A Level Physics Practicals

A Level Physics
Skills, Practicals and Analysis

Definitions Prefixes Means and Anomalous Results
Significant Figures Significant Figures 2 Calculating Errors
Calculating Errors 2 Identifying Errors Points Plotting
Lines of Best Fit Gradients Gradients Equations
Gradient Equations 2 Interpreting Graphs Tangents
Vernier Callipers and Micrometers Describing Experiments Describing Experiments 2
Rearranging & Deriving Equations Rearranging & Deriving Equations 2 Units
Photon Energy Analysis Resolving Forces to find Weight Practical

Quarks, Hadrons and Leptons Analysis Moments Practical
The Threshold Frequency Analysis Rolling Down a Ramp Practical
Line Spectra Analysis Acceleration Due to Gravity Practical
de Broglie Wavelength Analysis Terminal Velocity Practical
I-V Graphs Practical Bouncing Ball Practical
Ohm’s Law Analysis Work Done Practical
Light Dependent Resistors Practical Conservation of Energy Analysis
Thermistor Thermometer Practical The Spring Constant Practical
Resistivity of Copper Practical Finding the Young Modulus Practical
Resistivity of Copper Analysis Finding the Young Modulus Analysis
Resistivity of a Metal Wire Practical Loading and Unloading Practical
Series and Parallel Circuits Practical The Speed of Waves in Water Practical
EMF and Internal Resistance Practical Electromagnetic Speed Analysis
EMF and Internal Resistance Analysis Phase Difference of Pendulums Practical
Potential Dividers Practical Sound Waves in a Column of Air Analysis
Oscilloscope Traces Analysis Finding the Refractive Index Practical
Finding the Refractive Index Analysis
Interference of Sound Analysis
Laser Diffraction Practical
Braking Force Analysis The Nuclear Radius Constant Analysis

Impulse Analysis Radioactive Decay Practical
Circular Motion Practical Half-Life and the Decay Constant Analysis
Finding g with a Simple Pendulum Practical The Inverse Square Law Analysis
Finding k with a Mass and Spring Practical Binding Energy Analysis
SHM Oscillations of a Spring Practical E=mc2 Analysis
V Shaped Pendulum Practical Ideal Gases Analysis
Damping Analysis Finding Absolute Zero Practical
The Gravitational Constant Analysis Finding Absolute Zero Analysis
Gravitational Potential Analysis Specific Heat Capacity Practical
Kepler’s Third Law Analysis
Electric Potential Analysis
Finding ε0 Analysis
Capacitance Analysis
Discharging Capacitors Practical
Capacitor Time Constant Analysis
Capacitor Discharge Practical
Mass Spectrometer Analysis
Magnetic Flux Density Analysis
Transformers Analysis
Skills Sheet 1
Definitions
Define the following words:
Independent variable Calibration
Dependent variable Random error
Control variable Systematic error
Continuous variable Zero error
Discrete variable Mean value
Ordered variable Anomalous results
Categoric variable Line of best fit
Accuracy Gradient
Precision Y-Intercept
Reliability
How do you improve the precision of a reading?

How do could you improve the reliability of your results?
If a weighing scale read 20g when nothing was placed on it how would you describe it?
If you used this to find the masses of different samples of metal what type of error would it produce?
How could you calculate the true value for each of the masses?
How do you calculate a mean value of 4 readings?
If all your readings are to 2 significant figures how many sig fig can your mean value be? Why?
Which type of variable would the following be classed as:

Height in cm? Favourite chocolate bar?
Gender? Current in Amps?
Dress size? Smelliness?
Attractiveness? Age in days?
Distance in m? pH?
Brightness? Pressure in Pa?
Volume of CO2 produced in m3? Loudness?
Temperature in Fahrenheit? T-Shirt size?
If T represents the true value which of the graphs below represents:

A. Precise and accurate? C. Accurate but not precise?
B. Precise but not accurate? D. Neither accurate nor precise?
Skills Sheet 2
Prefixes
In Physics we have to deal with quantities from the very large to the very small. A prefix is something that goes in
front of a unit and acts as a multiplier. This sheet will give you practice at converting figures between prefixes.
Symbol Name What it means How to convert

P peta 1015 1000000000000000 ↓ x1000
T tera 1012 1000000000000 ↑ ÷ 1000 ↓ x1000
G giga 109 1000000000 ↑ ÷ 1000 ↓ x1000
M mega 106 1000000 ↑ ÷ 1000 ↓ x1000
k kilo 103 1000 ↑ ÷ 1000 ↓ x1000
1 ↑ ÷ 1000 ↓ x1000
m milli 10-3 0.001 ↑ ÷ 1000 ↓ x1000
μ micro 10-6 0.000001 ↑ ÷ 1000 ↓ x1000
n nano 10-9 0.000000001 ↑ ÷ 1000 ↓ x1000
p pico 10-12 0.000000000001 ↑ ÷ 1000 ↓ x1000
f femto 10-15 0.000000000000001 ↑ ÷ 1000
Convert the figures into the prefixes required.

s ms μs ns ps
134.6
96.21
0.773
m km mm Mm Gm
12873
0.295
57.23
kg Mg mg g Gg
94.76
0.000765
823.46
A mA μA nA kA
0.000000678
3.56
0.00092
Skills
N. DWYER Means and Anomalous Results
For each set of values calculate the mean and then calculate the mean ignoring any anomalous results.
1 2 3 Mean
4152 2996 4018
935.5 925.8 926.7
16.2 19.1 17.4
80.1316 80.1324 80.1466
2229 2011 1610
127.664 127.416 127.489
55.88 11.97 37.59
3.767 3.763 3.751
375.5 511.5 463.4
1048 888 1655
0.507 0.415 0.230
27145 25157 26017
1450 1014 2238
9104.32 10529.45 9160.97
1 2 3 4 Mean
63.10 62.97 62.53 62.99
465.98 463.40 466.96 155.56
3.61 7.39 3.55 3.64
73.71 70.98 74.19 72.38
2.058 1.566 2.078 1.787
416 402 189 986
700653 739762 742471 726161
2670887 2670901 2669942 2670733
110.4 260.1 1044.2 488.8
1 2 3 4 5 Mean
140 220 90 180 140
56300 41200 58600 48300 53800
0.186 0.341 0.276 0.216 0.314
1.427 0.235 0.488 1.922 1.620
34 62 46 12 39
326.19 360.22 314.20 352.22 400.18
1.4 5.3 2.7 3.9 2.6
Skills Sheet 3
Significant Figures
For each value state how many significant figures it is stated to.
Value Sig Figs Value Sig Figs Value Sig Figs Value Sig Figs
2 1066 1800.45 0.07
2.0 82.42 2.483 x 104 69324.8
2.00 750000 2.483 0.0063
0.136 310 5906.4291 9.81 x 104
0.34 3.10 x 102 200000 6717
54.1 3.1 x 102 12.711 0.91
Add the values below then write the answer to the appropriate number of significant figures
Value 1 Value 2 Value 3 Total Value Total to correct sig figs
51.4 1.67 3.23
7146 –32.54 12.8
20.8 18.72 0.851
1.4693 10.18 –1.062
9.07 0.56 3.14
739762 26017 2.058
8.15 0.002 106
132.303 4.123 53800
152 0.8 0.55
0.1142 4922388 132000
Multiply the values below then write the answer to the appropriate number of significant figures
Value 1 Value 2 Total Value Total to correct sig figs
0.91 1.23
8.764 7.63
2.6 31.7
937 40.01
0.722 634.23
Divide value1 by value 2 then write the answer to the appropriate number of significant figures
Value 1 Value 2 Total Value Total to correct sig figs
5.3 748
3781 6.434
91 x 102 180
5.56 22 x 10-3
3.142 8.314
Skills Sheet 4
Significant Figures 2
For each value state how many significant figures it is stated to.
Value Sig Figs Value Sig Figs Value Sig Figs Value Sig Figs
2.863 689671.49 100000 6.4981 x 107
100 356865 8.5 x 10-3 7.85
24.92 13 6400 17.99
5.18 x 1027 182.15 875.4 3.189 x 106
2.8 4.267 94 0.053
2.9970 0.02 94.0 0.422
Calculate the mean of the values below then write the answer to the appropriate number of significant figures
Value 1 Value 2 Value 3 Mean Value Mean to correct sig figs
1 1 2
435 299 4130
500 600 900
3.038 4.925 3.6
720 498 168
1655 2996 140
0.230 925.8 56300
26017 19.1 0.186
2238 80.1324 1.427
9160.97 2011 34
62.99 127.416 326.19
155.56 11.97 1.4
3.64 3.763 700653
72.38 511.5 2670887
1.787 888 110.4
986 0.415 62.97
726161 25157 463.40
2670733 1014 7.39
488.8 10529.45 70.98
0.186 140 1.566
1.427 53800 402
34 0.314 739762
326.19 1.620 2670901
1.4 39 260.1
Skills Sheet 5
Calculating Errors
Complete the table.
Variable Reading 1 Reading 2 Reading 3 Mean Value Uncertainty % Uncertainty
A 121 118 119
B 599 623 593
C 3.3 3.6 3.2
What would be the percentage error in the following quantities?
A2 CB
AB ABC
C A2C
B B
Complete the table.

D 17 17 17
E 42.5 42.8 42.1
F 3.60 3.28 3.73
G 757 714 739
D3 F EFG 3
GE 2 F EGD 2
G2 DG
DE FE
AFD F 2 B 2G
Complete the table.

H 58205 58309 58193
I 82.3 81.4 82.8
J 1985 1988 1980
K 43 19 27
2 4
H K HI
J3
AEI K
KFC JFK
K 4I I 2 JK
ABCDEF BEI
ADH
GHIJK CFJ 2
Skills Sheet 6
Calculating Errors 2
Complete the table.
Variable 1 2 3 4 Mean Value Uncertainty % Uncertainty
L 11.49 11.56 11.63 10.53
M 385 322 408 328
N 2736 2729 2743 2643
O 5101 5108 5003 5098
P 125 137 167 142
Q 6124 6118 6510 6123
R 3.29 3.29 3.29 3.29
S 4589 4606 4644 4596
T 417 488 460 456
U 1.506 3.061 3.085 1.513
V 274 333 338 277
W 33.46 33.45 33.96 33.65
MO MO 2 N
OMLM N 3O
L NO 2
M L
NML LMON
P2 R QPR
SNO 2 P PMT
SR R2S
PM N2
(QR) 2 S TROL2
VR PO 2
QP
ST RUT
SWOT OWLS
O4P2 2 TUW 2 PN
N4 S
W2 MS 2 R
RUST WO 2 L
Skills Sheet 7
Identifying Errors
For each of the measurements listed below identify the most likely source of error what type of error this is and one
method of reducing it.
Measurement Source Type

A range of values are obtained for the
length of a copper wire
The reading for the current through a wire

is 0.74A higher for one group in the class
A beaker of hot water left on the desk

appears to have gained temperature
A mass of a beaker shows different values

on different balances
A range of values are obtained for the

bounce back height of a dropped ball
A few groups obtain different graphs of

resistance vs light intensity for an LDR
The time period (time of one oscillation) of

a pendulum
A range of values are obtained for the time

a parachute takes to reach the ground
from 0.5m
Skills Sheet 8
Points Plotting
You are going to practice plotting points on a graph. This skill carries up to 3 marks in the ISA.
x axis y axis x axis y axis x axis y axis

0.44 2.44 0.34 1.75 0.67 2.12
0.27 1.39 0.49 1.99 0.58 1.64
0.39 2.13 0.26 2.22 0.65 2.52
0.62 1.23 0.31 2.49 0.29 1.92
0.37 1.52 0.52 2.36 0.45 1.47
0.22 2.56 0.61 2.23 0.53 1.27
0.42 1.84 0.64 1.83 0.24 1.71
0.48 1.70 0.55 2.15 0.67 1.45
2.6
2.4
2.2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Skills Sheet 9
Lines of Best Fit
Draw a line of best fit for each of the graphs.
25 5
20 4
15 3
10 2
5 1
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 10 20 30 40 50
50 25
40 20
30 15
20 10
10 5
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 1 2 3 4 5
5 60
50
4
40
3
30
2
20
1
10
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 1 2 3 4 5
Skills Sheet 10
Gradients
Calculate the gradients of the graphs below. Work out the equation for the line.
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
0 120
-2 0 5 10 15 20 25 110
-4 100
-6 90
-8 80
70
-10
60
-12
50
-14 40
-16 30
-18 20
-20 4 6 8 10 12
4
0.14
3.5
3 0.12
2.5
0.1
2
0.08
1.5
1 0.06
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 17 19 21 23
Skills Sheet 11
N. Gradient Equations
Complete the table below about graphs and gradients
Equation Graph Rearrange Equation Gradient Intercept
y plotted on the y axis
y = mx + c y = mx + c m c
x plotted on the x axis
y axis = V
V = IR V = RI R 0
x axis = I
Q y axis = t
I=
t x axis = Q
RA y axis = l
=
l x axis = R
y axis = V
 = V + Ir
x axis = I
y axis = E/t
E = VIt
x axis = V
y axis = EK
hf =  + EK
x axis = f
h y axis = 1/v
=
mv x axis = m
y axis = mg
EP = mgh
x axis = EP
1 y axis = e
E= Fe
2 x axis = 1/F
y axis = 1/λ
c = f
x axis = f
y axis = a
v = u + at
x axis = 1/t
y axis = v2
v = u + 2as
2 2
x axis = s
(u + v) y axis = v
s= t
2 x axis = s
D y axis = λ
w=
s x axis = w
Skills Sheet 12
Gradient Equations 2
Complete the table below about graphs and gradients
Equation Graph Rearrange Equation Gradient Intercept
y plotted on the y axis
y = mx + c y = mx + c m c
x plotted on the x axis
y axis = V
V = IR V = RI R 0
x axis = I
(mv) y axis = v
F=
t x axis = F/m
y axis = r
F = m 2r
x axis = F/m
l y axis = l
T = 2
g x axis = g
m y axis = T2
T = 2
k x axis = m
GM y axis = M
g=−
r2 x axis = g
Qq y axis = F
F=
4 0 r 2 x axis = q/r2
Q y axis = V
C=
V x axis = Q
y axis = ln (Q/Q0)
Q = Q0 e −t / RC
x axis = t
 y axis = ε
=N
t x axis = N 
N S VS y axis = NP
=
N P VP x axis = NS
y axis = R3
R = r0 A
1
3
x axis = A
y axis = T
pV = nRT
x axis = V
y axis = T
Q = mcT
x axis = Q
Skills Sheet 13
Interpreting Graphs
Explain the relationship between the two variables shown in the graphs below.
Describe the general trend/relationshipIdentify sections of highest/lowest gradient
Quote any significant numerical valuesCalculate any gradients you can
200 4
Diameter of Parachute
Height (cm)
3.5
Needed (m)
150 3
2.5
100 2
1.5
50 1
0.5
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 2 4 6
Age (years) Mass of Load (kg)
140 100
Temperature (C)
Relative Strength of Gravity
120
80
100
80 60
60 40
40
20 20
0 0
-20 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25 2.5 2.75 3
0 20 40 60 80
Distance from the Surface of the Earth (Radii of
Time (minutes) the Earth)
25 100
Rate of Enzyme Activity
Bacteria Growth from Test
C
20 80
B
Spot (cm)
15 60
10 40
A
5 20
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time Incubated (days) Temperature (C)
6 5
Velocity (m/s)
Distance from Start (m)
5 4
4
3
3
2
2
1 1
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (s) Time (s)

Skills Sheet 14
Tangents
Draw tangents to the line at the following values along the x-axis: 225, 360, 630 and 1035
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720 810 900 990 1080
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
Draw a tangent to the line and calculate its gradient at the following x-axis values:
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
-10 -10
-20 -20
-30 -30
-40 -40
-50 -50
-60 -60
-70 -70
-80 -80
-90 -90
-100 -100
2.0 and 3.9 1.5 and 3.0
50 120
45
100
40
35
80
30
25 60
20
40
15
10
20
5
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4
2.2 and 4.0 1.6 and 3.4

Skills Sheet 15
Vernier Callipers and Micrometers
State the reading on the Vernier Callipers to the left and the micrometers to the right.
Skills Sheet 16
Describing Experiments
The last question of the ISA often requires the description of an experiment to support a theory.
Change – Which variables will you keep the same and which will you change?
Range – Give specific values for the variables you will use.
Calculate – What will you calculate or plot?
Conclude – What result will help you either prove or disprove the theory?
GCSE.A student suggests that if an egg was dropped from different heights the area of splatter would increase as the
height increases but only until a certain point. How could you investigate this?
GCSE.Is the flight time of a paper plane directly proportional to the angle of the nose (θ), the sine of the angle (sinθ)
or neither?
GCSE.What is the relationship between the time that a fizzy pop bottle is shook up for and the volume of liquid that
is lost when the bottle is opened?
U1. How could you investigate the theory that the surface temperature of a resistor is directly proportional to the
current flowing through it?
U1. A battery with internal resistance r is connected in series with a resistor of resistance R. A student suggests that
the power of the resistor will be a maximum when it has a value equal to the internal resistance of the battery.
U1. How could you investigate the connection between the temperature at which a resistor stops obeying Ohm’s
law and the value of the resistor?
U1. The photoelectric effect experiment is set up so that photoelectrons are released. How could you prove that the
intensity does affect the rate of electron emission but only when above the threshold frequency?
U1. A potato can be used as a battery if electrodes of copper and zinc are inserted into it. Explain how you could find
the internal resistance and the emf of the potato using resistors of 5 different values.
U1. How could you find the relationship between the resistivity of a metal and the temperature?
U2. Water is placed in a plastic tray, one end it raised, dropped and the speed of the water wave is measured. A
student suggests that the speed of the wave depends on the height of the water in the tray. How could you prove
this?
U2. A cylinder of solid metal is rolled down a ramp and the speed is calculated from the distance rolled and the time
taken to roll. There is a suggestion that if the cylinder was hollow it would be affect more by the air resistance. How
could you investigate this?
U2. How could you investigate whether or not the critical angle of a Perspex block is affected by the colour of light
that is incident on the block?
U2. A fellow scientist suggests that the Young modulus of a material depends on the temperature of the material.
How could you find any possible relationship between the variables?
U2. A speaker is attached to the top of an open glass tube and set to give out a sound of fixed frequency. The bottom
of the tube is placed in water and the height is adjusted until the first harmonic is heard. There is a claim that the
height will vary depending on the diameter of the glass tube. How could you investigate this?
Skills Sheet 17
Describing Experiments 2
The last question of the ISA often requires the description of an experiment to support a theory.
Change – Which variables will you keep the same and which will you change?
Range – Give specific values for the variables you will use.
Calculate – What will you calculate or plot?
Conclude – What result will help you either prove or disprove the theory?
AS. Explain how it is possible to find the resistivity of a conducting material at room temperature. The material is a
cylinder of radius r and length l.
AS. Describe the experiment and accompanying calculations/graphs to find the Young modulus of a material of
original length l and cross sectional area A.
AS. Explain how to find the spring constant of a metal spring with five 100g masses and a 30 cm ruler.
AS. Describe the experimental set up and the graph you would draw to find the refractive index of a transparent
material. How would your graph give you an answer?
U4. A mass and spring system is set up with a piece of card placed between two of the masses. The time period of
this damped system is measured. It is suggested that the area of the card does not affect the time period but the
shape of the card does, how could you investigate this?
U4. A pendulum and a mass/spring system are set up to have the same time period of oscillation. You are to
investigate which SHM system will suffer the greatest degree of damping and conclude which will stop first.
U4. A capacitor has the capacitance and maximum voltage printed on the casing. How could you investigate that this
was the largest voltage allowed before the capacitor breaks?
U4. Car A is crashed into stationary car B. How could you investigate the theory that the collisions will be elastic
when car B has less mass than car A but inelastic when car B has an equal or greater mass than car A?
U4. How could you investigate whether the angle a pendulum is displaced from affects the time period?
U4. A student suggests that the efficiency of a transformer is directly proportional to the diameter of the wire which
is wrapped around the primary coil. How could you prove this theory, what would you plot on a graph and what
result would support the theory?
U5. A student uses a GM tube to investigate the inverse square law. How could she investigate if the inverse square
law holds true in all direction from an alpha source?
U5. Explain how it is possible to find the absolute zero temperature using air trapped in a glass tube in a science lab
which is well above the value itself.
U5. How could you find the constant of proportionality between the volume of a gas and the temperature when
investigating Charles’ gas law?
U5. With the use of a block of ice, a temperature probe and Bunsen burner that provides a constant energy supply,
explain how you could find out how many times bigger the specific latent heat of vaporisation is than the specific
latent heat of fusion.
Skills Sheet 18
Rearranging & Deriving Equations
Rearrange v 2 = u 2 + 2as to make a the subject
Substitute this into F = ma
Substitute this into the equation P = Fv
Substitute this into the equation E = Pt
s
Use v = to simplify the equation
t
h
Substitute v = u + at into the equation  =
mv
Multiply out the brackets
Substitute this into the equation d sin  = n
Rearrange the equation to find the angle to the 3rd

maxima
V RA
Substitute R = into the equation  =
I l
E
Substitute V = into the equation
Q
Substitute E = Pt into the equation
Q
Use I = to remove t from the equation
t
Simplify this
Elastic energy is converted into kinetic
Make v2 the subject
Replace this with v 2 = u 2 + 2as
If u=0 rearrange the equation to make a the subject
Use F = ma to make F the subject
Calculate the Energy stored using E = Fs if the

distance moved is e
Skills Sheet 19
Rearranging & Deriving Equations 2
The centripetal force of a satellite is due to the mv 2 GMm
=
gravitational force between it and the planet r r2
Simplify the equation and much as you can and
rearrange to make r the subject
v
Use  = to remove v from the equation
r
Simplify the equation and use  = 2f to replace ω
1
Use f = to remove f from the equation
T
− t / RC
Rearrange Q = Q0 e to make e −t / RC the subject
t
Make − the subject
RC
Rearrange the equation to make t the subject
The centripetal force of a charged particle is due to mv 2

= BQv
the magnetic force acting on it r
Rearrange the equation to make Q the subject
Q
Substitute = I into the equation
t
Use  = BA to remove B from the equation
− t
Rearrange N = N 0 e to make e − t the subject
Make − t the subject
ln 2
Substitute T 12 = into the equation

Rearrange E = mcT to make T the subject
Substitute this into the equation pV = nRT
F
Substitute p = into the equation
A
If the V is volume of a cube of side l, rearrange the
equation to make F the subject
Skills Sheet 20
Units
Write down the standard units for the following quantities.
Energy Work Done Time Constant
Wavelength Density Energy Stored
Frequency Tensile Strength Force on a Moving Charge
Current Tensile Stress Magnetic Flux
Potential Difference Refractive Index Magnetic Flux Density
Resistance Momentum Magnetic Flux Linkage
EMF Impulse Induced EMF
Resistivity Angular Displacement Intensity
Power Angular Speed Activity
Moment Time Period Half Life
Velocity Gravitational Field Strength Pressure
Acceleration Gravitational Potential Volume
Mass Electric Field Strength Temperature
Weight Electric Potential Specific Heat Capacity
Force Capacitance Specific Latent
There are 7 base units (SI units) which all other units can be derived from.
Length in metre,m Mass in kilogram,kg Time in second,s Electric Current in ampere,A
Thermodynamic Temperature in kelvin, K Amount of Substance in mole, mol Luminous Intensity in candela, cd
Write down the units for the following quantities in SI units.
Area Refractive Index
Volume Momentum
Current Force
Voltage Impulse
Resistance Planck’s Constant
Resistivity De Broglie Wavelength
Power Angular Displacement
Energy Angular Velocity
Distance Centripetal Acceleration
Speed Centripetal Force
Acceleration Gravitational Field Constant
Force Gravitational Potential
Work Done Electric Field Strength
Energy Electric Potential
Moment Permittivity of Free Space
Weight Capacitance
Power Time Constant
Gravitational Field Strength Energy Stored in a Capacitor
Pressure Magnetic Flux Density
Density Force on a Moving Charge
Spring Constant Magnetic Flux
Tensile Stress Induced EMF
Tensile Strain Activity
Young Modulus Binding Energy
Elastic Energy Stored Molar Gas Constant
Frequency Specific Heat Capacity
Wavelength Specific Latent Heat
Practical
Photon Energy
You are going to use the minimum voltages required for different LEDs to emit light to calculate Plank’s constant, h
Equipment List
Power Pack Photon Energy Array
Voltmeter Black Plastic Tube
Ammeter Leads
Task
• Connect the power pack to the Photon Energy Array and ensure that the correct terminals are connected
together. Select a voltage of 5V.
• Connect the voltmeter and ammeter to the Photon Energy Array.
• Turn the potential divider dial all the way to the left and select the LED of wavelength 430 nm.
• Calculate the frequency, f, of the light it will emit.
• Place the black tube over the LED and view from the other end.
• Turn the potential divider dial until light is only just emitted.
• Record the voltmeter reading.
• Take repeat readings and calculate the mean voltage, V, for that LED.
• Repeat this for LEDs of wavelengths 505, 560, 615, 655, 875 and 950 nm.
• Display your results for each LED in a table including a column of eV, where e is the charge of an electron and V is
the mean voltage.
• Plot a graph of eV on the y-axis against f on the x-axis.
• Draw a line of best fit for your data.
After the Experiment

What was the precision of the voltmeter?
Use the precision to calculate the uncertainty in your first reading for the voltage of the LED with wavelength 505.
What is the percentage uncertainty?
Calculate the uncertainty in your value of the mean voltage for this LED.
Use the precision to calculate the uncertainty in your first reading for the voltage of the LED with wavelength 605.
Calculate the uncertainty in your value of the mean voltage for this LED.
Use your graph to comment on the reliability of your results.

Calculate the gradient of your line of best fit.
What is the difference between your value and the accepted value of 6.63 x 10-34?
Calculate the percentage difference between your gradient and the accepted value.
Theory states that the line will have an equation of eV = hf , extrapolate your line of best fit so it cuts the y axis,
does your graph support the theory? Why / why not?
What do you think was the largest source of error in the experiment?
Explain your answer.
What is the name give to this type of error?
Analysis
Quarks, Hadrons and Leptons
You are going to use data on the fundamental particles to find the theoretical masses of some Hadrons.
Experimental Data
Percentage
Particle Mass (MeV) Mean Mass (MeV) Uncertainty in Mass
Uncertainty in Mean
u 4.6 5.1 5.3
d 7 9 8
s 172 153 155
c 1617 1442 1441
b 4126 4432 4192
t 195000 174000 171000
e 0.58 0.45 0.50
µ 104.9 105.4 106.8
τ 1823 1854 1654
Analysis
Calculate the mean masses for each of the particles.
Calculate the uncertainty in the mass reading for each particle. (This is equal to half the range of the values).
What is this as a percentage of the mean? (Divide the uncertainty by the mean value then multiply by 100).
Which has the lowest percentage uncertainty in the mean value?
How can we describe this value?
What is the quark composition of a proton?

Use the mean values to calculate the theoretical mass of a proton.
What is the percentage uncertainty in this value? (You should add the percentage uncertainties of the quarks used).
The actual rest mass of a proton is 938.3 MeV. What is the difference between this and your theoretical value?
What is the quark composition of a neutron?
Use the mean values to calculate the theoretical mass of a neutron.
What is the percentage uncertainty in this value?
The actual rest mass of a neutron is 939.6 MeV. What is the difference between this and your theoretical value?
What is the quark composition of a neutral pion?

Use the mean values to calculate the theoretical mass of a neutral pion.
The actual rest mass of a π0is 135.0 MeV. What is the difference between this and your theoretical value?
What is the quark composition of a positive pion?
Use the mean values to calculate the theoretical mass of a positive pion.
The actual rest mass of a π+is 139.6 MeV. What is the difference between this and your theoretical value?
What is the quark composition of a positive kaon?

Use the mean values to calculate the theoretical mass of a positive kaon.
The actual rest mass of a K+ is 493.7 MeV. What is the difference between this and your theoretical value?
What is the quark composition of a neutral kaon?
Use the mean values to calculate the theoretical mass of a neutral kaon.
The actual rest mass of a K0 is 497.7 MeV. What is the difference between this and your theoretical value?
Analysis
The Threshold Frequency
You are going to analyse data from an experiment investigating the photoelectric effect. Using the wavelengths of
the photons used and the speeds of the emerging electrons you will determine the threshold frequency of the metal.
Experimental Data
Here are the measured speeds of the emerging photoelectrons from the surface of the metal.
The Planck Constant = 6.63 x 10-34 Js Electron Rest Mass = 9.11 x 10-31 kg
Wavelength, λ (nm) Speed of Photoelectrons ( x 105 m/s)
300 8.55 8.56 8.53 8.56
200 12.07 12.07 12.09 12.08
150 14.77 14.82 19.22 14.78
120 17.05 17.09 17.06 17.06
100 19.10 19.07 19.07 19.08
Wavelength, λ Frequency, f Mean Speed, v Mean EK

(nm) ( x 1015 Hz) ( x 105 m/s) ( x 10-19 J)
300
200
150
120
100
Analysis
What were the dependent and independent variables in this investigation?
Use c = f to calculate the frequency of the photons for each wavelength.
Calculate the mean speed of the electrons given out for each wavelength.
Use E K = 1 2 mv 2 to calculate the mean kinetic energy (EK) of the emerging photoelectrons
Plot a graph of kinetic energy (on the y-axis) against the frequency (on the x-axis).
Draw a line of best fit and extrapolate this to so it cuts the x-axis.
Calculate the gradient of your line.
Theory states that the gradient should be equal to the Planck constant. What is the difference between you gradient
and the accepted value?
What is the percentage difference of your value from the accepted value?
The threshold frequency of the metal can be obtained from your x-intercept of your graph.
What value did you obtain for the threshold frequency?
The accepted value is 0.5 x 1015 Hz, what is the difference between your value and the accepted value?
Calculate the percentage difference from the accepted value.
Using either your graph or the equation hf =  + E K (MAX ) calculate the work function, 
The accepted value is 2.5x10-19 J. What is the difference between your value and the accepted value?
Calculate the uncertainty in the speed for the data from photons of wavelength 150 nm.
What is this as a percentage of the mean speed?
Analysis
Line Spectra
You are going to analyse the frequencies of photons emitted when electrons make transitions between different
energy levels in Hydrogen atoms.
The Paschen Series

Frequency, f Mean f Wavelength, λ Energy
Transition
(x 1014 Hz) (x 1014 Hz) (nm) Difference (eV)
6→3 2.79 2.72 2.71
5→3 2.39 2.28 2.35
4→3 1.68 1.62 1.50
The Balmer Series

Transition
6→2 7.27 7.33 7.36
5→2 6.54 7.26 6.93
4→2 6.23 6.17 6.11
3→2 4.51 4.61 4.59
The Lyman Series

Transition
6→1 3.35 3.01 3.21
5→1 3.19 3.24 3.05
4→1 3.12 3.16 2.99
3→1 2.77 2.94 3.02
2→1 2.37 2.53 2.48
Infrared >750 nm, Visible Light 750 – 400 nm, Ultra Violet 10 – 400 nm
Red (625–740), Orange (590–625), Yellow (565–590), Green (520–565), Cyan (500–520), Blue (435–500), Violet (380–435)
For each transition calculate the mean frequency of the photon emitted.
Use the wave speed equation, c = f to calculate the wavelength of the photon.
Using E = hf calculate the energy of the photon in Joules. Convert this to electronvolts and record it in the table.
What is the uncertainty in the frequency of the 4 → 3 transition?

Calculate this as a percentage of the mean frequency for this transition.
Calculate this as a percentage of the smallest frequency for this transition.
Calculate this as a percentage of the largest frequency for this transition.
For each transition state what type of photon from the EM Spectrum is emitted.
For photons in the Visible Light region of the EM Spectrum state which colour the photon would be.
If the ground state (n=1) has an energy of – 13.6 eV draw an energy level diagram for Hydrogen including values for
each energy level.
Analysis
de Broglie Wavelength
Electrons were accelerated to a range of speed and their de Broglie wavelengths were measured. Use this
experimental data to find a value for Planck’s constant.
Experimental Data
Here are the measured wavelengths of the electrons travelling at certain velocities.
Electron rest mass = 9.11 x 10-31 kg
Velocity, v De Broglie Wavelength, λ Mean λ 1/λ
(m/s) -4
(x 10 m) (x 10-4 m) ( m-1)
5 14.63 14.54 14.51
6 12.01 12.18 12.20
7 10.39 10.38 10.43
8 9.09 9.05 9.16
9 8.29 8.01 7.97
10 7.31 7.14 7.39
Analysis
What is the independent variable in this investigation?
What is the dependent variable in this investigation?
What is the precision of the wavelength measurements?

What is the precision of the velocity measurements?
What is the uncertainty in the velocity measurements?
Calculate the percentage uncertainty in the velocity measurement of 8 m/s
Calculate the mean values of the de Broglie wavelength for each velocity.
For each mean value calculate 1 / λ.
Calculate the uncertainty in the measurement of λ when v is 5 m/s.

What is this as a percentage of the mean value?
Plot a graph of v against 1 / λ and draw a line of best fit.

Does the line pass through the origin? Should it? Explain your answer.
h
If v and 1 / λ are linked by the equation  = , what does the gradient of your line of best fit represent?
mv
Use your gradient to calculate a value of Planck’s constant, h.
The accepted value is 6.63 x 10-34, what is the different between your value and the accepted value?
What is this as a percentage of the accepted value?
Practical
I-V Graphs
You are going to carry out an investigation to find the I-V graphs of three components.
Equipment List
Battery or Power Pack Variable Resistor
Leads with Crocodile Clips Resistor
Voltmeter Filament Lamp
Ammeter Diode
Multimeter Safety Resistor (at least 100Ω)
Task
• Set up the appropriate circuit for the component you are investigating.
• For the diode experiment it is vital to include a safety resistor.
• Change the potential difference (V) across the components from zero
to the maximum available from the power supply.
• Measure the current (I) for each p.d.
• Write down the precision of your meters.
• Take repeat reading and calculate a mean value
• Record your results in a table.
• Plot a graph of I (on the y-axis) against V.

What was the independent variable in your investigation?
What did you use to measure this and what was the precision of this piece of equipment?
What was the dependent variable in your investigation?
If your voltmeter measures a p.d. of 0.20 V when the battery was disconnected, what is the name given to this type
of error?
What is the name give to the type of error responsible for the spread of results in your ammeter readings?
RESISTOR
What is the uncertainty in the current for the greatest p.d. value?
Calculate this as a percentage of the mean current at this p.d.
What does the gradient of the I-V graph represent?
What resistance does your graph suggest that the resistor has?
Calculate the distance between the actual value and the value obtained from your graph.
What is this as a percentage of the actual value?
FILAMENT LAMP
At what p.d. did the component stop obeying Ohm’s law?
What is the gradient of the line when it did obey Ohm’s law?
What resistance does your graph suggest that the lamp has?
DIODE
What feature of your graph shows that the component is a semiconducting diode?
Does the diode appear to obey Ohm’s law at any point on the graph?
Calculate the gradient and use this to calculate the resistance of the diode during this period.
Analysis
Ohm’s Law
A resistor of unknown resistance was connected to a variable power supply. The current through, I, and potential
difference across, V, were measured. You will use this information to calculate the resistance, R, of the resistor.
Experimental Data
Potential Difference, V (V) Current, I (A)
9.12 9.05 9.07 1.18 1.26 1.24
6.98 7.03 7.06 0.98 0.92 1.01
5.03 4.93 5.02 0.71 0.69 0.65
-4.11 -4.02 -4.04 -0.53 -0.59 -0.53
-5.89 -6.02 -5.98 -0.84 -0.86 -0.78
-8.07 -8.10 -7.92 -1.11 -1.08 -1.14
Mean Potential Difference, V (V) Mean Current, I (A) Resistance, R (Ω)
Analysis
Complete the table be calculating the mean values of V and I.
What is the precision of the voltmeter? What is the precision of the ammeter?
What is the uncertainty in the largest positive potential difference?

Calculate this as a percentage of the mean potential difference.
What is the uncertainty in the smallest negative potential difference?
Calculate this as a percentage of the mean potential difference.
What is the uncertainty in the smallest positive current?

Calculate this as a percentage of the mean current.
What is the uncertainty in the largest negative current?
Calculate this as a percentage of the mean current.
Which type of error is responsible for the differences in the potential difference and current measurements?
Plot a graph of I (on the y axis) against V (on the x axis).

Does your line of best fit pass through the origin? Should it? Explain your answer.
What does the gradient of your graph represent?
Use the gradient to calculate the resistance, R, of the resistor.
The given value of the resistor is 7.3Ω, what is the difference between your value and the given value?
Complete the table using the equation V = IR to calculate R.

Calculate the mean value of resistance from the table.
What is the uncertainty of the mean resistance?
What is the difference between the accepted value given above and the value you calculated from the table?
Calculate this as a percentage of the accepted value.
Practical
Light Dependent Resistors
You are going to investigate how much light passes through a number of layers of tracing paper using a bright light
source and a light dependent resistor.
Equipment List
LDR Ammeter
Leads 30cm Ruler
Switch Tracing Paper
Battery/Power Pack Scissors
Voltmeter Desk Lamp
Task
• Set up a suitable circuit using the apparatus provided to determine the resistance of the LDR.
• Draw a diagram of your circuit showing your power supply, switch and meters.
• Position the lamp at a distance given by your supervisor so that it fully illuminates the LDR.
• Switch it on and determine the resistance R0 of the LDR.
• Do not change the distance between the lamp and the LDR in the remainder of the experiment.
• Place a small piece of tracing paper over the LDR so that only light that passes through the paper reaches its light
sensitive surface. Take readings to determine the new resistance of the LDR.
• Repeat the LDR resistance determination for a range of values of n, where n is the number of layers of tracing
paper between the LDR and the lamp.
• Take repeat readings.
• Present all of your measurements in a table.
• For each value of n calculate R = Rn – R0, where Rn is the LDR resistance with n layers of paper.
• Use your results to plot a graph of Ragainst n. Draw a line/curve of best fit.

How many different values did you use for this variable?
Was this enough values? Justify your answer.
How did you calculate this?
What was the precision of the ammeter?

Use your raw data to calculate the uncertainty in the current when n = 4.
What is this as a percentage of the mean current?
Use your raw data to calculate the uncertainty in the voltage when n = 4.
What is this as a percentage of the mean voltage?
What is the percentage uncertainty in the resistance calculated from these two values?
What does your graph show? Describe any features and explain any relationships.
Does your graph support the theory that as light intensity increases the resistance of the LDR decreases?
Why/why not?
How could you find the thickness of a single piece of tracing paper?
Explain how your experimental set up and graph could be used as a quality control measurement in tracing paper
manufacturing.
Practical
Thermistor Thermometer
You are going to calibrate a thermistor to be used as a thermometer and use it to find the temperature of a liquid.
Equipment List
Battery or Power pack Thermistor
Leads with Crocodile Clips Calibrated Thermometer
Voltmeter Beaker
Ammeter Kettle
Multimeter Plastic Bag
Task
• Put the thermistor in a waterproof plastic bag and place it into a beaker.
• Write down the precision of the thermometer.
• Pour 100ml boiling hot water into the beaker.
• Stir the water and measure the temperature Tof the water, the potential difference V and the current I.
• For every 10 °C drop in temperature measure I and V.
• Write down the precision of the ammeter and voltmeter.
• Calculate the resistance R of the thermistor at each temperature using the equation V = IR
• Repeat the experiment twice and determine the average resistance at each temperature.
• Plot a graph of resistance R against temperature T.

How did you measure this?
How did you measure this?
Describe the graph you drew from your results.
How could you improve the reliability of your results?
Ask your supervisor to provide you with a beaker of hot water. Use your thermistor circuit and record the current
and voltage of the water and ask your supervisor to measure the temperature using the calibrated thermometer.
Calculate the resistance of the thermistor.
Use your graph to find the temperature of the water.
What is the difference between your value for the temperature and your supervisor’s value?
Calculate the percentage difference between your value and your supervisor’s value.
For the largest temperature reading use your raw data to calculate the uncertainty in the current reading.
Calculate this as a percentage of the mean current at this temperature.
For the smallest temperature reading use your raw data to calculate the uncertainty in the voltage reading.
Calculate this as a percentage of the mean voltage at this temperature.
For the middle temperature reading use your raw data to calculate the uncertainty in the current reading.
Calculate this as a percentage of the lowest voltage reading at this temperature.
For the middle temperature reading use your raw data to calculate the uncertainty in the voltage reading.
Calculate this as a percentage of the smallest voltage reading at this temperature.
How could you increase the precision of your results?
Practical
Resistivity of Copper
You are going to carry out an experiment to determine the resistivity of a copper.
Equipment List
Battery Multimeter
Leads with Crocodile Clips Rulers (30cm and 1m)
Voltmeter Vernier Callipers
Ammeter Copper Wire
Task
• Cut a section of copper wire just over 1m in length.
• Measure the diameter of the wire in a number of places along the wire.
Record your readings.
• Calculate the cross sectional area of the wire.
• Set up a circuit with the battery, ammeter and copper wire in series.
Connect a voltmeter to measure the pd across the wire.
• Adjust the wire so only 1m of the copper wire is in the circuit. Record the
current and the potential difference.
• SWITCH OFF OR DISCONNECT THE BATTERY BETWEEN READINGS
• Take repeat readings and calculate the mean values for your readings.
• Repeat this to take readings of current and potential difference for difference lengths of copper wire.
• Calculate the resistance from the mean values.
• Plot a graph of the resistance (on the y-axis) and the length of copper wire (on the x-axis)
• Calculate the gradient of the line. Use this to calculate the resistivity of copper.

What did you use to measure this?
What was the precision of this piece of equipment?
Use your raw data to calculate the uncertainty in your largest measurement of the current.
Now calculate the percentage uncertainty in this measurement.
Use your raw data to calculate the uncertainty in the corresponding measurement of the potential difference.
What is the percentage uncertainty in the resistance calculated from these measurements?

How could you increase the reliability of your results?
If your voltmeter measures a potential difference of 0.20 V when the battery was disconnected, what is the name
given to this type of error?
What is the name give to the type of error responsible for the spread of results in your voltmeter readings for 30cm?
Why do you think you were instructed to switch off or disconnect the battery between measurements?
Analysis
Resistivity of Copper
Different lengths of copper wire were used to find its resistivity. A potential difference was applied across the wires
and the current through them was recorded. The wire had a diameter of 0.9 mm.
Experimental Data
Here is the experimental data collected from the different lengths of copper wire.
Length, l p.d., V Current, I Mean Current, I Resistance, R
(m) (mV) (A) (A) (Ω)
1.00 54 2.103 1.978 1.995
2.00 54 1.021 1.004 1.014
3.00 54 0.651 0.662 0.712
4.00 54 0.511 0.514 0.493
5.00 54 0.395 0.411 0.409
6.00 54 0.347 0.333 0.334
Analysis
Calculate the cross-sectional area of the wire using the equation A =  .r 2
Calculate the mean value of current for each of the different lengths of wire.
Use the equation V = I .R to calculate the resistance of each of the different lengths of wire.
What is the precision of the length measurements?

What is the smallest division on the ruler used to measure it?
What is the precision of the voltmeter used?
Calculate the uncertainty in the current when the wire is 2.00 m long.
What would be the percentage uncertainty in the corresponding value of R?
Plot a graph of R (y axis) against l and draw a line of best fit.

l
If the equation linking R and l is R =  , what does the gradient of your line represent?
A
Use the gradient to find the value of resistivity.
The accepted value of the resistivity of copper at 20 °C is 1.68 x 10-8 Ωm.

What is the difference between this value and the value you obtained from your graph?
Practical
Resistivity of a Metal Wire
You are going to investigate the variation with length of the resistance of the wire supplied
Equipment List
Battery Multimeter
Leads with Crocodile Clips Rulers (30cm and 1m)
Voltmeter Vernier Callipers
Ammeter Copper Wire
Task
• Complete the circuit as shown in the diagram below: crocodile clips X, Y and P are already in place with leads
attached.
• Record the precision of your voltmeter and your ammeter
• Switch on the power supply and adjust the variable resistor if you are using one in your circuit, or the voltage
control on the power supply if you do not have a variable resistor, so that the current, I, shown on the ammeter
is 0.50 A.
Always switch off the supply between readings and also ensure that I = 0.50 A before reading the voltmeter
• Observe how the pd, V, between X and P varies for different lengths L of wire between X and P.
• Decide on a range of values for L for
which you will measure V.
• Prepare a table to record all of your
measurements for L and V and include
a column for the resistance, R, of the
wire between X and P.
• Carry out your experiment and
complete your table.
• Draw a graph to show how R (plotted
on the vertical axis) varies with L.

What was the independent variable in your investigation? What did you use to measure this?
What was the dependent variable in your investigation? What did you use to measure this?
Use your raw data to calculate the uncertainty in your largest measurement of the mean pd, V
What is the uncertainty in your value for the current, I?
What is the percentage uncertainty in the resistance calculated from these measurements?

Calculate the gradient of the graph?
What does the gradient represent?
What value do you get for the resistivity of the wire?
Practical
Series and Parallel Circuits
You are going to carry out an experiment to investigate how the theoretical value of resistors in series and parallel
differs from values obtained experimentally.
Equipment List
Battery or Power Pack Ammeter
Leads with Crocodile Clips Multimeter
Voltmeter Resistors (of at least 8 different values)
Task
• SWITCH OFF OR DISCONNECT THE BATTERY BETWEEN READINGS.
• Set up a circuit with two resistors in series, a power supply, a voltmeter and an ammeter.
• Draw a diagram of the circuit you used.
• Write down the precision of the instruments used.
• Calculate the theoretical value for the total resistance of the resistors.
• Take readings of the potential difference and the current of the circuit.
• Calculate the total resistance of the resistors
• Repeat the experiment with different values of R1 and R2.
• Set up a similar circuit with two resistors in parallel.
• Record all of your results in two tables like the one below.
R1 R2 RTOTAL (Ω) p.d. V Current I RTOTAL (Ω)
(Ω) (Ω) theoretical (V) (A) measured
After the Experiment – Series

Look at the data with the lowest theoretical total resistance. What is the uncertainty in the p.d. reading?
Calculate the percentage uncertainty in this reading.
What is the difference between the actual value and the theoretical value for the total resistance?
Calculate this as a percentage of the theoretical value.
Look at the data with the second highest theoretical total resistance. What is the uncertainty in the current reading?
Which set of data has a smaller percentage difference?
What word can we use this to describe this result?
After the Experiment – Parallel

Look at the data with the second lowest theoretical total resistance. What is the uncertainty in the p.d. reading?
Look at the data with the highest theoretical total resistance. What is the uncertainty in the current reading?
What do you think is responsible for the difference between the theoretical and actual values?
Practical
EMF and Internal Resistance
You are going to carry out an experiment to investigate the relationship between the terminal potential difference
across and the current through a cell or battery when connected to a range of different value resistors.
Equipment List
Battery Ammeter
Voltmeter Resistors (of 8 different values)
Task
• SWITCH OFF OR DISCONNECT THE BATTERY BETWEEN READINGS
• Set up a circuit with the battery, ammeter and a resistor in series. Connect a voltmeter to measure the pd across
the cell terminals.
• For each resistor, record the current and terminal pd values in a suitable table. Include the resistor value in the
table. Take readings for the eight different resistors provided.
• Take repeat readings
• Draw a circuit diagram of the circuit you used.
• Plot a graph of the terminal pd (on the y-axis) and the current (on the x-axis) and draw a line of best fit.
• Calculate the gradient of the line and the y intercept.

How did you vary this?

Use the precision of your equipment to calculate the percentage uncertainty of your smallest measurement of the
current.
potential difference.
Which is the greater source of uncertainty? Why?
Use your raw data to calculate the uncertainty in your largest measurement of the current.
Use your raw data to calculate the uncertainty in your largest measurement of the potential difference.

Analysis
EMF and Internal Resistance
A battery was connected to a resistor, the current was measured through the circuit and the potential difference was
measured at the terminals of the battery. By varying the resistor value it is possible to find the EMF and internal
resistance of the battery.
Experimental Data
Here is the experimental data collected from using different external resistors.
Resistance, Terminal p.d., Current Mean p.d., Mean Current,
R V I V I
(Ω) (V) (A) (V) (A)
1 1.23 1.18 1.22 1.07 1.14 1.09
1.5 1.26 1.35 1.26 0.84 0.76 0.84
2.2 1.33 1.34 1.31 0.57 0.55 0.59
3.3 1.38 1.37 1.38 0.39 0.43 0.41
4.7 1.39 1.40 1.40 0.32 0.29 0.29
6.8 1.42 1.42 1.41 0.21 0.21 0.22
10 1.43 1.45 1.44 0.14 0.14 0.14
22 1.46 1.45 1.46 0.07 0.08 0.07
Analysis
Draw the circuit used in this investigation.
Calculate the mean p.d. and current for each of the resistance values.
What is the precision of the voltmeter and ammeter?

Calculate the uncertainty in the largest mean value of p.d.

What is this as a percentage of the mean?
Calculate the uncertainty in the p.d. when the resistance was 3.3Ω
Calculate the uncertainty in the smallest mean value of current.
Calculate the uncertainty in the current when the resistance was 6.8Ω
Plot a graph of V against I (on the x axis) and draw a line of best fit.
If V and I are connected by the equation  = V + Ir , what does the gradient of the line represent?
What does the y-intercept of your line represent?
Write down the value of the y-intercept from your graph.
If the internal resistance was increased what effect would this have one your graph?
Practical
Potential Dividers
You are going to carry out an experiment to investigate the relationship between the value of first resistor and the
potential difference across the second resistor.
Equipment List
Battery or Power Pack Ammeter
Voltmeter x2 Resistors (of at least 8 different values)
Task
• SWITCH OFF OR DISCONNECT THE BATTERY BETWEEN READINGS.
• Set up a circuit as shown in the diagram with R1 = 10 kΩ and R2 = 50 kΩ.
• Record the p.d. across the battery (VIN).
• Record the p.d. across R2 (VOUT).
• Keep R2 the same but replace R1 with resistors of other values.
• For each R1 record the VOUT and take repeat readings.
1
• For each value of R1 calculate R1+R2 and
R1 + R2
• Record all of your results in one table.
1
• Plot a graph of VOUT(on the y-axis) against and draw a line of best fit.
R1 + R2

What assumption did we make in this investigation?
What type of error is responsible for the spread in values or VOUT for each value of R1?
If the voltmeter measured a p.d. of 0.20 V when the battery was disconnected, what is the name given to this type of
error?
How many difference values of R1 did you use?
Explain why this was or wasn’t enough values.
What is the uncertainty in VOUT for the largest value of R1?
Calculate this as a percentage of the mean value of VOUT.
R2
The relationship that links the VOUT with the values of R1 and R2 is VOUT = VIN .
R1 + R2
Use this to find the equation of your line of best fit and state what the gradient of the line of best represents.
Does your graph support this equation? Explain your answer.
Calculate the theoretical value of the gradient.
Calculate the gradient of your line of best fit from the graph.
What is the difference between the theoretical value for the gradient and the value obtained from the graph?
Calculate this as percentage of the theoretical value.

Analysis
Oscilloscope Traces
An oscilloscope was used to determine the overall potential difference of five batteries which were added to a circuit
one at a time. The volts/div is set at 1V and the time base is set at 2 seconds.
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-1
-2
Write down the voltages of the five batteries, how long they are in the circuit before the next one is added and the
direction it is placed in.
Here is the oscilloscope traces for the potential difference of an alternating supply.
The volts/div is set at 2V and the time base is set at 6 ms.
10
-10
What is the peak voltage, peak to peak voltage and the time period?How long does the whole trace represent?
The volts/div is set at 4V and the time base is set

at 0.5ms.
What is the peak voltage, peak to peak voltage

and the time period?How long does the whole
trace represent?
The volts/div is set at 1.5V and the time base is

set at 0.5 s.
What is the peak voltage, peak to peak voltage

and the time period?How long does the whole
trace represent?
Practical
Resolving Forces to find Weight
You are going to carry out an experiment using two force meters and Pythagoras to find the weight and mass of a
can containing and unknown amount of water.
Equipment List
Clamp stand (x2) String
Boss and Clamp (x2) Can of unknown mass
Force meter, 10N (x2) Paper clip
Protractor Rulers (1m and 30cm)
Task
• Cut a length of string approximately 0.60 m and tie a loop at each end and
one in the middle.
• Set up the right clamp stand with the force meter attached to it
approximately 0.05 m from the top of the desk.
• Place the left clamp stand between 0.60 and 1.00 m away from the right
clamp stand and attach the string between the force meters.
• Attach the can of unknown mass to the middle of the string.
• Raise the force meter on the left until the right force meter is
perpendicular to the desk top.
• Measure the angle θ with a protractor and state its precision.
• Measure the tensions T and F from the force meters.
• Repeat the experiment for different values of θ and record your results in a table.
• For each value of θ construct a triangle of forces and determine the weight, W, of the can.
• From each value of the weight, W, calculate the mass, m of the can.
• Use each force meter to find the average weight of the can and from this find the mass.

In your investigation what were the independent and dependent variables?
What is the uncertainty in your measurements of the angle θ?
For the smallest value of θ calculate the percentage uncertainty.
How could you increase the precision of your measurements for the angle θ and for the forces T and F?
Ask your supervisor to use a calibrated electronic scale to measure the mass of the can.
Calculate the average value of the mass from the different values of θ that you used.
What is the difference between your value and your supervisor’s?
Calculate this as a percentage of your supervisor’s value.
What is the difference between your value and the value you calculated at the end of the investigation?
Choose a set of results for any value of θ and calculate F cos θ.

This value should be equal to the corresponding value of T when the system in in equilibrium.
What is the difference between T and F cos θ?
Calculate this as a percentage of T.
For the same set of results calculate F sin θ.
This value should be equal to the weight of the can when the system is in equilibrium.
What is the difference between F sin θ and the actual weight of the can? What could have caused this difference?
Practical
Moments
You are going to carry out an experiment to investigate the effect that position of mass suspension has on the dip of
a ruler.
Equipment List
Wooden metre ruler (x2) Masses (100g x 10)
G Clamp Mass hanger
Masses (50g x 1) Rubber band
Task
• Using the G clamp attach one of the rulers to your desk so that 8cm rests on the surface and the remainder stick
out unsupported. The point where the ruler first protrudes from the desk shall be called the pivot.
• Measure the height of the free end of the ruler from the floor. Take repeat readings and record this result.
• Set up the masses and hanger so that they have a combined mass of 500g.
• Use the rubber band to attach the mass hanger to the ruler.
• Position it at various distances from the pivot.
• For each distance from the pivot measure the height of the free end of the ruler and use it to calculate the dip of
the ruler.
• Take repeat readings and record your results in a table.
• Plot a graph of distance from pivot (on the x axis) against the dip of the ruler.
• Draw a line or curve of best fit.
• Now position the 500g hanger at a distance of 10cm from the pivot.
• Calculate the moment and measure the dip.
• Repeat this for various masses and distances from the pivot but applying the same moment each time.
• Record your results for this part of the investigation in a separate table.

In the first part of the investigation what was the independent variable?
What was the dependent variable and how did you measure it?
What was the precision of the instrument you used?
What is the uncertainty in the dip measurement for your greatest distance from the pivot?
Calculate this as a percentage of the mean dip for this distance.
What is the uncertainty in the dip measurement for your second smallest distance from the pivot?
Calculate this as a percentage of the largest dip measured for this distance.
What is the uncertainty in the dip measurement for the middle value for the distance from the pivot?
Calculate this as a percentage of the smallest dip measured for this distance.
Explain the relationship your graph suggest between the distance from the pivot and the dip caused in the ruler.
What conclusion can you make from the second part of the investigation?
When calculating the force applied what value did you use for g?
Using the correct scientific terminology explain why it is better to use a value of 9.81 rather than 10.
What results would suggest that the dip is dependent on the moment regardless of the distance from the pivot?
What results would suggest the opposite?
Practical
Rolling Down a Ramp
You are going to carry out an experiment to investigate the acceleration due to gravity using a section of dowel
rolling down a ramp which in inclined at an angle of θ to the bench.
Equipment List
Ramp with support and feet Stop clock
Protractor Rulers (30cm and 1m)
Section of dowel
Task
• Set up the ramp by attaching one end to the lowest part of the support.
• Measure the angle the ramp makes with the desk.
• State the precision of the protractor.
• Measure the time, t, that the cylinder takes to roll different distances, s, down the ramp.
• Take repeat readings for each distance you choose.
• Present all your measurements in a table.
• For each value of s, calculate t2 and include these values in your table.
• Plot a graph of t2 (on the y-axis) against s.
• State the precision of the stop clock that you used in this experiment.

Suggest two reasons why repeat timings at each distance would be expected to spread about a mean value.
Use the spread of your results to calculate the uncertainty in your measurement of t for your:
Largest value of s.
Smallest value of s.
Middle value of s.
Using the suvat equations calculate the value of a for your middle value of s.
Calculate the value of a sin θ.
If this value should be the acceleration due to gravity, 9.81, calculate the difference of your value from the accepted.
What is the percentage difference of your value from the accepted?

Calculate the gradient of your graph.
Theory states that the equation for the line is: s = 12 at , does your graph support this theory?
2
Use your value for the gradient of the line to calculate the value of a.
What is the difference of this value from your value of a from above?
A student predicts that a hollow cylinder will roll more slowly down a slope than a solid cylinder of the same radius.
Describe an experiment to test this theory.
Practical
Acceleration Due to Gravity
You are going to carry out an experiment to find the acceleration due to gravity of a falling ball. You will then
compare this to the theoretical value.
Equipment List
Table tennis ball Tape measure
Tennis ball Stop clock
Ball of screwed up paper Post-it notes or other sticky markers
Task
• Use the taper measure to mark heights between 3 and 5 metres from the floor.
• Time how long it takes for the table tennis ball to reach the ground when released from rest at 3 metres.
• Take repeat readings and calculate the mean time taken, t.
• Record your results in a table and including a column of t2.
• Repeat this for the different heights you have chosen between 3 and 5 metres from the floor.
• Plot a graph of distance travelled s (y axis) against t2.
• Draw a line of best fit and calculate the gradient.
• Repeat the whole procedure for the tennis ball and the paper ball.

How many different values for this variable did you use? Was this enough? Explain your answer.
Table tennis ball
What was the uncertainty in value of t when released from a height of 5 metres?
Calculate this as a percentage of the mean value of t.
What does the gradient of each graph represent?
Use your gradient of your graph to write down the value for the acceleration.
What is the difference between this value and the accepted value of 9.81 m/s2?
Tennis ball
Paper ball
What type of error is responsible for the spread of results for each measurement of time and how did it arise?
Which of the balls was affected most by air resistance?
How could you use light gates and a data logger to improve your results?
How would this improve your results?
Practical
Terminal Velocity
You are going to carry out an experiment to investigate how quickly different sized objects reach terminal velocity.
Equipment List
Bun Cases (various sizes) Rulers (30cm and 1m)
Stop Clock Clamp Stand
Tape Measure Boss and Clamp
Task
• Choose a bun case and measure its diameter.
• Drop the bun case from a height of 2.5 m and time how long it takes for it to reach terminal velocity.
• Repeat the investigation with bun cases of different diameters.
• Clamp the meter ruler vertically and position it at the end of the workbench.
• Adjust its height so that the when a bun case is released from a height of 2.5 m it will reach terminal velocity
before passing the ruler.
• Drop the bun case from a height of 2.5 m again and time how long it takes to pass the meter ruler.
• Calculate the mean terminal velocity of the bun case as it passes the ruler.
• Repeat the investigation with bun cases of different diameters.
• Plot a graph of bun case diameter (on the x axis) against time taken to reach terminal velocity.
• Plot a graph of bun case diameter (x axis) against terminal velocity.
• Draw a line of best fit for each graph.

What type of error is responsible for the spread of results for the time taken to reach terminal velocity?
Explain how this arose.
For the largest bun case diameter calculate the uncertainty in the time taken.
What is this as a percentage of the mean time taken?
What does your first graph tell you about the connection between the two variables?
What does the second graph tell you about the connection between the two variables?
If you have drawn a straight line of best fit calculate its gradient. If you have drawn a curve of best fit draw a tangent
to the curve when the x axis value is the middle of the scale then calculate its gradient.
What is the uncertainty in the terminal velocity of the smallest bun case?
Calculate this as a percentage of the mean terminal velocity.
What is the uncertainty in the terminal velocity of the largest bun case?
Calculate this as a percentage of the smallest terminal velocity.
Choose the data from any other bun case size. What is the uncertainty in the terminal velocity?
Calculate this as a percentage of the largest terminal velocity.
How can we describe the value with the lowest percentage uncertainty?
Describe and explain how the use of a motion sensor or light gate could lead to better results.
Practical
Bouncing Ball
You are going to investigate how the height from which a table tennis ball is dropped affects how high it bounces.
Equipment List
Table Tennis Ball Blu-Tack
Ruler (1m) Clamp
Task
• Use the ruler to measure the
diameter, d, of the table tennis
ball and record this result.
• Give an estimate of the
uncertainty in this
measurement
• Set up the apparatus as shown.
The metre ruler should be held
vertically in place at the back of
the open clamp by a piece of
Blu-Tack with another piece of
Blu-Tack securing it to the bench. The table tennis ball should be gently clamped into position in front of the ruler
• Open the clamp and observe the motion of the ball as it bounces on the bench
• Decide on a range of heights, h, measured to the top of the ball, from which you will release the ball so that you
can measure the height, s, of its first bounce, also measured to the top of the ball
• Prepare a single table for recording all of your measurements, including repeat readings for s
• Carry out your experiment and complete your table
• Draw a graph to show how s (plotted on the vertical axis) varies with h.

In your investigation what was independent variable?
What was the dependent variable?
Describe the relationship (if there is one) between s and h.
What is the uncertainty in your measurement of h?
Calculate the percentage uncertainty in your largest value of h.
Calculate the percentage uncertainty in your smallest value of h.
Explain the source of error responsible for the variations in your measurements of s
How could you have made your measurements less precise?
Use data from your table to estimate the uncertainty in your largest mean value of s.
Estimate the percentage uncertainty in your largest mean value of s.
State and explain your estimate for the uncertainty in your measurement of the diameter, d, of the table tennis ball.
The loss in gravitational potential energy, ΔEP, of a body falling to the Earth’s surface is given by EP = mgx where
mg is the weight of the ball and x is the vertical distance through which its centre of mass falls.
In your experiment x=h – d. Calculate x for your smallest value of h.
Using your uncertainty in s and d, estimate the uncertainty in your value for x.
Calculate ΔEP for your smallest value of h. mg =0.026 +-0.001N
Determine the percentage uncertainty in ΔEP.
Practical
Work Done
You are going to carry out an experiment to investigate the work done when a mass is pulled up an inclined plane.
Equipment List
200g mass with hanger Materials to cover plane
Forcemeter Rulers (1m and 30cm)
Inclined plane Protractor
Task
• Use the protractor to set the plane to an incline of 20°.
• Measure the height of the plane and state the precision of your reading.
• Take several measurements of the length, s, of the plane and calculate the mean value.
• Use the forcemeter to drag the 200g mass across the table and then up the plane.
• Record the force used to pull the mass up the plane.
• Take repeat readings and calculate the mean force applied, F.
• For this angle calculate the work done using W = Fs .
• Calculate the gain in gravitational potential energy using E = mgh .
• Calculate the difference in the work done and the gravitational potential energy.
• Repeat this for other angles of incline.
• Plot a graph on angle of incline (x axis) against difference between W and E.
• Draw a line of best fir for your graph.
• Repeat the investigation with different materials covering the plane.

What was the independent variable in the investigation?
How many different values did you use for this? Was this enough? Explain your answer.
What was the precision of the instrument you used to measure it?
What was the dependent variable in the investigation?
What is the uncertainty in your measurements of the height?
Calculate the percentage uncertainty of your largest height measurement.
Calculate the percentage uncertainty of your smallest height measurement.
What word describes the value with the smaller percentage uncertainty?
What is the uncertainty in the force for the largest angle on incline?
Calculate this as a percentage of the mean value for the force
What is the uncertainty in the force for the second largest angle of incline?
Calculate this as a percentage of the smallest value of force at this angle.
What is the uncertainty in the force for the middle value for the angle of incline?
Calculate this as a percentage of the largest value of force at this angle.
Which type of error is responsible for the differences in the force applied to pull the mass up the incline?
There was a difference between the gravitational potential energy gained and the work done. What was responsible
for this difference? Where did the energy go?
If you carried out the investigation for other materials how did they compare to each other?
What trend does your graph suggest about the relationship between the angle of incline and the difference?
Analysis
Conservation of Energy
You will investigate the transfer of gravitational potential energy
to kinetic energy for a trolley rolling down a ramp. The trolley
had a piece of card 10 cm long attached to the top. The digital
timer measures the time taken for the card to completely cut
through the light gate. The trolley has a mass of 250g.
Here is the experimental data obtained.
Experimental Data
Time Taken, t (s) Velocity, v (m/s)
Height, h (m)
t1 t2 t3 v1 v2 v3
0.1 0.16 0.15 0.16
0.2 0.10 0.11 0.12
0.3 0.10 0.09 0.09
0.4 0.06 0.09 0.08
0.5 0.07 0.07 0.07
Mean Velocity, v EP – EK
Height, h (m) EK (J) EP (J)
(m/s) (J)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Analysis
For each measurement of time calculate the velocity of the trolley.
Calculate the mean value of the velocity for each height that the trolley is released from.
What is the uncertainty in the velocity for a height of 0.2 m?
Calculate this as a percentage of the mean velocity.
Calculate this as a percentage of the smallest velocity at this height.
Calculate this as a percentage of the smallest velocity at this height.
Which type of error is responsible for the differences in the time measurements?
Calculate the kinetic energy the trolley has gained as it passes through the light gate.
What is the percentage uncertainty in the kinetic energy for a height of 0.2 m?
Calculate the gravitational potential energy that the trolley has lost as it passes through the light gate.
Plot a graph of kinetic energy gained against gravitational potential energy lost.
Draw a line of best fit and calculate the gradient of this line.
Explain what a gradient equal to 1 would mean and explain why the gradient will not be equal to 1.
Calculate the difference in kinetic and gravitational potential energy.
Practical
Spring Constant
You are going to carry out an experiment to determine the total spring constant when two springs are connected in
series and in then in parallel.
Equipment List
Springs (2)
Rulers (30cm and 1m)
Clamp Stand, Boss and Clamp
Masses (10 x 50g)
Task
• Measure the lengths of spring A and spring B. Record your readings.
• Suspend spring A from the clamp attached to the clamp stand. Attach a 50g mass to the bottom of the spring.
• Record the extension of the spring for 50g. Repeat with increasing mass up to 500g.
• Draw a table to include columns for mass, force applied and extension.
• Plot a graph of force applied (on the y-axis) against extension (on the x-axis). This will be graph 1
• Calculate the gradient. This is the spring constant for spring A.
• Repeat this for spring B.
• Now that we have the spring constants of spring A and B you will now find the total spring constant when they
are connected in series and in parallel.
• Repeat the above procedure but with the springs connected in series.
• Plot a graph of force applied against extension for springs in series.
• Repeat the above procedure but with the springs connected in parallel.
• Plot a graph of force applied against extension for springs in parallel.

What were the dependent and independent variables in your investigation?
Look at your first graph, are the results reliable? Why?

Look at your second graph, are the results reliable? Why?
How could you have increased the reliability of your results?
How could you have increased the precision of your measurements for the extension of the springs?
1 1 1
For two springs in series the total spring constant, kT is given by: = + .
kT k A k B
Calculate this value from your gradients of graphs 1 and 2. This is the accepted value.
Calculate this value from the gradient of the graph for springs in series.
What is the difference between this value and the accepted value?
For two springs in parallel the total spring constant, kT is given by: kT = k A + k B
Calculate this value from your gradients of graphs 1 and 2. This is the accepted value.
Calculate this value from the gradient of the graph for springs in series.
Which is more reliable, your value for the springs in series or parallel? Explain your answer.
Practical
Finding the Young’s Modulus
You are going to carry out an experiment to determine the Young Modulus for copper.
Equipment List
G Clamp
Two small wooden blocks
Bench Pulley
Metre Ruler
2.5m Copper Wire
Mircometer Screw Gauge
Masses (10 x 100g) with Hanger
Goggles
Sand Tray
Sellotape
Task
• Set up the equipment as shown in the diagram.
• Position the marker 30cm from the pulley.
• Measure the length, l, of the wire from the wooden block to the marker.
• Measure the diameter of the wire in several places and calculate the mean radius, r, of the wire.
• Calculate the cross-sectional area, A, of the wire using the equation A = r 2 .
• Add a 100g mass to the hanger, measure the extension, e, of the wire, the mean radius and calculate the area.
• Calculate the tensile force using the equation F = mg where g = 9.81
• Repeat this until 1000g are on the hanger.
• Record the results in a table:
F (N) l (m) e (m) r (m) A (m2) Stress, σ (Pa) Strain, ε
F e
• Calculate the stress for each force using the equation = and the strain using  =
A l
• Plot a graph of tensile stress (y axis) against tensile strain (x axis).

How many values of this variable did you use?
Was this enough? Explain your answer.
What is the precision of your length measurements?
What is the precision of your diameter measurements?
If the percentage uncertainty in the radius was 5% what would be the percentage uncertainty in the area?
Calculate the gradient of the line of best fit of your graph. The gradient is equal to the Young modulus.
The accepted value for the Young modulus is 119 GPa ± 7.56%. What are the upper and lower limits of the value?
What is the difference between your value and the accepted value of 119 GPa?

How could you improve the reliability of your results?
Explain why the results cannot be used when the copper is extended beyond the elastic limit.
Analysis
Finding the Young’s Modulus
The load applied to a wire was varied and the length was recorded. You will use the data to find the spring constant
and the Young modulus of the wire. The wire has a length of 1.600 m and diameter of 3.2 x 10-4 m.
Experimental Data
Here are the lengths of the wire when different loads are applied.
Load, F Length, l Extension, e Stress, σ Strain, ε
(N) (m) (m) (Pa)
2.0 1601.2
3.0 1601.8
4.0 1602.4
5.0 1603.0
6.0 1603.6
7.0 1604.2
8.0 1604.8
9.0 1605.7
10.0 1607.0
11.0 1609.0
Analysis
What is the precision of the load measurements?
What is the precision of the length measurements?
Calculate the uncertainty in the length measurement when the load is 7.0 N.
What is this as a percentage of the measurement?
Calculate the uncertainty in the load measurement when the length is 1602.4.
What is this as a percentage of the measurement?
Calculate the change in length (extension) for each load.

Calculate the cross-sectional area of the wire using A = r 2 .
F e
Calculate the stress for each force using the equation  = and the strain using  = .
A l
Plot a graph of F against e (x axis) and draw a line of best fit.

Does the line pass through the origin? Should it? Explain your answer.
If F and e are connected by the equation F = ke what does the gradient represent?
Use the gradient to find the spring constant.
Fl
F and e are also linked by the equation YM = , in this case what does the gradient of your line represent?
eA
Use the gradient to calculate the Young Modulus of the wire.
The accepted value of the Young Modulus is 3.35 x 1010, what is the difference between this value and yours?
Calculate this as a percentage of the actual value.
Practical
Loading and Unloading
In this experiment you will determine the force-extension graph for a rubber sample as it is loaded and unloaded.
Equipment List
RubberBand Boss and Clamp
Ruler (30cm) Masses (100g x 10)
Clamp Stand Mass Hanger
Task
• Hang the rubber band from the clamp.
• Attach the mass hanger (100g) to the bottom of the rubber band and determine
the extension this causes.
• Add a 100g mass to the mass hanger ensuring the tension in the band is not
allowed to decrease. Record the extension.
• Continue to add the masses and record the extension up to 1000g.
• Remove the masses one at a time and determine the extension as the tensile
force is reduced.
• Repeat the experiment twice more.
• Record all your results in a table.
• Calculate the mean values of the extension for the different masses both loading and unloading.
• Plot a graph of Force (on the y-axis) against extension.

What is the uncertainty in the extension when the load is 400g (loading)?
Calculate this as a percentage of the mean extension.
What is the uncertainty in the extension when the load is 400g (unloading)?
Calculate this as a percentage of the mean extension.
Which is the greater source of uncertainty?
How can you describe the lower source of uncertainty?
What is the uncertainty in the extension when the load is 700g (loading)?
Calculate this as a percentage of the lowest extension reading with this load.
What is the uncertainty in the extension when the load is 700g (unloading)?
Calculate this as a percentage of the greatest extension reading with this load.
Does the rubber band obey Hooke’s Law?

Justify your answer.
If your graph suggests a ‘loop’ rather than a straight line what is the significance of the area of the loop between the
loading and unloading sections of the graph?
Explain what would happen to the results of the repeat experiment if the rubber band had extended beyond the
elastic limit during the first run.
Practical
The Speed of Waves in Water
You are going to carry out an experiment to determine the speed of a wave as it crosses a shallow tray of water
Equipment List
Standard tray
Stop clock
Task
• Fill the tray with water to a depth of about 1cm.
• Measure the depth of water in a number of places and also the length of the tray. Record your readings.
• You are going to time the wave travelling backwards and forwards across the surface of the water.
• Draw a table to include columns for distance travelled and time taken, and include columns for repeat readings.
• Raise one end of the tray about 1cm and allow to drop so that a ripple is sent across the surface of the water and
is reflected backwards and forwards by the ends of the tray.
• Time how long the wave takes to cross the tray once.
• Time how long the wave takes to cross the tray twice (ie, there and beck).
• Take further times for 3, 4, 5, 6 etc more crossings until the wave is too faint to see, up to a maximum of eight
crossings.
• Take repeat readings for each distance.
• Plot a graph of distance travelled (by the wave) on the y-axis against time on the x-axis. Use it to determine the
average speed on the wave.


time taken.
Use the precision of your equipment to calculate the percentage uncertainty of your largest measurement of the
time taken.
Use your raw data to calculate the uncertainty in your smallest measurement of the time taken.
Use your raw data to calculate the uncertainty in your largest measurement of the time taken.
What caused the spread in your measurements of the depth of the water?

Analysis
Electromagnetic Speed
The frequencies of different coloured light were recorded. Knowing the wavelengths you will analyse the data below
to find the speed of light in a vacuum, c.
Experimental Data
Here are the frequencies recorded for light of seven different colours.
Light Wavelength, λ 1/ λ Frequency, f Mean Frequency, f
-1
Colour (nm) (m ) (x 1014 Hz) (x 1014 Hz)
Violet 415 7.22 7.21 7.26
Blue 463 6.41 6.50 6.53
Cyan 489 6.15 6.16 6.09
Green 532 5.61 5.70 5.61
Yellow 580 5.11 5.24 5.16
Orange 608 4.98 4.89 4.91
Red 685 4.38 4.38 4.38
Analysis
Calculate the mean frequency of each coloured light.
Calculate the uncertainty in the frequency of blue light.

What is this as a percentage of the mean frequency?
Calculate the uncertainty in the frequency of blue light.
Calculate the uncertainty in the frequency of red light.
What is the precision of the wavelength measurements?

Calculate the percentage uncertainty in the value of wavelength for cyan light.
Calculate the percentage uncertainty in the value of wavelength for yellow light.
Calculate the value of 1/λ for each coloured light. Ensure your units are per metre (m-1).
1
Plot a graph of f (on the y axis) against (on the x axis).

The gradient should be equal to c, 3 x 108. What is the difference between your gradient and the accepted value?
Does your line pass through the origin? Should it?
Use these calculations and your graph to comment on the reliability, precision and accuracy of the experiment.
Use the equation c = f to calculate the value of c for each coloured light.
Calculate your mean value for the wave speed c.
What is the uncertainty in the wave speed?
Calculate the percentage difference between your mean value and the accepted value.
Practical
Phase Difference of Pendulums
You are going to carry out an experiment to investigate how the time between two pendulum moving in phase
depends on their relative lengths.
Equipment List
Pendulum bob (x2) Clamp Stands, Bosses and Clamps
String (2 x 1.5m) Stop clock
Rulers (1m) Plasticine
Task
• Clamp a ruler between two clamp stands and suspend two
pendulums of equal length approximately 1.00 m.
• Attach a second clamp to one of the clamp stands so that it
obstructs the swing of the second pendulum.
• Set the initial value of y to by 0.20m.
• Measure the lengths L and y and state the precision of your
readings.
• Displace and release the pendulums so they oscillate with a
small amplitude parallel to the edge of the bench.
• Start the timer when the two pendulum motions are seen
to be exactly in phase.
• Measure and record the time until the pendulums are next
seen to be in phase, T.
• Repeat this reading three times.
• Measure and record further values of T which correspond to four larger values of y.
L
• Record your results in a table with a column .
L− y

Look at your graph, are the results reliable? Why?
Other than taking repeat readings how else could you increase the reliability of your experiment?
L 1
Plot a graph of (on the y-axis) against (on the x-axis)
L− y T
Draw a line of best fit for your graph.
Calculate the gradient of this line.
Calculate the uncertainty in the measurement for the value of T when y has a value of 0.20 m.
Calculate this as a percentage uncertainty of the mean value of T for this value of y.
Calculate the uncertainty in the measurement for the value of T for your largest value of y.
Calculate this as a percentage uncertainty of the mean value of T for this value of y.
A student suggests that in order to extend the investigation additional measurements of T should be made using
values of y that were much smaller than 0.20 m and much bigger than 0.90 m. Discuss briefly whether you think that
such additional readings would improve the quality of the evidence obtained for the experiment.
Analysis
Sound Waves in a Column of Air
A speaker was attached to the top of an open ended glass cylinder. The other end was placed in a trough of water so
that the column of air between the speaker and the water is 15 cm. The speaker is attached to a signal generator
which is adjusted until each harmonic is heard
Experimental Data
Here are the frequencies recorded for the first five harmonics.
Harmonic Frequency, f (Hz) Wavelength, λ (m)
First 1134 1131 1125
Second 2288 2282 2291
Third 3387 3407 3406
Forth 4838 4841 4850
Fifth 5639 5666 5645
Mean Frequency, f 1 -1
Harmonic Wavelength, λ (m) (m ) Wave Speed, v (m/s)
(Hz) 
First
Second
Third
Forth
Fifth
Analysis
Calculate the mean frequency for each harmonic.
Calculate the uncertainty in the frequency of the first harmonic.
Calculate the uncertainty in the frequency of the third harmonic.
Calculate the uncertainty in the frequency of the fifth harmonic.
Calculate the wavelength of the standing wave for each harmonic.

1
Complete the column in the table labelled .

1
Plot a graph of f on the y axis against on the x axis.

Draw a line of best fit and calculate the gradient.
Calculate the percentage difference between the gradient and the accepted value of 343 m/s.
Use the equation v = f to complete the last column of the table.

Calculate your mean value for the wave speed v.
What is the uncertainty in the wave speed?
Calculate the percentage difference between your mean value and the accepted value.
Is the gradient value or the table value of v more accurate?

What type of error is responsible for the spread of frequencies for each harmonic?
Practical
Finding the Refractive Index
You are going to carry out an experiment to determine the refractive index of a Perspex block.
Equipment List
Power Pack A4 White Paper x 3
Ray Box Red Filter
Perspex Block Ruler
Protractor Sharp Pencil
Task
• Place the block on the paper and draw around its outline.
• Set up the apparatus so that a narrow beam of coloured light passes through
the block.
• Draw the path of the beam through the block as shown in the diagram.
• Using a protractor, measure the angle of incidence, θ1, and the angle of
refraction, θ2, at the first surface.
• Take a set of readings for various values of the angle of incidence within the
range 20° to 60°.
• Using the other two sheets of paper, repeat the measurements for the same
angles of incidence.
• Tabulate all your results in a single table.
• Record the precision of your protractor.
• Calculate sinθ1 and sinθ2 for each angle of incidence and include these values in your table.
• Plot sinθ1 on the y axis against sinθ2 and draw a straight line of best fit.

What is the uncertainty in your measurements of the independent variable?
How many values did you use for the independent variable?
Was this enough values? Explain your answer.
What would increasing the number of values used do to your results?
What is the uncertainty in the value of θ2 when θ1 = 60°?
Calculate this as a percentage of the mean value of θ2 at this value of θ1.
What is the uncertainty in the value of θ2 when θ1 = 20°?
Calculate this as a percentage of your smallest value of θ2.

Calculate the gradient of the line of best fit.
n 2 sin 1
The refractive indices of material 1 and 2 are linked by the equation = .
n1 sin  2
Rearrange this to show the equation of your line of best fit.
If material 1 is air (n1 = 1) what does the gradient represent?
Use your gradient to find the refractive index of Perspex.
What is the difference between your value and the accepted value of 1.48?
What does this percentage tell you about your results?
Using a sharp pencil rather than a blunt pencil did what to your results?
Give some of the advantages of using a laser instead of a filament bulb.
Analysis
Finding the Refractive Index
You are going to use experimental data on light being shone through a Perspex block to find its refractive index.
The incident angle is measured from the normal in the Perspex block and the refracted angle is measured from the
normal out of the block in the air.
Experimental Data
The protractor used to measure the incident and refracted angle had a precision of 0.5°
Incident Refracted Angle, Mean Refracted
Sin θ1 Sin θ2
Angle, θ1 (°) θ2 (°) Angle, θ2 (°)
5.0 7.0 7.5 7.5
10.0 14.5 15.5 15.0
15.0 22.0 23.0 23.0
20.0 31.0 30.0 31.0
25.0 38.0 39.0 39.5
30.0 47.5 47.5 47.5
35.0 57.5 57.5 58.5
40.0 71.5 71.5 73.0
Analysis
Calculate the mean values for the refracted angle for each incident angle.
What type of error is responsible for the variation in readings for the refracted angle?
Calculate the uncertainty in the mean refracted angle for an incident angle of 15°.
What is this as a percentage of the mean refracted angle?
Calculate the uncertainty in the mean refracted angle for an incident angle of 30°.
What is this as a percentage of the mean refracted angle?
Which measurement is more precise?
Complete the columns labelled sin θ1and sin θ2 and state your values to 3 decimal places.
Plot a graph of sin θ1 on the y axis and sin θ2 on the x axis.
Draw a line of best fit for the graph.
1
The equation for the line is sin 1 = sin  2 , what does the gradient represent?
n
What value for the refractive index,n, does your graph produce?
The accepted refractive index of Perspex is 1.48.

What is the difference between your value for the refractive index and the accepted value?
Work out this out as a percentage of the accepted value.
1
Use the equation sin  C = to calculate the critical angle of Perspex.
n
The accepted critical angle is 42.5°.
What is the difference between your value for the critical angle and the accepted value?
How could you prove that this was the critical angle? Describe how you would go about doing this.
Analysis
Interference of Sound
Five speakers are set into a box in the formation as shown in the diagram below. By measuring the separation of the
loud interference fringes at different distance from the speaker box it is possible to deduce which speakers are
emitting a sound of wavelength (λ) 0.17 m.
Values in cm
Experimental Data
Here are the separations of the fringes at different distances from the speaker box.
Distance to Speaker, Fringe Separation, Mean Speaker Separation,
D w w s
(m) (m) (m) (m)
1.00 0.20 0.21 0.21
1.50 0.33 0.33 0.29
2.00 0.41 0.47 0.42
2.50 0.52 0.56 0.51
3.00 0.63 0.66 6.63
3.50 0.77 0.72 0.73
4.00 0.89 0.84 0.82
4.50 0.91 0.98 0.99
Analysis
In this experiment what were the independent and dependent variables?
What was the precision in the wavelength value and distances from the speaker?
Calculate the mean values of the fringe separation for each distance to the speaker.
What is the uncertainty in the fringe separation for a distance of 2.00m?
Calculate this as a percentage of the mean.
Calculate this as a percentage of the largest value at this distance.
Calculate this as a percentage of the smallest value at this distance.
What is the name given to the error responsible for the spread in the fringe separations?
D
Use the equation w = to calculate the speaker separation for each distance to the speaker.
s
What is a percentage uncertainty in the value of s for when D = 2.50m?
Calculate the mean value of the speaker separation.
Either: plot a graph of D on the y axis against w on the x axis and use your gradient to calculate s.
w w
or plot a graph of D against and your gradient will equal s. A column has been left for the values of .
 
Does your graph support the value of s obtained from the table?
Which speakers does this suggest are emitting the sound?
Practical
Laser Diffraction
You are going to carry out an experiment to determine the wavelength of light emitted from a laser then use this
value to calculate the slit separation of a diffraction grating.
Equipment List
Laser Tape Measure (at least 5m)
Rulers (30cm and 1m) Diffraction Gratings (300 lines per mm and Course 3)
Task 1
• Aim the laser at a screen/wall approximately 4 metres away.
• Place the 300lines per mm grating approximately 5cm in front of the laser.
• Measure the distance from the grating to the screen/wall. State the precision of your instrument.
• Measure the distance from the central spot to the first order bright spot to the right and to the left.
• State the precision of your instrument.
• Repeat this for the second, third and forth order maxima.
• Record your results in a table including columns for sinθ and wavelength (λ).
Task 2
• Keeping the laser in the same position, replace the grating with the course grating.
• Measure the distance from the grating to the screen/wall. State the precision of your instrument.
• Measure the distance from the central spot to the first order bright spot to the right and to the left.
• State the precision of your instrument.
• Repeat this for the second, third and forth order maxima.
• Record your results in a table including columns for sinθ and wavelength (λ).
After the Experiment 1

For each order maxima calculate the value of sinθ by dividing the distance from the central maxima by the distance
to the screen.
If there are 300 lines per mm calculate the slit separation d.
Using the equation d sin  = n calculate the value of λ for each maxima (n).
Calculate the mean value of λ. What is the uncertainty in this value?What is this as a percentage of the mean?
If the accepted value is 660 nm what is the difference of your value from the accepted value?
Plot a graph of sinθon the y-axis against n on the x-axis.
Use the gradient to calculate the value of λ.
Look at your data for the first order maxima
After the Experiment 2

For each order maxima calculate the value of sinθ by dividing the distance from the central maxima by the distance
to the screen.
Using the equation d sin  = n calculate the value of dfor each order maxima (n).
Calculate the mean value of d. What is the uncertainty in this value? What is this as a percentage of the mean?
Plot a graph of sinθon the y-axis against n on the x-axis.
Use the gradient to calculate the value of d.
Analysis
Braking Force
You are going to use information from the Highway Code to calculate the braking force exerted on a car performing
an emergency stop.
Experimental Data
Here are the braking distances for vehicles travelling at different speeds.
Initial Speed, Braking Time taken, Braking Force,
Speed Speed
v distance, s t F
(mph) (km/h)
(m/s) (m) (s) (N)
20 6
30 14
40 24
50 38
60 55
70 75
Analysis
Convert the speeds from miles per hour to kilometres per hour using the conversion 1mile = 1.6km.
Convert the speeds from kilometres per hour to metres per second.
(u + v)
Use the equation s = t to complete the column for the time taken to stop.
2
If a car has a mass (m) of 950 kg calculate the quantity mΔv for each of the initial speeds.
Write your values in the empty column of the table including a heading and appropriate units.
Plot a graph of mΔv on the y axis against t on the x axis.

Draw a line of best fit for the points.
The gradient of the line of best fit is equal to the Braking Force (F) of the car. Calculate this value.
mv
Use the equation F = to complete the last column of the table.
t
Calculate the mean braking force on the car from the table.
What is the difference between this value and the gradient of your graph?
Calculate this as a percentage of the gradient.
What is the uncertainty in the braking force from the table?

Calculate this as a percentage of the mean braking force you obtained from the table.
Does the gradient fall within the uncertainty?
The Highway Code states that these are the average braking distances, what might cause a variation in the braking
distances?
The Highway Code also gives the overall stopping distances which are larger than the braking distances, why?
Why didn’t we use the overall stopping distances?
Describe the forces acting upon the car before the brakes are applied.
Analysis
Impulse
A device for firing toy cars was used to investigate the concept of impulse. The firing force could be adjusted and the
velocity of a car of unknown mass was recorded.
Experimental Data
Here are the velocities the car travelled at after the force was applied for 0.07 seconds.
Force, Velocity, Mean Velocity, Mass,
F v v m
(N) (m/s) (m/s) (kg)
0.5 0.27 0.28 0.28
1.5 0.88 0.83 0.81
2.5 1.47 1.37 1.36
3.5 2.03 1.94 1.92
4.5 2.52 2.52 2.52
5.5 2.98 3.17 3.09
6.5 3.75 3.58 3.59
Analysis
Calculate the mean velocity for each of the forces.
What is the uncertainty in the measurement of v when F is 1.5?
Calculate this as a percentage of the mean v.
Which type of error is responsible for the variation in value of v?
Plot a graph of F against v (on the x axis) and draw a line of best fit.
If F and v are connected by the equation Ft = mv , what does the gradient of your line represent?
Use the gradient to calculate the mass of the toy car.
Use the above equation to calculate a value of m for each value of F, write these values in the table above.
Calculate the mean value of m from the table.
What is the uncertainty in this value?
The mass of the toy was measured to be 125g.

Calculate the difference between the actual value and the gradient answer.
What is this as a percentage of the actual answer?
Calculate the difference between the actual value and the table answer.
What is this as a percentage of the actual answer?
Which word describes the answer that is closer to the true answer?
If the velocity was calculated by measuring how far the toy car moved in 1 second, how could you increase the
precision of the value of velocity?
Practical
Circular Motion
You are going to carry out an experiment to investigate the relationship between the centripetal force and the mass
of a bung on a string system. You will then use your data to calculate the mass of the bung.
Equipment List
Plastic tube Stop clock
String (1.0m) Masses (4 x 100g, 1 x 50g)
Rubber bung with hole Digital balance
Task
• Tie one end of the string to the rubber bung and make a mark on the string at a distance of 45cm from the bung.
• Thread the string through the plastic tube and attach 150g to the other end of
the string.
• Whirl the rubber bung in a horizontal circle as shown in the diagram.
• Adjust the speed of the bung so that the radiusr of the circle is equal to 45cm.
• Measure the time t for 20 revolutions of the bung.Take repeat readings and
calculate a mean value.
• Calculate the centripetal force using F = mg
40 .r
• Calculate the speed v of the bung using v =
t
• Repeat the experiment for masses equal to 200, 250, 300, 350, 400 and 450g.
• Plot a graph of F on the y-axis against v2. Draw a line of best fit and calculate the gradient.
• Use the digital balance to find the mass of the bung. Record this measurement as the ‘actual mass’.

What is the uncertainty in your value for the radius? Calculate the percentage uncertainty in your reading.
What is the uncertainty in your mean value of the t when the mass was 200g?
Calculate the percentage uncertainty in the mean value.
Use the mean value of t to calculate the time taken for a single revolution.
What is the uncertainty of this value?
What is the uncertainty in your mean value of the t when the mass was 300g?
Calculate the percentage uncertainty in the mean value.
Use the mean value of t to calculate the time taken for a single revolution.
What is the uncertainty of this value?
Which of the two produced a more precise value?
Using the results you obtained for a mass of 300g calculate the percentage uncertainty in the value of v.
What would be the percentage uncertainty in the corresponding value of v2?
mv 2
The equation of your line of best fit is given by F = . Use your value of the gradient to calculate m.
r
What is the difference between your value and the actual mass?
Calculate the percentage difference of your value from the actual mass.
Practical
Finding ‘g’ with a Simple Pendulum
You are going to carry out an experiment to investigate the relationship between the time period of a pendulum, its
length and the gravitational field strength, g.
Equipment List
Pendulum bob Clamp Stand, Boss and Clamp
String (1.5m) Stop clock
Rulers (30cm and 1m) Plasticine
Task
• Suspend the pendulum bob from the clamp attached to the clamp stand so that the pendulum length is 0.30m.
• Write down the precision of the ruler.
• Displace the pendulum by less than 10° from the vertical to set it in simple harmonic motion.
• Measure the time taken for the pendulum to complete 10 swings. Record this in a table along with the time
period for 1 swing.
• Write down the precision of the stop clock.
• Repeat this experiment twice more and take an average for the time taken for 1 swing, T.
• Include a column in your table of T2, where T is the time period of 1 swing.
• Obtain mean values of T for pendulums of length: 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9 and 1.0m.
• Include a column labelled g.
• Plot a graph of time period squared, T2 (on the y-axis) against pendulum length, l (on the x-axis).
• Plot a line of best fit and calculate its gradient.

Why do you think you were asked to displace the pendulum by less than 10°?
Look at your graph, are the results reliable? Why?
Other than taking repeat readings how else could you increase the reliability of your experiment?
Use the value of l and T2 for each value of l to fill in the column you labelled g.
Calculate the mean value of g from this column.
Calculate the percentage difference of your value from the accepted value.
4 2
The equation of your line of best fit is given by T =
2
l . Use your value of the gradient to calculate g.
g
Which of your two values of g is more accurate?
Look at the column labelled g and the largest value.

Use your raw data to calculate the uncertainty in the mean value of T.
What is the percentage uncertainty in the corresponding value of T2?
Use the precision of your equipment to calculate the percentage uncertainty in your measurement of the
corresponding length.
4 2 l
If g = calculate the overall uncertainty in this value of g.
T2
Practical
Finding k with a Mass and Spring
You are going to carry out an experiment to investigate the relationship between the time period of a mass and
spring system, the mass applied and the spring constant, k.
Equipment List
Spring Clamp Stand, Boss and Clamp
Masses (10 x 50g) Stop clock
Ruler (30cm) Plasticine
Task
Part 1
• Measure the length of the spring.
• Suspend the spring from the clamp attached to the clamp stand. Attach a 50g mass to the bottom of the spring.
• Record the extension of the spring for 50g. Repeat with increasing mass up to 500g.
• Draw a table to include columns for mass, force applied and extension.
• Plot a graph of force applied (on the y-axis) against extension (on the x-axis).
• Calculate the gradient. This is the spring constant for the spring and will be called the accepted value.
Part 2
• Hang a 50g mass from the spring. Displace the mass to set it into simple harmonic motion.
• Measure the time taken for the pendulum to complete 10 cycles. Record this in a table along with the time
period for 1 cycle.
• Write down the precision of the stop clock.
• Repeat this experiment twice more and take an average for the time taken for 1 cycle, T.
• Include a column in your table of T2, where T is the time period of 1 cycle.
• Obtain mean values of T for masses: 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450 and 500g
• Include a column labelled k.
• Plot a graph of time period squared, T2 (on the y-axis) against mass, m (on the x-axis).
• Plot a line of best fit and calculate its gradient.

Use the value of m and T2 for each value of m to fill in the column you labelled k.
Calculate the mean value of k from this column.
What is the difference between the mean value from the table and the accepted value?
Calculate the percentage difference of the mean value from the accepted value.
4 2
The equation of your line of best fit is given by T 2 = m . Use your value of the gradient to calculate k.
k
What is the difference between the gradient and the accepted value?
Calculate the percentage difference of the gradient from the accepted value.
Which of your two values of k is more accurate?
What were the dependent and independent variables in Part 2 of your investigation?
How could you have increased the reliability of your results?
How could you have increased the precision of your results?
Calculate the percentage uncertainty in your largest time measurement. What is the percentage uncertainty in the
corresponding T2 value?
Practical
SHM Oscillations of a Spring
You are going to investigate how the time period of the oscillations of a ruler, which is supported by a spring, varies
when different masses are suspended from the ruler
Equipment List
Spring Clamp Stand, Boss and Clamp (x2)
Masses (10 x 50g) with hanger Stop clock
Ruler (1m) Blu-Tack and Pin
Clamping blocks Spirit level
Task
• Set up the apparatus as shown in
Figure 1. The threads taped to the
ruler should be held firmly
between the two wooden blocks
so the ruler is free to pivot about
this end. The spring should
support the ruler 10.0 cm from its
free end.
• Adjust each clamp so that the
ruler is horizontal and the spring is
vertical.
• The mass, m, should initially be the
100 g slotted mass holder and be
supported at
• x = 50.0 cm. Keep both Land xconstant throughout the experiment.
• Depress the free end of the ruler slightly and release it so that it oscillates vertically.
• Take suitable readings to determine the time period, T, of the oscillation.Add a 100 g mass to the mass holder.
Adjust the clamp so that the ruler is horizontal and the spring is vertical. Measure the time period of the
oscillation. Repeat the procedure up to a total mass of 700 g.
• Record your results in a suitable table.
• Draw a graph to show how T2 plotted on the vertical axis varies with total mass, m.

In your investigation what was the dependent variable?
How did you ensure that the ruler was horizontal and the spring was vertical?
Describe and explain two techniques you used to ensure accurate timings.
Describe what your graph suggests about the relationship between T2 and m.
Evaluate the reliability of your results.
Describe the effect on your graph of using a ruler with greater mass.
Determine the uncertainty in the largest value of T.

What is the percentage uncertainty in the largest value of T?
What is the percentage uncertainty in the corresponding of T2?
Determine the uncertainty in the smallest value of T.
What is the percentage uncertainty in the smallest value of T?
What is the percentage uncertainty in the corresponding of T2?
State one likely source of this uncertainty.

State the name given to this type of error.

Practical
V-Shaped Pendulum
You are going to investigate how the time period of a V-shaped pendulum varies with distance d
Equipment List
Ruler (1m) Stop Clock
Clamp Stand, Boss and Clamp (x2) Blu-Tack and Pin
Pendulum Bob Spirit Level
Thin String or Thread
Task
• You are provided with a V-shaped pendulum set up as shown in Figure 1
• The length s should remain constant throughout the experiment.
• Initially set distance d to 10.0cm
• When the pendulum bob is displaced
and released in the direction shown
in Figure 2, it oscillates with SHM,
provided the amplitude is small.
• Make suitable measurements to
determine accurately the time
period, T, of the oscillations.
• The mounted pin is available as a
reference marker (sometimes called a
fiducial marker) for use in timing the
oscillations.
• Repeat the time measurements for a
range of values of distance d
• Use your results to plot a graph of Tagainst d.

In your investigation what was the dependent variable?
State and explain the best position to place the reference marker (or fiducial marker) for timing the oscillations.
State and explain one procedure, other than using the fiducial marker, that you used to reduce the uncertainty in the
measurement of the time period of the oscillations.
The effective length, Lof a V-shaped pendulum, is given by: L
2
= s 2 − (d / 2)2 . Theory shows that the time period, T,
L
of the pendulum is given by: T = 4
2 2
where g is the gravitational field strength.
g
16 4 s 2 4 4 d 2
Show that T = −
4
g2 g2
By comparing the above equation with the general equation of a straight line, y = mx + c, state what should be
plotted to obtain a straight graph.
How could a value for g be obtained from this graph?
Calculate the gradient of your graph.

Use your graph to evaluate the reliability of your results.
What is your uncertainty in the measurement of d?

Calculate the percentage uncertainty for your smallest value of d.
Calculate the percentage uncertainty for your largest value of d.
Analysis
Damping
A mass and spring system was set up with three masses of 100g and radius 2.5 cm. The oscillator (masses) was
displaced by 3 cm, released and the time was measured for the oscillator to come to rest. After this pieces of circular
card were inserted between two of the masses and the experiment was carried out again.
You are to analyse the results obtained.
Experimental Data
Time taken for oscillator to Area of % of Undamped
Radius of Mean time Additional Area
come to rest Oscillator time to come to
card (cm) (s) (m2)
(s) (m2) rest
0.0 259 248 254 --- ---
6.0 134 131 143
7.0 116 115 111
8.0 92 83 83
9.0 65 68 68
10.0 58 57 53
Analysis
Calculate mean value for the time taken for the oscillator to come to rest for each radius of card.
What is the uncertainty in the time taken to stop when the radius is 6 cm?
Calculate this as a percentage of the mean value.
Calculate this as a percentage of the shortest time measurement at this radius.
Calculate this as a percentage of the longest time measurement at this radius.
What type of error is responsible for the difference in the value of the time taken to come to rest?
Calculate the area of the oscillator using A = r 2 . Write these values in the column provided.
What is the precision in the radius if card measurements?
Calculate the percentage uncertainty in the 7.0 cm measurement.
What will be the percentage uncertainty in the value of the Area?
Write down the upper and lower limits of the Area.
Plot a graph of Radius of Oscillator (on the y axis) against time taken to come to rest.
Describe the graph you have plotted.
What does your graph suggest about the relationship between the two variables?
Plot a graph of Area of Oscillator (on the y axis) against time taken to come to rest.
Describe the graph you have plotted.
What does your graph suggest about the relationship between these two variables?
Complete the final columns of the table by calculating the additional area each card adds to the oscillator and the
time period as a percentage of the undamped time taken to come to rest.
Do you notice any patterns or trends?
Plot a graph of Additional Area (y axis) against percentage of undamped time taken to come to rest.
How are these variables linked?
Theory states that damping will not affect the time period of the SHM system. How could you prove this using the
experimental set up described at the top of the page?
Analysis
The Gravitational Constant, ‘G’
You are going to use experimental data on the six closest planets to the Sun to determine the gravitational constant
G.
Experimental Data
Here is the planetary data for the six closest planets to the Sun
Planet Radius, r (m) Surface field strength, g (N kg-1)
Mercury 2.40 x 106 2.43 x 106 2.44 x 106 3.76 3.74 3.78
6 6 6
Venus 6.04 x 10 6.11 x 10 6.11 x 10 8.73 8.80 8.79
6 6 6
Earth 6.36 x 10 6.40 x 10 6.39 x 10 9.85 9.78 9.81
6 6 6
Mars 3.41 x 10 3.35 x 10 3.38 x 10 3.81 3.79 3.79
7 7 7
Jupiter 7.13 x 10 7.14 x 10 7.14 x 10 24.95 24.92 24.83
7 7 7
Saturn 6.10 x 10 6.00 x 10 6.02 x 10 10.40 10.38 10.41
Mean radius, r Mass, M Mean surface field G

Planet
(m) (kg) strength, g (N kg-1) (N m2 kg-2)
Mercury 3.30 x 1023
Venus 4.87 x 1024
Earth 5.98 x 1024
Mars 6.42 x 1023
Jupiter 1.90 x 1027
Saturn 5.67 x 1026
Analysis
Calculate the mean values of the radius for each planet
Calculate the mean values of surface field strength for each planet.
What is the name given to the error responsible for the spread in the values of radius and surface field strength?
Calculate the uncertainty in the radius of Mercury.

Calculate the percentage uncertainty in the largest value of the radius of Mercury.
Calculate the uncertainty in the surface field strength of Jupiter.
Calculate the percentage uncertainty in the smallest value of the surface field strength of Jupiter.
GM
Use the equation g = to complete the last column of the table.
r2
Calculate your mean value for the gravitational constant G.
Calculate the percentage difference of your mean value from the accepted value of 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2.
Calculate the percentage uncertainty in the smallest value of the radius of Earth.
Calculate the percentage uncertainty in the largest value of the surface field strength of Earth.
If the two above values were used to calculate G what would be the percentage uncertainty in your value of G? You
may ignore any uncertainty in the measurement of the mass M.
M
Plot a graph of surface field strength g (on the y-axis) against (on the x-axis).
r2
Calculate the difference between the gradient and your mean value of G.
Calculate the percentage difference between the gradient and your mean value of G.
Calculate the difference between the gradient and the accepted value of G.
Calculate the percentage difference between the gradient and the accepted value of G.
Analysis
Gravitational Potential
An experiment was carried out to find the relationship between the distance from the centre of the earth and the
gravitational potential. The raw data are shown below:
Experimental Data
Distance, r, from Gravitational potential, V (JKg-1)
the centre of the 1/r
Earth to test mass (m-1) Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Mean
(m)
6.37x106 -7.00 x 107 -6.13 x 107 -5.85 x 107
8.37x106 -4.58 x 107 -4.64 x 107 -4.81 x 107
1.04 x107 -3.86 x 107 -3.97 x 107 -3.98 x 107
1.24 x107 -3.49 x 107 -3.35 x 107 -3.00 x 107
1.44 x107 -2.64 x 107 -2.82 x 107 -2.51 x 107
1.64 x107 -2.47 x 107 -2.64 x 107 -2.71 x 107
1.84 x107 -2.31 x 107 -2.26 x 107 -2.08 x 107
2.04 x107 -1.84 x 107 -1.93 x 107 -2.19 x 107
2.24 x107 -2.01 x 107 -1.60 x 107 -1.99 x 107
Analysis
Calculate the mean gravitational potential for each distance and the values for 1/r.
What error is responsible for the spread in the values of gravitational potential?
Calculate the uncertainty in the measurement of gravitational potential for the largest distance measured.
Calculate the percentage uncertainty in this measurement of gravitational potential.
Calculate the uncertainty in the measurement of gravitational potential for the smallest distance measured.
Calculate the percentage uncertainty in this measurement of gravitational potential.
Plot a graph of gravitational potential (y-axis) against distance from the centre of the earth (x-axis).
Describe any pattern or trend shown by your graph.
Use your graph to find the gravitational potential at distances of 1.0x107m from the centre of the earth and
2.0x107m from the centre of the earth.
Calculate the work done in moving a 25kg mass from 1.0x107m from the centre of the earth to 2.0x107m from the
centre of the earth.
The gradient of the line at any point on the graph gives the gravitational field strength at that distance from the
centre of the planet. Use your graph to calculate the gravitational field strength at a distance of 1.5x107m from the
centre of the earth.
Calculate the percentage difference between the value you just worked out and the true value of -1.78Nkg-1.
The mass of the earth is 6.0x1024kg. Using the precision, calculate the percentage uncertainty in this value.
GM
This value can be used in the equation V = − .
r
Plot a graph of V (y-axis) against 1/r (x-axis).
What does the gradient of this line represent?
Use your graph to calculate a value for the gravitational constant, G.
Calculate the percentage difference between your value of G and the accepted value of 6.67x10-11Nm2Kg-2.
Analysis
Kepler’s Third Law
You are going to use experimental data on the six closest planets to the Sun and Kepler’s Third Law to determine the
Mass of the Sun M.
Experimental Data
Here is the planetary data for the six closest planets to the Sun
Minimum radius of Maximum radius of
Planet 9
Orbit time, T (days)
orbit (10 m) orbit (109 m)
Mercury 45.9 69.8 88.00 87.92 87.98
Venus 107.3 108.8 224.60 224.80 224.70
Earth 146.9 152.0 364.24 365.27 365.27
Mars 206.4 249.1 687.09 686.89 686.96
Jupiter 740.3 815.5 4331.29 4333.98 4332.86
Saturn 1348.6 1503.0 10759.8 10763.2 10755.5
Uranus 2733.6 3004.2 30675 30689 30688
Neptune 4456.5 4533.6 60194 60145 60210
Mean radius, r Mean radius cubed,r3 Mean orbit time, T Orbit time squared,
Planet
(m) (1032 m3) (s) T2 (1013 s2)
Mercury
Venus
Earth
Mars
Mean radius, r( Mean radius cubed,r3 Mean orbit time, T Orbit time squared,
Planet
m) (1035 m3) (s) T2 (1017 s2)
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
Analysis
Calculate the mean radius of orbit for each of the planets.
Complete the column for the radius of orbit cubed. State your results in the form given in the heading of the column.
Calculate the mean orbit time for each planet in seconds.
Complete the column for the orbit time squared. State your results in the form given in the heading of the column.
Plot a graph of T2 on the y axis and r3 on the x axis for the 4 inner planets and a second graph for the 4 outer planets.
Draw a line of best fit on each graph.
4 2 r 3
The equation for your line of best fit is given by T 2 = where G is the gravitational constant (6.67 x 10-11).
GM
Calculate the gradient for the 4 inner planets graph.
Use this to calculate M.
What is the difference between this value and the accepted value of 1.99 x 1030kg?
Work this out as a percentage of the accepted value.
Calculate the gradient for the 4 outer planets graph.
Use this to calculate M.
Which of the graphs gave you a value of closest to the true value?What word describes this?
Analysis
Electric Potential
You are going to analyse the data obtained in an investigation into the electric potential at different distances from a
Van de Graaff generator whose dome has a diameter of 40 cm.
Experimental Data
Distance from 1
r Electric Potential, V Mean V
the Van de r
(m) (J C-1) (J C-1)
Graaff (m) (m-1)
0.30 62300 61500 61300
0.80 36300 36100 35300
1.30 25100 25000 26100
1.80 20300 19200 19300
2.30 16300 15900 15500
2.80 13600 13600 13300
3.30 11400 11600 11800
3.80 10300 10300 10300
4.30 9250 9060 9230
4.80 8190 8370 8310
Analysis
Calculate the distance from the centre (r) for each distance from the Van de Graaff generator.
What is the precision of the distance measurements?
Calculate 1/r for each distance from the Van de Graaff generator.
Calculate the mean electric potential (V) for each distance.
What is the uncertainty in V for a distance of 0.80 m?
Calculate this as a percentage of the mean value of V at this distance.
Calculate this as a percentage of the smallest value of V at this distance.
Calculate this as a percentage of the largest value of V at this distance.
What is the uncertainty in V for a distance on 4.30 m?
Calculate this as a percentage of the middle value of V at this distance.
What error is responsible for the spread in values of the electric field strength at 2.80 m?
Plot a graph of V against 1/r and draw a line of best fit.

Q
If the equation of the line is V = what does the gradient present?
4 0 r
Use your gradient to calculate the charge, Q, on the Van de Graaff.
Plot a graph of V against r and draw a line of best fit.

Draw a tangent to the line of best fit when r = 2.50 m.
Calculate the gradient of the tangent. This is equal to the electric field strength (E) at that distance from the centre.
Write down your value of E obtained from the graph.
Q
Use the equation E = to calculate the theoretical value of E when r is 2.50 m.
4 0 r 2
What is the difference between your value from the graph and the theoretical value?
Calculate this difference as a percentage of the theoretical value.
Analysis
Finding ε0
You are going to analyse the data obtained in an investigation into the electric potential at different distances from a
Van de Graaff generator that has a charge of 13 C stored on its surface. This will lead to you finding a value for ε0.
Experimental Data
Distance from Electric Field Strength,
Mean E r2 1 / r2
Centre, r E
(x 109 N/C) (m2) (m-2)
(m) (x 109 N/C)
2.0 29.47 28.76 29.43
2.5 19.03 18.45 18.62
3.0 13.08 12.71 13.18
3.5 9.49 9.52 9.61
4.0 7.36 7.29 7.28
4.5 5.69 5.91 5.71
5.0 4.66 4.73 4.65
5.5 3.92 3.81 3.85
6.0 3.28 3.28 3.19
6.5 2.82 2.73 2.76
Analysis
What is the precision of the distance measurements?
Calculate the mean values of electric field strength for each value of r.
Calculate the values of r2 and 1 / r2.
Calculate the uncertainty in the value of E when r is 2.5 m?

What is this as a percentage of the mean value of E?
Plot a graph of E against 1 / r2 (on the x axis)

Draw a line of best fit and calculate its gradient.
Q
If the equation linking E and 1 / r2 is E = , what does the gradient of your line represent?
4 0 r 2
Use the gradient to calculate a value of ε0.
The accepted value of ε0 is 8.85 x 10-12, what is the difference between your value and the actual value?
Calculate this as a percentage of the actual value?
Analysis
Capacitance
You are going to use experimental data to find the capacitance of a capacitor.
Experimental Data
Here is the charge stored on the capacitor when different voltages are applied across it
Voltage, V Charge Stored, Q Mean Charge Stored, Q
(V) (x 10-6 C) ( C)
2.02 9.47 9.53 9.54 9.42
4.11 19.32 19.32 19.32 19.32
6.04 28.42 28.37 28.23 28.54
7.99 37.60 37.41 11.79 37.64
10.03 47.15 46.92 47.25 47.24
Analysis
Calculate the mean charge stored by the capacitor at each of the voltages.
What is the precision of the voltage readings?
Calculate the percentage uncertainty in the middle voltage reading.
What is the uncertainty in the charge stored reading when the voltage was 2.02 V.
Calculate this as a percentage of the mean charge stored.
What is the uncertainty in the charge stored reading when the voltage was 4.11 V
Calculate this as a percentage of the mean charge stored.
Calculate this as a percentage of the smallest reading of charge stored at this voltage.
Calculate this as a percentage of the largest reading of charge stored at this voltage.
Calculate this as a percentage of the reading of charge stored closest to the mean value at this voltage.
Plot a graph of mean charge stored, Q on the y axis against voltage, V on the x axis.
Draw a line of best fit for the results.
The gradient represents the capacitance of the capacitor, what value did you obtain from the gradient?
The capacitance quoted on the capacitor is 4.7 μF.
What is the difference between your gradient and the quoted value?
Calculate this as a percentage of the quoted value.
Q
You can calculate the capacitance using the equation C = .
V
Use the readings from the 7.99 V run to calculate the capacitance.
What is the maximum the capacitance could be?
What is the minimum the capacitance could be?
Does the quoted value fall with-in these limits?
How can we describe this?
Practical
Discharging Capacitors
You are going to carry out an experiment to determine the capacitance of an unmarked commercial capacitor.
Equipment List
Power pack Resistors (various values)
Crocodile clips and Leads Voltmeter
Capacitors (various values) SPDT switch
Capacitor (unknown value) Stop clock
Task
Part 1
• Set up a circuit like the one shown in the diagram. The resistor should have a value of 220 kΩ and the capacitor
should have a value of 1000 μF.
• Ensure the capacitor is connected with the correct polarity.
• Ensure the Single Pole, Double Throw (SPDT) switch is
switched to charge the capacitor from the power pack.
• Set the power pack to a p.d. of 10V and charge the
capacitor.
• Flip the SPDT switch to discharge the capacitor through the
resistor and start the stop clock.
• Take readings from the voltmeter every 20 seconds.
• Plot a graph of potential difference(y axis) against time.
• Draw a curve of best fit.
Part 2
• Ask your supervisor for an unmarked capacitor and set up a similar circuit as before.
• Discharge the capacitor and determine the time τ taken for the potential difference across the capacitor to
decrease to 37% of its initial value.
• Repeat this measurement for different values of R, both larger and smaller.
• Record your results in a table including a blank column at the end to be used in the analysis.
• Plot a graph τ (y axis) against R and draw a line of best fit.

Use your first graph to calculate the time constant τ of the capacitor.
Take several readings and clearly label these on your graph.
The theoretical value is 220 seconds. What is the difference between this and your mean value for τ?
Ask your supervisor for the actual capacitance stated on the capacitor in the second part of the experiment.
The gradient of your line of best fit is equal to C. What is the difference between your gradient and the actual value?
In the blank column of your table calculate C for each value of R using the equation  = RC .
Calculate the mean value of C from the table.
What is the difference between this value and the actual value?
Is the gradient value or the table value more precise?
Explain how using a voltmeter connected to a data logger would improve your experiment.
Analysis
Capacitor Time Constant
A circuit was set up to initially charge a 470 μF capacitor from a 7.52 V battery and then discharge through a resistor
of unknown resistance. You are going to use the data of how the potential difference changes over time to find the
resistance of the resistor.
Experimental Data
Here are the potential differences for different times from the start of discharge.
Time, t Potential Difference, V Mean V
V / V0 ln(V / V0)
(s) (V) (V)
5 5.80 5.78 5.94
10 4.61 4.48 4.50
15 3.49 3.48 3.59
20 2.69 2.74 2.76
25 2.10 2.15 2.11
30 1.64 1.63 1.68
35 1.30 1.23 1.31
40 1.02 0.98 0.97
45 0.79 0.78 0.74
50 0.59 0.59 0.62
Analysis
Name one control variable on the investigation.
What is the independent variable in this investigation and how was it measured?
What is the dependent variable in this investigation and how was it measured?
Calculate the mean values of each potential difference.

Calculate the value of V / V0 for each time.
Calculate the value of ln(V / V0) for each time.
Calculate the uncertainty in the p.d. when discharged for 15 seconds.
What is this as a percentage of the mean p.d. for this time?
Calculate the uncertainty in the p.d. when discharged for 45 seconds.
What is this as a percentage of the mean p.d. for this time?
Plot a graph of ln(V / V0) against t (x axis) and draw a line of best fit.
− t / RC
If V and V0 are connected by the equation V = V0e what does the gradient of your line of best fit represent?
Use your gradient to calculate the resistance, R, of the resistor.
The resistance given for the resistor is 42 kΩ, what is the difference between the accepted value and your value?
Plot a graph of V against t (x axis).

Use your graph to find the time constant.
Use the time constant to find the resistance, R, of the resistor.
What is the difference between this value of R and the accepted value?
Practical
Capacitor Discharge
You are going to investigate the discharge of a capacitor through different resistors
Equipment List
Power pack/Battery Resistors (various values)
Crocodile Clips and Leads Voltmeter
Capacitors (470µF) Stop clock
Task
• Set up the circuit as shown in the diagram. You should ensure
that the negative terminal of the supply is connected to the
negative terminal of the capacitor. If in doubt, ask your
supervisor. You will not lose marks for this safety check.
• Connect the resistor with the least resistance in the circuit as
R, and record its value.
• Connect the flying lead to point A to charge the capacitor.
Record the p.d., V0 across the capacitor.
• Remove the flying lead from point A and connect it to point B so that the capacitor discharges through the
resistor. Start the stopclockat the same time as connecting to point B.
• Take measurements to determine the pdV10 across the capacitor after the capacitor has discharged for 10
seconds.
• Change the resistor and repeat the charging and discharging process. Record the resistor value, R, the initial pd,
V0, across the capacitor and the pd, V10 after 10 seconds. Repeat this process with the remaining resistors.
• Record all your measurements and processed data in a suitable table.
V  1
• Draw a graph to show how ln 0  (plotted in the vertical axis) varies with .
 V10  R

State the control variable in your experiment
Use your data calculate the uncertainty in your smallest mean pd, V10.
Calculate the percentage uncertainty in your smallest mean pd, V10.
Use your data calculate the uncertainty in your largest mean pd, V10.
Calculate the percentage uncertainty in your largest mean pd, V10.
State and explain two factors that determined the accuracy of the measurement of V10.
State and explain two ways in which a data logger instead of a voltmeter and stopclock, would improve the accuracy
in the measurement of V10.
For a capacitor of capacitance C discharging through a resistor of resistance R the potential difference across the
− t / RC
capacitor is given by the equation V = V0 e where V is the pd across the capacitor at time, t, and V0 is the pd
 V0  10
across the capacitor at time t = 0. Use this equation to show that ln  =
 10  RC
V
Use your gradient to calculate the capacitance of the capacitor.
Calculate the difference between your value of the capacitance and the given value on the capacitor
What is the percentage difference between your value and the given value?
Analysis
Mass Spectrometer
You are going to use experimental data to find the charge to mass ratio of a proton and an electron.
Proton Experimental Data

The magnetic flux density of the field is 1.42T
Radius, r Speed, v Mean speed, v v/B
(m) (x105 m/s) (m/s) (m/sT)
0.02 18.78 18.71 18.82
0.04 37.63 37.44 37.58
0.06 56.35 56.29 56.35
0.08 75.08 75.13 75.11
0.10 93.81 93.89 93.88
Electron Experimental Data

The magnetic flux density of the field is 1.28T
Radius, r Speed, v Mean speed, v v/B
(x 10-6 m) 5
(x 10 m/s) (m/s) (m/sT)
2.0 4.47 4.53 4.53
4.0 9.03 9.05 8.95
6.0 13.56 13.46 13.54
8.0 17.96 17.98 18.12
10.0 22.52 22.59 22.48
Proton Analysis
Calculate the mean speed for each radius.
For the smallest radius calculate the uncertainty in the mean speed.
Calculate the percentage uncertainty in the mean speed.
What is the percentage uncertainty in the corresponding value of v/B?
Plot a graph of radius on the y axis against v/B on the x axis.
mv
The equation for this line is given by r = , what does the gradient represent?
BQ
Use the gradient to calculate the charge to mass ratio for the proton.
What is the difference between your value and the accepted value of 9.58 x 107 Ckg-1?
Electron Analysis
Calculate the mean speed for each radius.
For the largest radius calculate the uncertainty in the mean speed.
Calculate the percentage uncertainty in the mean speed.
What is the percentage uncertainty in the corresponding value of v/B?
Plot a graph of radius on the y axis against v/B on the x axis.
Use the gradient to calculate the charge to mass ratio for the electron.
What is the difference between your value and the accepted value of 1.76 x 1011 Ckg-1?
Analysis
Magnetic Flux Density
An experiment was conducted to find the magnetic flux density
between the poles of a magnet using the apparatus as shown in
the diagram. The current-carrying wire experiences an upwards
force so the magnet experiences and equal and opposite force.
The current flowing through the wire was varied and the reading
on the top pan balance recorded. The length of wire in the
magnetic field can be taken as 10 cm.
Experimental Data
Current Reading on Top Pan Balance Mean mass Force Magnetic Flux
I m m F Density B
(A) (g) (g) (N) (T)
1.0 01.32 01.30 01.37
2.0 02.72 02.72 02.61
3.0 04.01 03.91 03.96
4.0 05.27 05.24 05.29
5.0 06.62 06.68 06.59
6.0 07.92 07.99 07.94
Analysis
What is the independent variable and its precision?
Calculate the mean values of the mass reading for each of the currents.
What is the uncertainty in the mass reading for a current of 1.0 A?
Calculate this as a percentage of the mean.
Calculate this as a percentage of the smallest mass reading at this current.
Calculate this as a percentage of the largest mass reading at this current.
What type of error is responsible for the variation in the mass readings?
Use the equation F = mg to calculate the Force for each of the currents. Take g to be 9.81.
F
Use the equation B = to complete the last column of the table.
Il
Use the graph to comment on the reliability of the results.
Calculate your mean value for the magnetic flux density B.
Plot a graph of current (y axis) against Force.

Draw a straight line of best fit and calculate the gradient.
What is the equation of your line of best fit?
Use the gradient to find the value for the magnetic flux density.
Calculate the difference between the value of B from the graph and the value from the table.
Calculate this as a percentage of the table value.
If the reading on the balance was 00.06 when no current flows what type of error would that be?
How would this have effected your mass measurements?
Analysis
Transformers
An investigation was carried out on a simple transformer. The primary coil was fixed with 4250 turns but unknown
potential difference. The number of turns on the secondary coil was varied and the potential difference measured.
With this information it should be possible to find the potential difference of the primary coil.
Experimental Data
Here is the data found when the number of coils on the secondary coil was varied
Turns on the
Potential Difference across the Secondary Coil, VS Mean,VS
Secondary Coil,
(V) (V)
NS
10 7.68 7.43 7.49 7.52
15 11.08 11.44 11.28 11.34
25 18.49 18.76 19.06 18.89
40 29.76 30.63 29.83 30.24
60 45.92 44.49 44.37 45.64
85 65.32 63.54 64.51 62.73
115 88.03 85.48 86.73 87.16
Analysis
Complete the table by calculating the mean value of VS for each value of NS.
Did you ignore any of the values because they were anomalous? Identify them and justify their exclusion.
Which type of error is responsible for the variation of values of VS when NS is 115?
How are these errors reduced?
What is the precision of the voltmeter used?
What is the uncertainty in the value of VS when NS is 15?

Calculate this as a percentage of the mean value of VS.
Plot a graph of VS (on the y axis) against NS (on the x axis). Draw a line of best fit.
Does your line of best fir pass through the origin? Should it? Explain your answer.
VP VS
If VS and NS are linking by the equation = , what does the gradient of your line of best fit represent?
NP NS
Use your gradient to find a value of VP, the potential across the primary coil.
The potential was measured to be 3200V, what is the difference between this and the value from the gradient?
Calculate this as a percentage of the measured value.
Use this to comment on the accuracy of the investigation.
Identify and explain 2 ways in which a transformer loses energy.

For each way explain how to reduce these losses.
Analysis
The Nuclear Radius Constant
You are going to use experimental data on the nuclear radius of ten elements to find the nuclear radius constant r0.
Experimental Data
Element A A⅓ Radius (fm) Mean Radius (fm) r0
Helium 4.00 2.09 2.05 2.04
Beryllium 9.01 2.60 2.65 2.61
Oxygen 16.00 3.06 3.06 3.09
Aluminium 26.98 3.56 3.61 3.62
Calcium 40.08 3.85 3.93 3.92
Zinc 65.39 4.95 4.95 4.99
Niobium 92.91 5.54 5.53 5.53
Tellerium 127.60 6.48 6.54 6.45
Erbium 167.26 7.29 7.17 7.19
Uranium 238.03 8.01 8.07 8.09
Analysis
⅓
Calculate the value of A for each of the elements.
Calculate the mean value of the nuclear radius for each element.
What is the name given to the error responsible for the spread in the values of nuclear radius?
Calculate the uncertainty in the radius of each element.

Which has the largest uncertainty?
Calculate the percentage uncertainty in each value of mean radius.
Which has the largest percentage uncertainty?
Use the equation R = r0 A 3 to complete the last column of the table.

1
Write the appropriate units in the heading of this column.

Calculate the mean value for the nuclear radius constant r0.
Plot a graph of nuclear radius R (on the y-axis) against the cube root of the number of nucleons A⅓ (on the x-axis).
Draw a line of best fit and use it to calculate the gradient.
If the accepted value of r0 was 1.27 fm ....

Calculate the difference between this value and the value you calculated from the table.
Calculate the percentage difference this gives.
Calculate the difference between this value and the gradient of your graph.
Calculate the percentage difference this gives.
Which of these values is more accurate? Why?
Use your graph to comment on the reliability of the data you were given for this experiment.
What would increasing the number of repeat readings for each radius do to our mean value of radius?
What would keeping the same number of repeats but measuring to radius to a smaller scale (eg. 3 decimal places)
do to our mean value of radius?
Practical
Radioactive Decay
You are going to carry out an experiment to determine the half-life of a sample of yellow cubes which will represent
radioactive nuclei and from this the decay constant.
Equipment List
525 yellow cubes with one side coloured black
The cubes will represent radioactive nuclei. All the cubes with their black side facing up will represent nuclei which
have decayed to safety and the cubes with their yellow side facing up will represent nuclei which are still radioactive.
Task
• Count the number of cubes at the start of the experiment. This will be known as the initial number, N0.
• The decay constant should be ⅙. Using A = N calculate the expected activity, AE.
• Place the cubes into their container, shake and then pour them onto the desk. Count the cubes which have
decayed and place them to one side. Record this value as actual activity, AA.
• Record the remaining number of radioactive nuclei, N.
• Calculate the expected activity for roll number two.
• Continue until all the nuclei have decayed.
• Record your results in a table which has the following columns:
Number of Rolls Expected Activity Number Remaining Actual Activity Decay Constant
t AE N AA λ

Calculate the difference between the Expected Activity (AE) and Actual Activity(AA) for each number of rolls.
Calculate these differences as percentages of the Actual Activity.
Which is the most accurate roll?
Calculate the decay constant for each roll. You should use the number remaining before the roll and the actual
activity.
Which is the most accurate?
Calculate the mean value for the decay constant.
What is the uncertainty?
Calculate this as a percentage of the value.
Plot a graph of Actual Activity (AA) against number of rolls(t).

Take four values from your graph for the half life of the sample. Calculate the mean value for the half-life, T½.
What is the uncertainty in your mean?
What is the percentage uncertainty of the mean?
ln 2
Use the equation T 1 = to calculate the value of the decay constant. The percentage uncertainty is the same as
2 
that in your value for the half-life.
Create a second table with columns for t, N/ N0 and ln(N/ N0)

Use your data from the experiment to complete this table.
Plot a graph of ln(N/ N0) on the y-axis against t on the x-axis and draw a line of best fit.
Calculate the gradient of your line. This is equal to the decay constant.
Is the decay constant calculated from the table, from the half-life or from the last graph the most accurate?
Analysis
Half-Life and the Decay Constant
A radioactive sample of 7500 nuclei was observed over a period of time and the remaining radioactive nuclei were
counted. You are going to use experimental data to find the decay constant and half-life of a radioactive substance.
The background radiation was measured to be 11 counts per second.
Experimental Data
Time, t Activity, A Corrected A Number of Nuclei,
N / N0 ln (N / N0)
(s) (Bq) (Bq) N
5 1371
10 1124
15 922
20 757
25 622
30 511
35 421
40 346
45 285
50 236
Analysis
Take the background radiation into account to find the corrected activity.
Calculate the number of radioactive nuclei remaining, N, for each time measurement.
Calculate N/N0 for each time interval.
Calculate ln (N/N0) for each time interval.
Plot a graph of N against t (on the x axis) and draw a line of best fit.
Take at least 3 measurements from your graph of the half life.
ln 2
Use the equation T 1 = to find the decay constant λ.
2 
Plot a graph of ln (N/N0) against t (on the x axis) and draw a line of best fit.
− t
If ln (N/N0) and t are linked by the equation N = N 0 e what does the gradient f your line represent?
Use your gradient to calculate the decay constant λ.
The decay constant was given to be 0.04.

Calculate the difference between this value and your value found from the half-life.
Calculate the difference between the actual value and your value found from the gradient.
Which answer is more accurate?
Analysis
The Inverse Square Law
You are going to use experimental data obtained to investigate the inverse square law of γ radiation.
Experimental Data
A G-M tube was placed at various distances from a gamma source. After a set time the reading on the counter was
recorded.The background radiation was measured over a minute time period which resulted in a count of 61.
Distance Count Time Count rate Count Time Count rate Count Time Count rate
-1 -1
d (m) (s) (s ) (s) (s ) (s) (s-1)
0.15 2174 20 4324 40 6612 60
0.30 566 20 1128 40 1650 60
0.45 258 20 532 40 774 60
0.60 166 20 312 40 474 60
0.75 104 20 196 40 294 60
Distance d (m) Mean count rate C (s-1) Corrected count-rate C (s-1)

0.15
0.30
0.45
0.60
0.75
Analysis
Calculate the count rate for each trail at every distance from the gamma source.
Calculate the mean count rate at every distance from the gamma source.
What is the uncertainty in the mean count rate at a distance on 0.30m?
Calculate this as a percentage of the mean count rate.
What is the uncertainty of the distance measurement of 0.30m?
Calculate this as a percentage of the actual measurement.
Which of the quantities is the greater source of uncertainty?
What is the background count rate?
Complete the column for the corrected count rate for every distance from the gamma source.
If we did not subtract the background radiation from our readings which type of error would this be?
1 1
Plot a graph of: A) against C and B) against d
d2 C
Draw lines of best fit which continue to cut the axes.
Does either of your graphs support the inverse square law? Explain which features do.
The count rate at point A and B can be compared using the equation: C A (d A ) = C B (d B )
2 2
Use this equation and data from the experiment to calculate the count rate at 0.35m from the gamma source.
Use graph A to calculate the count rate at 0.35m from the gamma source.
Use graph B to calculate the count rate at 0.35m from the gamma source.
If the calculate answer is the actual value which of your graphs gave the most accurate result?
If we had not subtracted the background radiation how would it have affected the gradient of graph A?
Analysis
Binding Energy
Complete this table and plot a graph of binding energy per nucleon (y-axis) against nucleon number (x-axis)
Mass of Proton = 1.00728u Mass of Neutron = 1.00867u 1u = 931.3 MeV
Element Z N A Mass of separate Mass of Mass Defect (u) Binding Energy BE/A (MeV)
nucleons (u) Nucleus (u) (MeV)
H 1 0 1 1.00728
He 2 2 4 4.00150
Li 3 4 7 7.01435
Be 4 5 9 9.00998
B 5 6 11 11.00656
C 6 6 12 11.99670
N 7 7 14 13.99922
O 8 8 16 15.99051
F 9 10 19 18.99345
Ne 10 10 20 19.98694
Na 11 12 23 22.98375
Mg 12 12 24 23.97844
Al 13 14 27 26.97438
Si 14 14 28 27.96923
P 15 16 31 30.96551
S 16 16 32 31.96327
Cl 17 18 35 34.95950
Ar 18 20 38 37.95282
K 19 20 29 38.95326
Ca 20 20 40 39.95159
Sc 21 24 45 44.94437
Ti 22 25 47 46.93970
V 23 28 51 50.93135
Cr 24 28 52 51.92730
Mn 25 30 55 54.92435
Fe 26 30 56 55.92060
Ni 27 30 58 57.91990
Co 28 32 59 58.91835
Cu 29 34 63 62.91385
Zn 30 34 64 63.91260
Ga 31 38 69 68.90865
Ge 32 42 74 73.90430
As 33 42 75 74.90345
Br 34 44 79 78.89905
Se 35 46 80 79.89780
Kr 36 46 82 81.89370
Rb 37 48 85 84.89135
Sr 38 50 88 87.88470
Y 39 50 89 88.88395
Zr 40 50 90 89.88230
Nb 41 52 93 92.88345
Mo 42 56 98 97.88240
Analysis
E = mc2
You are going to use experimental data and Einstein’s mass-energy equation to calculate the speed of light.
Experimental Data
The energy released was measured and recorded for different mass defects.
Mass Defect, Energy Released, Mean Energy Speed of Light Speed of Light,
m E Released, E Squared, c2 c
(x 10-28kg) (x 10-11J) (J) (m/s)2 (m/s)
4.85 4.07 4.06 3.99
9.96 8.81 8.91 8.89
14.4 12.6 12.3 12.9
19.8 16.5 16.5 16.3
24.5 20.4 20.4 20.2
29.2 23.5 23.5 24.4
34.8 29.9 30.7 30.5
Analysis
Calculate the mean energy released for each mass defect.
What is the precision of the mass defect?
Calculate the percentage uncertainty in the middle mass defect?
What is the uncertainty in the energy released for a mass defect of 4.85 x 10-28 kg?
Calculate this as a percentage of the mean energy released.
Calculate this as a percentage of the smallest energy released for this mass defect
Calculate this as a percentage of the largest energy released for this mass defect.
Calculate this as a percentage of the middle energy released for this mass defect.
Use the equation E = mc 2 to complete the last columns of the table labelled c2 and c.
Calculate your mean value for the speed of light c.
What is the difference between your mean value and the accepted value 3.0 x 108 m/s?
Plot a graph of mean energy released E (on the y-axis) against mass defect m (on the x-axis).
Draw a line of best fit and describe any pattern or trend shown by your graph.
The square root of the gradient gives us a value for c. What value does the gradient yield?
What is the difference between your gradient value for c and the accepted value?
What does accurate mean?

Which of your values is more accurate?
What does reliable mean?
How could the results be made more reliable?
Analysis
Ideal Gases
You are going to analyse two experiments which were carried out to find the molar gas constant, R.
The accepted value of R is 8.31
Constant Volume Experimental Data

15 moles of a gas were kept in a container of volume 2.5 ±0.1 m3. Temperature probe ± 1K
Temperature T (K) Pressure p (kPa) Mean p (kPa) R
293 14.5 14.2 14.5
313 15.3 15.5 15.7
333 16.6 16.4 16.5
353 17.5 17.5 17.7
373 18.4 18.8 18.9
Constant Pressure Experimental Data

15 moles of the same gas were kept at a constant pressure of 1.8 ± 0.1 kPa. Temperature probe ± 1K
Temperature T (K) Volume V (m3) Mean V (m3) R
293 2.04 2.09 2.05
313 2.26 2.23 2.25
333 2.31 2.35 2.33
353 2.44 2.41 2.45
373 2.67 2.63 2.63
Analysis 1 – Constant Volume

Calculate the mean pressures and fill in the table.
Use the equation pV = nRT to fill in the last column of the table.
Calculate the mean value of R.
Plot a graph of pressure (on the y-axis) against temperature (on the x-axis) and draw a line of best fit.
Calculate the gradient of your line and use it to find the value of R.
What is the percentage difference of this value from the accepted value?
Which of your values in more accurate?
Analysis 2 – Constant Pressure

Calculate the mean volumes and fill in the table.
Use the equation pV = nRT to fill in the last column of the table.
Calculate the mean value of R.
Plot a graph of volume (on the y-axis) against temperature (on the x-axis) and draw a line of best fit.
Calculate the gradient of your line and use it to find the value of R.
What is the percentage difference of this value from the accepted value?
Which of your values in more accurate?
Analysis 3 - Comparison
With reference to the percentage differences explain which of the experiments was more accurate.
With reference to the graphs you have drawn explain which of the experiments was more reliable.
The third run of experiment 1 and the fourth run of experiment 2 should have given you the same value of R. Use
the percentage uncertainties for the pressure, temperature and volume in each experiment to calculate the
percentage uncertainty in the values of R.
What word can we use to describe the value of R with the lower percentage uncertainty?
Practical
Finding Absolute Zero
You are going to carry out an experiment to investigate the how the volume a gas occupies varies with temperature.
You will then use this data to predict the absolute zero temperature.
Equipment List
Simple Gas Thermometer Ice
Ruler (30cm) Kettle
Beakers Calibrated Thermometer
Task
• A simple gas thermometer consists of a capillary tube sealed at one end with a thread of sulphuric acid trapping
a column of air.
• Measure the room temperature.
• Place the ice, thermometer and capillary tube into the beaker.
• Record the temperature and the length l of the column of trapped air.
• Record values of l for various temperatures as the ice water approaches room temperature.
• Empty the beaker, boil the kettle and fill the beaker. Place the thermometer and capillary tube into the beaker.
• Record values of l for various temperatures as the water approaches room temperature.
• Repeat the experiment two more times.
• Produce a table of the three sets of raw data and the mean values of l for different temperatures
• Plot a graph of length l on the y-axis and the temperature on the x-axis.
• Your x-axis should have a range of -300°C to 100°C.
• Draw a straight line of best fit for your results and extrapolate it until it crosses the x-axis.

What were the independent and dependent variables in your experiment?
Look at your graph, what is the relationship between the two variables you have investigated?
What was the precision of the thermometer you used during the investigation?
Calculate the percentage uncertainty in your largest reading of the temperature.
What was the precision of the ruler you used during the investigation?
Calculate the percentage uncertainty in your largest reading of the length of the column of air.
For this reading which of the two instruments is more precise?
Choose any reading from the middle of the range of temperatures you used in the investigation.
Calculate the uncertainty in the value of the mean length.
What is this as a percentage uncertainty of the mean length?
Where does your graph cut the x-axis? This is your value for the absolute zero temperature.
The accepted value is given as -273K, what is the difference between your value and the accepted value?
Comment on the reliability of your results including a reference to your graph.

Explain how taking fewer readings would affect the reliability of your results and why.
Explain how taking more readings would affect the reliability of your results and why.
Identify what you believe is the biggest cause of error in your investigation. How could you reduce this?
Analysis
Finding Absolute Zero
12.7 m3 of gas was heated to 40 °C and then cooled. The pressure was measured every 10 °C as it was cooled. Using
this we can find the absolute zero temperature and the number of moles of gas.
Experimental Data
The energy released was measured and recorded for different mass defects.
Temperature, T Pressure, p Mean Pressure, p Temperature, T
(°C) (Pa) (Pa) (K)
40 187 180 182
30 188 193 189
20 200 197 200
10 207 208 206
0 211 216 215
-10 220 222 227
-20 228 231 231
-30 242 236 236
-40 240 251 247
Analysis
Name one of the control variables in the investigation.
What was the dependent variable in the investigation?
What is the precision of the temperature measurement?
What is the precision of the volume measurement?
Calculate the mean pressure for each temperature.

Convert the temperatures into kelvins.
What is the uncertainty in the pressure measurement at 30 °C?
Calculate this as a percentage of the mean pressure at this temperature.
What is the uncertainty in the pressure measurement at 10 °C?
What is the uncertainty in the pressure measurement at -10 °C?
What is the uncertainty in the pressure measurement at -30 °C?
Plot a graph of P against T (x axis) and draw a line of best fit.

Where does the line cut the x axis?
This should be -273 °C, what is the difference between your value and the accepted value?
Pressure and temperature are linked by the equation pV = nRT, what does the gradient of your line represent?
Use the gradient to calculate the number of moles of gas in the container.
The accepted number of moles is 1.2, what is the difference between this value and your value from the gradient?
Practical
Specific Heat Capacity
You are going to carry out an experiment to calculate the specific heat capacity of different materials and compare
your values to the accepted values.
Equipment List
Power pack Calibrated Thermometer
Ammeter Stop Clock
Voltmeter Test Metals
Immersion Heater Beaker and Balance (up to 1kg)
Leads Heat Proof Mat and Lagging
Task
• Connect the immersion heater to the power pack turned to 10V. Set up the voltmeter to measure the potential
difference across (V) and an ammeter to measure the current through (I) the heater.
• Measure the mass of the test sample* and state the precision of the instrument.
• Place the immersion heater in the test sample
• Place the calibrated thermometer in the sample and record its initial temperature. State the precision of the
thermometer.
• Turn on the power pack and start the stop clock simultaneously.
• Record the readings on the voltmeter and ammeter. State the precision of each instrument.
• Record the temperature of the sample at intervals up to 15 minutes.
• Calculate the Energy supplied for each time interval you measured the temperature at.
• Energy supplied can be calculate using the equation E = VIt .
• Create a table of Energy supplied (Q) and Temperature Difference (∆T).
• Plot a graph of Energy (on the y axis) against Temperature Difference (on the x axis). Draw a line of best fit.
• Repeat the experiment for different test samples if you have time.

What were the independent and dependent variables in your experiment?
Look at your graph, the theoretical equation for the line is given by Q = mcT , how does your line support this?
Calculate the percentage uncertainty in your voltmeter reading.

Calculate the percentage uncertainty in your ammeter reading.
Calculate the percentage uncertainty in the initial temperature reading.
Calculate the percentage uncertainty in your measurement of 15 minutes.
Which is more precise?
What is the percentage error in your value for the Energy supplied after 15 minutes?

What does the gradient represent?
Use your gradient to calculate the specific heat capacity of the test sample.
What is the difference between your value and the accepted value?
Calculate this as a percentage difference.
Why is the value you calculated for the energy supplied only an estimate?
How could you have improved the set up?

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A Level Physics

Skills, Practicals and Analysis

Photon Energy Analysis Resolving Forces to find Weight Practical

Braking Force Analysis The Nuclear Radius Constant Analysis

How do you improve the precision of a reading?

Which type of variable would the following be classed as:

If T represents the true value which of the graphs below represents:

Symbol Name What it means How to convert

Convert the figures into the prefixes required.

Complete the table.

Complete the table.

M 385 322 408 328

N 2736 2729 2743 2643

O 5101 5108 5003 5098

P 125 137 167 142

Q 6124 6118 6510 6123

R 3.29 3.29 3.29 3.29

S 4589 4606 4644 4596

T 417 488 460 456

U 1.506 3.061 3.085 1.513

V 274 333 338 277

W 33.46 33.45 33.96 33.65

What would be the percentage error in the following quantities?

Measurement Source Type

The reading for the current through a wire

A beaker of hot water left on the desk

A mass of a beaker shows different values

A range of values are obtained for the

A few groups obtain different graphs of

The time period (time of one oscillation) of

A range of values are obtained for the time

x axis y axis x axis y axis x axis y axis

Age (years) Mass of Load (kg)

Relative Strength of Gravity

Time Incubated (days) Temperature (C)

Time (s) Time (s)

2.0 and 3.9 1.5 and 3.0

2.2 and 4.0 1.6 and 3.4

Substitute this into F = ma

Substitute this into the equation P = Fv

Substitute this into the equation E = Pt

Substitute this into the equation d sin  = n

Rearrange the equation to find the angle to the 3rd

Substitute E = Pt into the equation

Elastic energy is converted into kinetic

Make v2 the subject

Replace this with v 2 = u 2 + 2as

If u=0 rearrange the equation to make a the subject

Use F = ma to make F the subject

Calculate the Energy stored using E = Fs if the

Simplify the equation and use  = 2f to replace ω

Rearrange the equation to make t the subject

The centripetal force of a charged particle is due to mv 2

Rearrange the equation to make Q the subject

Make − t the subject

Rearrange E = mcT to make T the subject

Substitute this into the equation pV = nRT

After the Experiment

Use your graph to comment on the reliability of your results.