Computer Networks

Basics
This E-Book contains basics of Computer Networks for
the preparation of IBPS CWE (Common Written
Examination) for Specialist Officers.

Topics Covered:

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4. Protocols
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9. The OSI Mo Mod del
10. The TCP/IP
TCP/IP Model
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Computer Networks: A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to:

 share resources (such as printers and CD-ROMs),

 exchange files, or

 allow electronic communications

How are they linked?

Computers on a network may be linked through:

 cables,

 telephone lines,

 radio waves, satellites or

 wireless technologies

There are two aspects in computer networks.

• Hard Ware : It includes physical connection (using adapter, cable, router, bridge etc)

• Soft Ware : It includes set of protocols (nothing but a set of rules)

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Basic types of Computer Networks:

1. Local Area Networks (LANs) : These are the simple networks. A set of computers (2 or more)
connected within a single building or college campus (a few kilometres range).

2. Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs): These are the larger networks than LANs, t hese are
limited to city or group of Nearby O ffices. Simply we can say that a group of LA Ns are called a
MAN (but guys, this is not a standard definition, its just for your understanding purpose).

3. Wide Area Networks (WANs): These type of networks provides long distance transmission of
data and voice. (A city, state, country and of co urse the world). It contains HOST
and collection of machines.

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Comparison chart:

Local Area Network (LAN) Wide Area Network (WAN)

LAN (Local Area Network) is a WAN (Wide Area Network) is a computer

computer network covering a network that covers a broad area (e.g., any
Definition small geographic area, like a network whose communications links cross
home, office, school, or group metropolitan, regional, or national
of buildings. boundaries over a long distance).

Speed High speed (1000 mbps) Less speed (150 mbps)

Data transfer LANs have a high data transfer WANs have a lower data transfer rate as
rates rate. compared to LANs.

Network in an organization can

Example Internet is a good example of a WAN
be a LAN

Computers connected to a wide-area

One LAN can be connected to
network are often connected through public
other LANs over any distance
Connection networks, such as the telephone system.
via telephone lines and radio
They can also be connected through leased
waves.
lines or satellites.

Layer 2 devices like switches Layers 3 devices Routers, Multi-layer

Components and bridges. Layer 1 devices like Switches and Technology specific devices like
hubs and repeaters. ATM or Frame-relay Switches etc.

LANs tend to have fewer

Fault problems associated with them, WANs tend to be less fault tolerant as they
Tolerance as there are smaller number of consist of large number of systems.
systems to deal with.

Data
Experiences fewer data Experiences more data transmission errors as
Transmission
transmission errors compared to LAN
Error

WANs (like the Internet) are not owned by

Typically owned, controlled, 3
any one organization but rather exist under
Ownership and managed by a single person
collective or distributed ownership and
or organization.
management over long distances.

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Network Topology: A network Topology is the method or process which tells us about
how to connect the Systems.
• The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of c ables, computers and
other peripherals.

Types of Topologies:

Line Topology: If we connect several computers in a line then it is called as the LINE
TOPOLOGY

Tree Topology: If we connect several systems in a hierarchical order, then it is called as

the TREE TOPOLOGY

Bus Topology: If we connect several computers to a back bone (A wire) then it is called
as the BUS TOPOLOGY.

Star Topology: If we connect several computers to a central hub (system) then it is

called as the STAR TOPOLOGY.

Ring Topology: In line topology if we connected the last system to the starting system,
then it is called as the Ring topology.

Mesh Topology: If we connect several systems with each other (There is no necessity
that one system should connect with all the remaining systems in the n etwork, see the
diagram) then it is called as the Mesh Topology.

Fully Connected: In a Network if every system is connected with all the remaining
systems then it is called as the Fully Connected topology.

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Protocol:

• A protocol is a set of rules that governs the communications between computers on

a network

• These rules include guidelines that regulate the met hod of access, types of cabling and
speed of data transfer

The most common protocols are:

• Ethernet Did you ever wonder what
HTTP in web addresses was
• Local Talk
about? It stands for 
• Token Ring Hypertext Transfer Protocol.
• FDDI

• ATM

1. Ethernet:
• Most widely used
• Uses an access method called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision
Detection.

What does that mean?

• Each computer in the network ‘listens’ to the cable before sending anything through
the network. If the network is clear, the computer will transmit.
• If another computer is already transmitting on the cable, the computer will wait and
try again when the line is clear
• Sometimes, two computers attempt to transmit at the same instant. When this
happens, a collision occurs. Each computer then backs off and waits a random
amount of time before attempting to retransmit. It is normal to have collisions using
this method, but the delays caused by collisions and transmissions is small, and does
not affect speed of transmission on the network

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CSMA/CD =Carrier Sense Multiple Access /Collision
Detection

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2. Fast Ethernet: To allow for faster transmission, the Ethernet protocol has developed a
new standard that supports 100 Mbps
• Fast Ethernet requires the use of more expensive e quipment and network cards.

3. Gigabit Ethernet: The Ethernet protocol has also developed a new standard that
allows transmission of 1 Gbps (gigabit per second).
One gigabit per second =
one thousand megabits per
second.

4. Token Ring: Token ring protocol involves ‘token-passing’.

•It is not as popular as Ethernet protocol.
•A single electronic ‘token’ moves around the ring from one computer to the next.
If a computer wishes to transit and receives an empty token, it attaches data to
the token which then proceeds around the ring until it comes to the computer
the data is meant for.

5. FDDI: Stands for Fiber Distributed Data Interface.

• Is used mainly to connect two or more LANs, often over large distances.
• Can operate over fiber optic cable at 100 Mbps.

6. ATM: Stands for Asynchronous Transfer Mode.

• Transmit data at a speed of 155 Mbps and higher
• Works by transmitting all data in small packets of fixed size (other protocols
transfer variable size packets)
• Like FDDI , is most often used to connect two or more LANs

Where does TCP/IP fit into all this???

• TCP/IP is the protocol that is used for the transmission of information over the
Internet.
• IP (Internet Protocol) - the main delivery system for information over the
Internet.
• TCP (Transport Control Protocol)  - used to break apart and rebuild information
that travels over the Internet.

Network Hardware: 6

Network hardware includes, Computers, Peripherals, Interface cards, and Other

equipment needed to perform data processing and communications within the network.

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1. Concentrators / Hubs: A concentrator is a device that provides a central connection

point for cables from workstations, servers and peripherals.
• Hubs are multi-slot concentrators.

2. Switches: While hubs provide an easy way to scale up and shorten the distance that
the packets must travel to get from one node to another, they do not break up the
actual network into discrete segments. That is where switches come in.
• A vital difference between a hub and a switch is that all the nodes connected
to a hub share the bandwidth among themselves, while a device connected
to a switch port has the full bandwidth all to itself.
• Think of a switch as a ‘clever’ hub.

3. Repeaters: A signal loses strength as it passes along a cable, so it is often necessary

to boost the signal with a device called a repeater.
• A repeater might be a separate device, or might be part of a concentrator.

4. Bridges: A bridge is a device that allows you to segment a large network into two
smaller, more efficient networks.

5. Routers: A router is a device that forwards data packets between computer

networks, creating an overlay internetwork. A router is connected to two or more
data lines from different networks.

6. Firewalls: A firewall is a networking device that is installed at the entrance to a LAN

when connecting a networks together, particularly when connecting a private
network to a public network, such as the internet. The firewall uses rules to filter
traffic into and out of the private network, to protect the private network users and
data from malevolent hackers.

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Network Cabling: Cable is the medium through which information usually moves from
one network device to another.

Types of cables used in networks:

1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable : UTP cable is also the most common
cable used in computer networking.
 UTP is susceptible to radio and electrical frequency interference (it should not be too
close to electric motors, fluorescent lights, etc.)

2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable: STP is similar to UTP but with each pair covered by an
additional copper braid jacket or foil wrapping. This shielding helps protect the signals
on the cables from external interference.

3. Coaxial Cable: Coaxial cable has a single copper conductor at its

centre with a plastic layer between the centre conductor and the braided metal shield

 Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal

interference

4. Fiber Optic Cable: Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by
Several layers of protective materials
 It transmits light rather than electronic signals
 It is the standard for connecting networks between buildings, due to its immunity to
the effects of moisture and light
 Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances than
coaxial or twisted pair
 It can also carry information at vastly greater speeds
 Fiber optic cable is more difficult to install than other cabling

Wireless LANS: Wireless networks use high frequency radio signals to communicate
between the workstations and the fileserver or hubs.

 Disadvantages of wireless networks are:

 they are expensive (relatively),

 provide poor security,

 are susceptible to interference and

 are slower than cabled networks

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Network Operating Software: Network operating systems co-ordinate the

activities of multiple computers across a network.

The two major types of network OS are:

 Peer-to-peer

 Client/server

1. Peer to peer network OS: In peer to peer network OS, there is no file server or
central management source; all computers are considered equal.
 Peer to peer networks are design primarily for small to medium LANS.
 AppleShare and Windows for Workgroups are examples of programs that can
function as peer to peer.

2. Client/Server network OS: Client/server network OS centralise functions and

applications in one or more dedicated file servers.
 The file server provides access to resources and provides security.
 Novelle Netware and Windows NT Server are examples of client/server network
operating systems.

The OSI Model

Once there was an Organization called International Standards Organization (ISO in short). It
standardized the functions of the Communications System with abstraction layer and developed
a Model. They named it as Open Systems Interconnection (OSI). ISO - OSI sounds funny, isn't it
?
In this model, similar types of communication functions are grouped into Layers. There are 7
layers in this Model. Those are,

1. Physical Layer
2. Data link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer

Each layer helps it's above layer to establish an error free communication, in other words, each
layer depends on its below layer to establish an error free communication.

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How to remember these names????

Here the order is very important. If anybody asks you about these layers, you should start
with Physical and end with Application Layer. You should not jumble these names according
to your convenience. So you should remember these names with an order. Well, there are
several techniques are there to remember these type of names. One of those technique is,
making a funny name or sentence with the STARTING letters. Just, write the starting letters
of these layers.

P D N T S P A 

Now make a funny sentence, here are some examples

• Please Do Not Touch Steve's Pet Alligator

Or

• Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away 

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Functions of these Layers...

I. Physical Layer : This is the First or Lowest layer of the OSI model. It takes care about
the Physical Connections.

II. Data Link Layer : This layer Encodes the data packets and provides error free node to
node transmission. It is divided into two sub layers. Those are
 Media Access Control Layer (MAC Sublayer in short)
 It helps the computer to get the access of data transmission
 Logical Link Control Layer (LLC Sublayer in short)
 It controls the order, flow and errors of the frames (Frame synchronization)

III. Network Layer : This layer helps in Switching and Routing

(connecting and transmitting), and also creates virtual circuits ( Imaginary paths
for transmission)

IV. Transport Layer : This layer helps in providing Transparent data transmission. Its also
checks whether the data completely transmitted or not.

V. Session Layer : This layer is responsible for the Transmission Sessions. I mean
Starting, Maintaining and Terminating the Communication.

VI. Presentation Layer : This layer provides the data Independence ( simply you can
remember that this layer is responsible for the data Presentation :) I mean, how you
are presenting data (without any leakage)

VII. Application Layer : This is the topmost layer, this layer directly interacts with the end
user. This layer is responsible for checking whether the claimed user is genuine or
not.

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TCP/IP model (Transport Control Protocol / Internet Protocol):  This

model has 4 Layers. Those are

1. Network Interface Layer

2. Internet Layer
3. Transport Layer
4. Application Layer
ISO Just elaborated this model and divided some of these layers into EXTRA LAYERS and
developed OSI model. have a look at the following Diagram, so that you can understand the
difference :)

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