Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601 Figure 321 Example Of Test Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
Figure 288 Adjustment of Torque Value (Hydraulic Fittings) . . . . . 603 Figure 322 Example For Calculating The Flat Layout . . . . . . . . . . . 685
Figure 289 Torque Witness Marking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605 Figure 323 Calculation Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
Figure 290 Airbus A340 Main Landing Gear Lock Springs . . . . . . 609 Figure 324 Folding Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
Figure 291 Common Anti-Friction Bearing Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613 Figure 325 Folding Machine (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
Figure 292 Bearing Defects 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615 Figure 326 Bending By Hammering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
Figure 293 Bearing Defects 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617 Figure 327 Bending By Hammering (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693
Figure 294 Bearing Installation Tooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619 Figure 328 Bending By Hammering (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
Figure 295 Bearing Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621 Figure 329 Hydraulic Folding Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
Figure 296 Standard Chain Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625 Figure 330 Production Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698
Figure 297 Chain Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627 Figure 331 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701
Figure 298 Typical Chain Assembly Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629 Figure 332 Step Curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
Figure 299 Non-Reversible Chain Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631 Figure 333 Profile for a Ramp and Soak Cure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707
Figure 300 Location of THS Drive Belts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635 Figure 334 Vacuum Bag Setup: Moisture Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . 711
Figure 301 B737 Stabilizer Ball Nut and Jackscrew Inspection . . 637 Figure 335 Typical Bagging Operation With Heat Blanket . . . . . . . 715
Figure 302 Types of Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639 Figure 336 NDT Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719
Figure 303 Build-Up of Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643 Figure 337 Ultrasonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721
Figure 304 Cable Inspection (A320) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645 Figure 338 Radiographic Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
Figure 305 Pulley Inspection (AMM A320) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647 Figure 339 Welding and Allied Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727
Figure 306 Hand-Operated Rolling Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649 Figure 340 Stationary Welding Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
Figure 307 Inserting Cable in Terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651 Figure 341 Portable Oxyacetylene Welding and Cutting Equipment . . . . . . .
731
Figure 308 Gauging Terminal Shank After Swaging . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
Figure 342 Oxyacetylene Welding Torches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733
Figure 309 Pull Tester AT520CT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
Figure 343 Oxyacetylene Cutting Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
Figure 310 Cable Tensionmeter Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657

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Figure 344 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739 Figure 379 CG Range and MAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 822
Figure 345 GTAW Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741 Figure 380 Mean Aerodynamic Chord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824
Figure 346 Gas Metal Arc Welding Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743 Figure 381 Mean Aerodynamic Chord Boeing 747--400 . . . . . . . . . 826
Figure 347 GMAW Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745 Figure 382 Weight determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830
Figure 348 Electron Beam Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747 Figure 383 Determination MATOW / MALW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 832
Figure 349 Electron Beam Welder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749 Figure 384 Weight and Balance Record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834
Figure 350 Resistance Spot Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751 Figure 385 Type Certificate Data Sheet ( CONCORDE ) . . . . . . . . 836
Figure 351 Resistance Seam Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753 Figure 386 Leveling Line and Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 838
Figure 352 Projection Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755 Figure 387 Leveling means B747--400 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840
Figure 353 Inertia Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757 Figure 388 Weighing points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 842
Figure 354 Brazing / Soldering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759 Figure 389 Weight and Balance Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844
Figure 355 Brazing / Soldering Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761 Figure 390 Tare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846
Figure 356 Soldering Process (cont.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763 Figure 391 Aircraft weighing on platform scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848
Figure 357 Induction Brazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767 Figure 392 Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
Figure 358 Radiographic and Ultrasonic Weld Inspection . . . . . . . 775 Figure 393 Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852
Figure 359 Bonding Process ( Fundamental ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781 Figure 394 Example 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 854
Figure 360 Definition of wetting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 782 Figure 395 Example 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 856
Figure 361 Capillary action between two surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783 Figure 396 Example 4 cont’d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858
Figure 362 Adhesion / Coherence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785 Figure 397 Load and Trim Sheet Explanation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861
Figure 363 Effect on surface roughening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 787 Figure 398 Typical Load and Trim Sheet B747--400 . . . . . . . . . . . . 862
Figure 364 Typical Bonding Overloads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788 Figure 399 Exercise 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865
Figure 365 Influence of Bondline Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791 Figure 400 Exercise 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 867
Figure 366 Bonding Thickness/Overlap Comparisons . . . . . . . . . . 793 Figure 401 Exercise 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 869
Figure 367 Typical bonding examples 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795 Figure 402 Exercise 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
Figure 368 Typical bonding examples 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797 Figure 403 Exercise 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 873
Figure 369 Stress distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 799 Figure 404 Taxiing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 877
Figure 370 Curing times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803 Figure 405 Towing via Nose Landing Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 879
Figure 371 Bonding process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 805 Figure 406 Towing via Main Landing Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 881
Figure 372 Manual Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808 Figure 407 Lifting and Shoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883
Figure 373 Aircraft Datum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 810 Figure 408 Jacking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885
Figure 374 Stability and Balance Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 812 Figure 409 Landing Gear Jacking Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887
Figure 375 Center of Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 814 Figure 410 Examples of Protection Devices on Fuselage . . . . . . . 889
Figure 376 Arm and Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816 Figure 411 Parking Intervals (Not More Than 2 Days) . . . . . . . . . . 891
Figure 377 Weight distribution on an Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 818 Figure 412 Protection Devices on Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 893
Figure 378 CG Calculation ( Example ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820 Figure 413 Parking Intervals (not more than 12 weeks) . . . . . . . . . 895

Page xiii
P66 B1 M7 E
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 414 Aircraft Storage - Inspection Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 897 Figure 449 Seal Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997
Figure 415 A/C Storage - Inspection Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 899 Figure 450 Sealant Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999
Figure 416 Typical Fuelling/Defuelling Safety Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . 907 Figure 451 Sealant Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1001
Figure 417 Anti-Icing 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909 Figure 452 Sealant Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1003
Figure 418 Anti Icing 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911 Figure 453 Fuel Tank Fillet Seal Build-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005
Figure 419 Anti Icing 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 913 Figure 454 Fuel Tank Fillet Seal Build-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007
Figure 420 Anti-Icing Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915 Figure 455 Installation of Seal Caps in Fuel Tank Areas . . . . . . . . 1009
Figure 421 Examples of Ground Servicing Equipment . . . . . . . . . . 917 Figure 456 Aramid Composite Panels B 737 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013
Figure 422 Defect Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 921 Figure 457 Mixing of Sealant Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015
Figure 423 Visual Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923 Figure 458 Semkit Cartridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1017
Figure 424 Endoscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 925 Figure 459 Hand-Mixing with SEMKIT Cartridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1019
Figure 425 Typical Light Probe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 927 Figure 460 Cleaning Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021
Figure 426 Penetrant Dye Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 929 Figure 461 Sealant Application Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023
Figure 427 Magnetic Flaw Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 931 Figure 462 Sealant Cutting Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025
Figure 428 Types of Structural Damage 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 935 Figure 463 Typical Lightning Strike Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1029
Figure 429 Types of Structural Damage 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 937 Figure 464 Radiation Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031
Figure 430 Drilling Out Seized Screw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 939 Figure 465 Hard Nose Gear Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1033
Figure 431 Corrosion Removal Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943 Figure 466 Example of Designed-In Safety Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035
Figure 432 Abrasive Bead-Blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945 Figure 467 Maintenance Steering Group (MSG-3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1055
Figure 433 Different Paint Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 959 Figure 468 Maintenance Steering Group (MSG-3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1057
Figure 434 Paint Build-Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 961 Figure 469 Maintenance Checks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1059
Figure 435 Influence of Humidity by Application of Primer I . . . . . 963 Figure 470 Store and Supplies Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
Figure 436 Influence of Humidity by Application of Primer II . . . . . 965 Figure 471 Sample: Release-To-Service Certificate . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
Figure 437 Epoxy-Primer Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 967 Figure 472 Time to Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
Figure 438 Top Coat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 969
Figure 439 Electrostatic Coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 971
Figure 440 Corrosion Inihibitor & Water Repellent . . . . . . . . . . . . . 973
Figure 441 Clamping Prior To Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 977
Figure 442 Removal of Bonded Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 979
Figure 443 Fillet Seal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 985
Figure 444 Injection Seal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 987
Figure 445 Faying Surface Seal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 989
Figure 446 Aerodynamic Smoother . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 991
Figure 447 Fastener Seal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 993
Figure 448 Electrical Seal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995

Page xiv

M7 Maintenance Practices

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Fundamentals

EASA Part-66 Cat. B1

Tel: +49 (0)40 5070 2520

M 7.1 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS - AIRCRAFT AND WORKSHOP

S Eliminate the hazard Therefore, employees are responsible for

HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec.2005 Page: 2

with extreme tempera- ment

Figure 1 Industrial Injuries

HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec.2005 Page: 4

Everyone under- Each person should Team leader positions

Figure 2 Individual and Team Lifting

-- use the applicable lubricant.

HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec.2005 Page: 6

SAFE WORKING ENVIRONMENT

Figure 3 Workshop and Hangar Safety

HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec.2005 Page: 8

Figure 4 Working with Electricity

HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec.2005 Page: 10

Figure 5 Safety With Compressed Air

OILS AND CHEMICALS

HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec.2005 Page: 12

Filter Work Sur- Work

Exhaust Fan Pre-Filter Pre-Filter

CLEAN WORK BOXES CLEAN WORK STATIONS

Figure 6 Clean Work Containers (Fume Cabinets)

FIRE FIGHTING Halogenated Hydrocarbon

HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec.2005 Page: 14

Figure 7 Types of Fire and Relevant Extinguishers

HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec.2005 Page: 16

Close door to confine fire

If safe to do so, fight fire

If fire cannot be controlled, evacuate

Notify fire brigade

Figure 8 Fighting Fires

FOREIGN OBJECT DEBRIS (FOD)

HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec.2005 Page: 18

Ensure all loose articles are removed ...

Aircraft engines make very

Figure 9 Fod Examples

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HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec.2005 Page: 20

M 7.2 WORKSHOP PRACTISES

HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec.2005 Page: 21

TOOL HUSBANDRY TOOL CALIBRATION

HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec.2005 Page: 22

Figure 10 Tool Control

USE OF WORKSHOP MATERIALS

at an even dry temperature to minimise the effects of condensation. Very often,

HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec.2005 Page: 24

Figure 11 Typical Equipment Stores

DIMENSIONS, ALLOWANCES & TOLERANCES

HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec.2005 Page: 26

Figure 12 Measurement Systems

HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec.2005 Page: 28

Figure 13 Number Prefix Table

MEASUREMENT UNIT SYSTEM

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HAM US/F-5 KrC Dec.2005 Page: 31

English Length System Metric Length System

1/2 in = 25.4 2 = 12.7 mm

1/4 in = 25.4 4 = 6.35 mm

1/8 in =25,4 8 = 3.18 mm

3/16 in = 25.4 16 x 3 = 4.76 mm