Types of Applications of

Measurement Instrumentation

1.1 WHY STUDY MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS?

T
he study of any subject matter in engineering should be motivated by an ap­
preciation of the uses to which the material might be put in the everyday
practice of the profession. Measurement systems are used for many detailed
purposes in a wide variety of application areas. Our approach will be to start with
some specific applications in a specific industry and then generalize this picture by
developing classijication schemes that apply to all possible situations.
While measurement is used in many contexts, I want to introduce some basic
ideas using the automotive industry as an example. This industry employs measure­
ment in many ways and is thus a good choice for exploring the various uses of
measurement tools. In the text title, the term “measurement system” is meant to in­
clude all components in a chain of hardware and software that leads from the mea­
sured variable to processed data. Let us start examining the use of measurement
in the automotive industry “at the beginning,” that is, with the conceptual design
process, where a new automobile or truck is first conceived and the basic configu­
ration developed. Because a modem automobile uses as many as 40 or 50 sensors
(measuring devices) in implementing various functions necessary to the operation
of the car, an automobile designer must be aware of the instruments available for the
various measurements and how they operate and interface with other parts of the
system. As new sensors are invented, designers must keep up with such develop­
ments since they may allow improvements in car design and operation. Lack of
such sensoF-hwiedge eaa s e v e d y festrict the range of designs that one can
conceive, thus limiting improvements in overall car performance. While sensor
speciahts will at later stages of design consider the measuring devices in great
detail, the conceptual designer must have a basic appreciation of their capabilities,
so that the initial design does not neglect any useful possibilities.

4 P A R T I General Concepts

Once the conceptual stage of design is well underway, measurement system

considerations arise in new contexts. Many engineered products are nowadays de­
signed using the methods of concurrent engineering where design and manufactur­
ing are integrated, rather than being considered sequentially, as was often the case
in earlier times. Before concurrent engineering became common, design was gen­
erally completedfirst, manufacturing considerations addressed only late6 and costly
revisions and delays (or poor designs) were often the result. With concurrent engi­
neering, product design concepts are not “frozen” until both function and manufac­
turability have been reconciled. That is, the design and manufacturing engineers
work in coordinated teams, blending their expertise right from the beginning of
the design process. Both functionality and manufacturability considerations often
require the design process to include laboratory testing of one kind or another. For
example, if a new material is being considered, we may need to run strength tests to
develop data needed by the design engineers. Or, a new or revised manufacturing
process may require statistical response surface experiments’ to find the effects of
process variables on performance andor cost. Finally, availability from suppliers
of new components, such as improved shock absorbers, may require performance
testing to decide whether their use is warranted in the new design. We see that
laboratory testing and the associated measurement systems are thus a vital part of
the design process.
As design and development proceed, prototype subsystems and finally entire
vehicles will be produced. These are used as “test beds” to evaluate performance
and then feed back information to the desigdmanufacturing teams. That is, initial
designs usually have unsuspected flaws, which are revealed by building and testing
the prototypes. Also, “pencil and paper” or computer-aided designs always are
based on theories that are never exactly correct, so experimental testing is needed to
verify, or improve, theoretical calculations. We begin to appreciate that design relies
heavily on experimental testing at every stage of the process.
We have seen that experimentation is often needed during the design phase to
help in the development of the manufacturing processes for the product. Once the
design has been finalized, then manufacture of the product in quantity, rather than
the “one of a kind” mode used during development, can commence. When we ex­
amine actual production machinery and processes, we often find that these manu­
facturing tools are controlled by a so-calledfeedback mechanism. In such a scheme,
some quality parameter of the part produced is measured with appropriate sensors.
This measured value is compared with a desired value of the parameter, and if the
desired and measured values do not agree within some allowable tolerance, a
controller adjusts the machine or process until the product is “on specification.”
Perhaps the most obvious example of this general situation is the machining of parts
to specific dimen!oiocHere the measuring devices are precision gages that mea­
sure shaft diameters, hole sizes, lengths, etc. Robots used to weld, spray paint, or
assemble parts are also usually feedback devices that use motion and force sensors

‘E. 0. Doebelin, “Engineering Experimentation,” McGraw-Hill, New York, 1995, p. 273.

 C H A P T E R I Types of Applications of Measurement Instrumentation 5

to control the robots’ operation. Again it is clear that measurement plays a signifi­
cant role in almost every manufacturing enterprise.
Turning now to the final product, a modem automobile, as mentioned earlier,
relies on a multitude of sensors for its optimum operation. Some of these play es­
sentially a “monitoring” role, that is, they measure and display to the driver, infor­
mation useful for safe and efficient operation of the car. Speedometers tell us the
vehicle’s speed, while tachometers display engine RPM. Fuel gages keep track of
the gas supply, and temperature sensors warn of overheating. Recent developments
include use of the Global Positioning System (based on satellites) to locate the car
on an electronic map and guide the driver to a desired destination. Many other sen­
sors are part of feedback controls that optimize engine operation by measuring such
variables as atmospheric pressure, air flow rate, fuellair ratio, engine temperatures,
etc. Acceleration sensors (accelerometers)measure vehicle motion during a crash
and signal air bags to deploy if the crash is sufficiently severe. Brake-cylinder pres­
sure and wheel-speed sensors control the antilock braking system to give better
driver control on slippery surfaces. To keep costs down, many automotive sensors
use micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS). Using manufacturing techniques
borrowed from integrated-circuit technology, miniature sensors are mass produced
at low cost from materials such as silicon. A recent example is the GyroChip, a
replacement for the classical gyroscopic instrument used to measure angular
velocity. This sensor is being used in cars to augment vehicle stability during severe
or emergency maneuvers.

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF TYPES OF

MEASUREMENT APPLICATIONS
I used the automotive industry as a familiar example to introduce you to the varied
applications of measurement in engineering. To help you organize your thinking on
this subject I now want to generalize the topic of measurement applications. Fortu­
nately, all the specific examples I gave from the auto industry, and in fact, examples
from any industry, can be classified into only three major categories:
1. Monitoring of processes and operations.
2. Control of processes and operations.
3. Experimental engineering analysis.
That is, I suggest that every application of measurement, including those not yet
“invented,” can be put into one of the three groups just listed or some combination
of them. Let us now explore this scheme of classification in general terms and also
relate it to our earlier automotive examples.
Monitoring of processes and operations refers to situations where the mea­
suring device is being used to keep track of some quantity. The thermometers,
barometers, radars, and anemometers used by the weather bureau fit this definition.
They simply indicate the condition of the environment, and their readings do not
serve any control functions in the ordinary sense. Similarly, water, gas, and electric
6 P A R T 1 General Conceots

Disturbances
I
Input energy Controlled
ond /or material variable
L

Final control ItI

Measuring
instrument

Controller I
t
Desired value of
controlled variable

Figure 1.1 Feedback-controlsystem.

meters in the home keep track of the quantity of the commodity used so that the cost
to the user can be computed. In our automotive illustration, the speedometer, fuel
gage, outdoor temperature sensor, and compass would belong to this monitoring
class of applications.
Control of processes and operations is one of the most important classes of
measurement application. This usually refers to an automatic feedback control sys­
tem, as diagramed in generic terms in Fig. I. 1. This type of application is suffi­
ciently important that most undergraduate cumcula in mechanical, aerospace,
electrical, chemical, and industrial engineering will include a required course (and
several electives) in control systems.
The subject of feedback control is pertinent to this text on measurement
systems in two basic ways, one of which is the use of sensors in feedback control
systems, as just mentioned. The other relates to the fact that many measurement sys­
tems themselves use feedback principles in their operation. One could in fact say
that sensors are used in feedback systems and feedback systems are used in sensors.
Of the many possible examples of the latter, we mention the hot-wire anemometer,
a device for measuring rapidly varying fluid velocity. Without feedback, the hot
wire used in the instrument is accurate only for velocity fluctuations of frequency
less than about 100 Hz. By redesigning the instrument to use feedback, this limit is
extended to about 30,000 Hz, making the instrument much more useful.
The operation of systems such as that of Fig. 1.1 is briefly described as follows:
We want to control some “process,” such as the heating of our house; to be specific,
we want to keep the temperature near some desired value, such as 70” E The
process is influenced by various “disturbances” (such as the outdoor temperature)
that we can not eontml and alssby aii input of energy andor material that we are
able to manipulate, using some “final control element” (the gas valve in our fur­
nace). The design principle of all feedback control systems says that we should

’E. 0. Doebelin, “Control System Principles and Design,” Wiley, New York, 1985.
 CHAPTER 1 Types of Applications of Measurement Instrumentation 7

measure the variable which we want to control, compare it (in a “controller”) with
its desired value, and then, based on the “error” between the two, manipulate the fi­
nal control element in such a way as to drive the controlled variable closer to its de­
sired value. We see that this basic design concept means that every feedback control
system will have at least one measuring device as a vital component. Since feed­
back systems are used in literally millions of applications for controlling tempera­
ture, pressure, shaft speed, fluid flow, robot arm position, aircraft speed and altitude.
etc., these control applications are one of the most important uses of measurement
systems.
Returning to our earlier automotive examples, feedback control applications are
found in the car’s speed control system, the antilock braking system, the coolant
temperature regulating system, the air-conditioning system, the engine pollution
controls, and many more. Also, the majority of the manufacturing tools and pro­
cesses used to produce the car are under feedback control.
This text is not one on feedback control; however, when feedback is used in the
measurement system itselj we will not avoid discussion of its implications. Fortu­
nately, this can usually be done without requiring that the reader nave taken a con­
trols course or be expert in this technology.
Experimental engineering analysis is that part of engineering design, develop­
ment, and research that relies on laboratory testing of one kind or another to answer
questions. That is, as engineers, we have only two basic ways of solving engineer­
ing problems: theory and e~perimentation.~ Some (usually simple) problems can be
adequately solved using theory alone. Most problems require a judiciously selected
blend of theory and experiment. It is not unusual for the “lab testing” portion of an
engineering project to consume more than half of the total resources. As a result,
most engineers need to be proficient in planning and conducting this phase of the
effort. The text just referenced addresses the entire process; the current text concen­
trates on that portion intimately related to the measurement system itself.
Since the choice of how much theory and how much experiment to use in a par­
ticular application is difficult and important, we want to provide some guidelines to
help organize your thinking, at least in a general way. Figures 1.2 and 1.3 compare
and contrast the features of these two problem-solving methods. If we decide to use
experimentation, it is helpful to realize that all engineering experiments can be put
into a relatively small number of classes. This classification can be accomplished in
several ways, but one which I have found meaningful is given in Fig. 1.4.

1.3 COMPUTER-AIDED MACHINES

AND PROCESSES
In constructing useful machines and processes for society, it is now extremely com­
mon for engineers to include in the design, as dedicated components of an overall
system, computers of various sizes. Inexpensive, compact, and powerful computer
hardware and software can make possible significant advances in productivity,

3E. 0 Doebelin, “Engineenng Expenmentatlon,” McGraw-Hill, New York, 1995.

8 PART 1 General Concepts

I
1. Often give results that are of general use rather than for restricted
application.
2. Invariably require the application of simplifying assumptions. Thus, not
the actual physical system but rather a simplified “mathematical model”
of the system is studied. This means the theoretically predicted behavior
is always different from the real behavior.
3. In some cases, may lead to complicated mathematical problems. This has
blocked theoretical treatment of many problems in the past. Today, in­
creasing availability of high-speed computing machines allows theoreti­
cal treatment of many problems that could not be so treated in the past.
4. Require only pencil, paper, computing machines, etc. Extensive labo­
ratory facilities are not required. (Some computers are very complex and
expensive, but they can be used for solving all kinds of problems. Much
laboratory equipment, on the other hand, is special-purpose and suited
only to a limited variety of tasks.)
No time delay engendered in building models, assembling and checking
instrumentation, and gathering data.
I

Figure 1.2 Features of theoreticalmethods.

I
1. Often give results that apply only to the specific system being tests.
However, techniques such as dimensional analysis may allow some
generalization.
2. No simplifying assumptions necessary if tests are run on an actual system.
The true behavior of the system is revealed.
3. Accurate measurements necessary to give a true picture. This may require
expensive and complicated equipment. The characteristics of all the
measuring and recording equipment must be thoroughly understood.
4. Actual system or a scale model required. If a scale model is used, simi­
larity of all significant features must be preserved.
5. Considerable time required for design, construction, and debugging of
apparatus.

Figure 1.3 Featuresof experimentalmethods.

product quality, efficiency, flexibility, and safety. While the nontechnical public
often (wrongly) views the entire system as a “computer,” it is important that we not
encourage this misconception. The computer is helpless to control any machine or
process without the sensors that measure critical process variables or the actuators
 C H A P T E R 1 Types of Applications of Measurement Instrumentation 9

-
1. Testing the validity of theoretical predictions based on simplifying
assumptions; improvement of theory, based on measured behavior.
Example: frequency-response testing of mechanical linkage for resonant
frequencies.
2. Formulation of generalized empirical relationships in situations where no
adequate theory exists.
Example: determination of friction factor for turbulent pipe flow.
3. Determination of material, component, and system parameters, variables,
and performance indices.
Example: determination of yield point of a certain alloy steel, speed-
torque curves for an electric motor, thermal efficiency of a steam turbine.
4. Study of phenomena with hopes of developing a theory.
Example: electron microscopy of metal fatigue cracks.
5. Solution of mathematical equations by means of analogies
Exampie: boiuiioii sf shaft tcrsie~prohlerns by measurements on soap
bubbles.

Figure 1.4 Types of experimental-analysisproblems.

(“final control elements”) that manipulate process inputs and thus affect the process
controlled variables. Thus, many of the amazing feats of engineering accomplished
by computer-aided devices depend heavily on the availability and proper operation
of associated measurement systems.

1.4 CONCLUSION
Whatever the nature of the application, intelligent selection and use of measurement
instrumentation depend on a broad knowledge of what is available and how the per­
formance of the equipment may be best described in terms of the job to be done.
New equipment is continuously being developed, but certain basic devices have
proved their usefulness in broad areas and undoubtedly will be widely used for
many years. Arepresentative cross section of such devices is discussed in this text.
These devices are of great interest in themselves; they also serve as the vehicle for
the presentation and development of general techniques and principles needed in
handling problems in measurement instrumentation. In addition, these general con­
cepts are useful in treating any devices that may be developed in the future.
Theeeatment is also intended to be on a level that will be of service to not only
the user, but also the designer of measurement instrumentation equipment. There
-are two main reasons for this emphasis. First, much experimental equipment (in­
cluding measurement instruments) is often “homemade,” especially in smaller com­
panies where the high cost of specialized gear cannot always be justified. Second,
the instrument industry is a large and growing one which utilizes many engineers in
10 PART 1 General Concepts

a design capacity. While the general techniques of mechanical and electrical design
as applied to machines are also applicable to instruments, in many cases a rather dif­
ferent point of view is necessary in instrument design. This is due, in part, to the fact
that the design of machines is mainly concerned with considerations of power and
efficiency, whereas instrument design almost completely neglects these areas and
concerns itself with the acquisition and manipulation of information. Since a con­
siderable number of engineering graduates will work in the instrument industry,
their education should include treatment of the most significant aspects of this area.
The third class of applications listed earlier, experimental engineering analysis,
requires not only familiarity with measurement systems, but also some understand­
ing of the planning, execution, and evaluation of experiments. While all these as­
pects of experimental work might be treated in a single text or course, I have chosen
in the present text to concentrate on a thorough exposition of the measurement sys­
tem itself. A comprehensive treatment of the overall problems and methods of en­
gineering experimentation is presented in my companion text.4 There, a major
emphasis is on statistical methods, especially some simplified and practical ap­
proaches to statistical design of experiments. The two books together give a com­
plete and i~dept!!covcisge of aii aspecrs of engineenng experimental work.

PROBLEMS
1.1 By consulting various technical journals in the library, find accounts of
experimental studies carried out by engineers or scientists. Find three such
articles, reference them completely, explain briefly what was accomplished,
and attempt to classify them according to one or more categories of Fig. 1.4.
1.2 Give three specific examples of measuring-instrument applications in each of
the following areas: (a! monitoring of processes and operations, (b)control
of processes and operations, (c)experimental engineering analysis.
1.3 Compare and contrast the experimental and the theoretical approaches to the
following problems:
( a ) What is the tolerable vibration level to which astronauts may safely be
exposed in launch vehicles?
(b) Find the relationship between applied force F and resulting friction
torque Tfin the simple brake of Fig. P 1.1.
If

Figure P1.1
4E. 0. Doebelin, “Engineering Experimentation: Planning, Execution, Reporting,”McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1995.
 CHAPTER 1 Types of Applications of Measurement Instrumentation 11

(c) Find the location of the center of mass of the rocket shown in Fig. P1.2
if the shapes, sizes, and materials of all the component parts are known.

e
.-.

Figure P1.2
__ ­- --
Center of mass

(4 At what angle with the horizontal should a projectile be launched to

achieve the greatest horizontal range?

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12 PART I General Concepts

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