Three-Dimensional

Static and Dynamic

Analysis of Structures
A Physical Approach
With Emphasis on Earthquake Engineering

Edward L. Wilson
Professor Emeritus of Structural Engineering
University of California at Berkeley

Computers and Structures, Inc. Third Edition

Reprint January 2002
Berkeley, California, USA
 Copyright  by Computers and Structures, Inc. No part of this publication may be
reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, without the prior written
permission of Computers and Structures, Inc.

Copies of this publication may be obtained from:

Computers and Structures, Inc.
1995 University Avenue
Berkeley, California 94704 USA
Phone: (510) 845-2177
FAX: (510) 845-4096
e-mail: [email protected]

 Copyright Computers and Structures, Inc., 1996-2001

The CSI Logo is a trademark of Computers and Structures, Inc.
SAP90, SAP2000, SAFE, FLOOR and ETABS are trademarks of
Computers and Structures, Inc.
ISBN 0-923907-00-9
 STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING IS
THE ART OF USING MATERIALS
That Have Properties Which Can Only Be Estimated

TO BUILD REAL STRUCTURES

That Can Only Be Approximately Analyzed

TO WITHSTAND FORCES
That Are Not Accurately Known

SO THAT OUR RESPONSIBILITY WITH RESPECT TO

PUBLIC SAFETY IS SATISFIED.

Adapted From An Unknown Author

 Preface To Third Edition
This edition of the book contains corrections and additions to the July 1998 edition.
Most of the new material that has been added is in response to questions and comments
from the users of SAP2000, ETABS and SAFE.

Chapter 22 has been written on the direct use of absolute earthquake displacement
loading acting at the base of the structure. Several new types of numerical errors for
absolute displacement loading have been identified. First, the fundamental nature of
displacement loading is significantly different from the base acceleration loading
traditionally used in earthquake engineering. Second, a smaller integration time step is
required to define the earthquake displacement and to solve the dynamic equilibrium
equations. Third, a large number of modes are required for absolute displacement
loading to obtain the same accuracy as produced when base acceleration is used as the
loading. Fourth, the 90 percent mass participation rule, intended to assure accuracy of
the analysis, does not apply for absolute displacement loading. Finally, the effective
modal damping for displacement loading is larger than when acceleration loading is
used.

To reduce those errors associated with displacement loading, a higher order integration
method based on a cubic variation of loads within a time step is introduced in Chapter
13. In addition, static and dynamic participation factors have been defined that allow the
structural engineer to minimize the errors associated with displacement type loading. In
addition, Chapter 19 on viscous damping has been expanded to illustrate the physical
effects of modal damping on the results of a dynamic analysis.

Appendix H, on the speed of modern personal computers, has been updated. It is now
possible to purchase a personal computer for approximately $1,500 that is 25 times
faster than a $10,000,000 CRAY computer produced in 1974.

Several other additions and modifications have been made in this printing. Please send
your comments and questions to [email protected].
Edward L. Wilson
April 2000
 Personal Remarks
My freshman Physics instructor dogmatically warned the class “do not use an equation
you cannot derive.” The same instructor once stated that “if a person had five minutes to
solve a problem, that their life depended upon, the individual should spend three
minutes reading and clearly understanding the problem." For the past forty years these
simple, practical remarks have guided my work and I hope that the same philosophy has
been passed along to my students. With respect to modern structural engineering, one
can restate these remarks as “do not use a structural analysis program unless you fully
understand the theory and approximations used within the program” and “do not create
a computer model until the loading, material properties and boundary conditions are
clearly defined.”

Therefore, the major purpose of this book is to present the essential theoretical
background so that the users of computer programs for structural analysis can
understand the basic approximations used within the program, verify the results of all
analyses and assume professional responsibility for the results. It is assumed that the
reader has an understanding of statics, mechanics of solids, and elementary structural
analysis. The level of knowledge expected is equal to that of an individual with an
undergraduate degree in Civil or Mechanical Engineering. Elementary matrix and
vector notations are defined in the Appendices and are used extensively. A background
in tensor notation and complex variables is not required.

All equations are developed using a physical approach, because this book is written for
the student and professional engineer and not for my academic colleagues. Three-
dimensional structural analysis is relatively simple because of the high speed of the
modern computer. Therefore, all equations are presented in three-dimensional form and
anisotropic material properties are automatically included. A computer programming
background is not necessary to use a computer program intelligently. However, detailed
numerical algorithms are given so that the readers completely understand the
computational methods that are summarized in this book. The Appendices contain an
elementary summary of the numerical methods used; therefore, it should not be
necessary to spend additional time reading theoretical research papers to understand the
theory presented in this book.

The author has developed and published many computational techniques for the static
and dynamic analysis of structures. It has been personally satisfying that many members
of the engineering profession have found these computational methods useful.
Therefore, one reason for compiling this theoretical and application book is to
consolidate in one publication this research and development. In addition, the recently
developed Fast Nonlinear Analysis (FNA) method and other numerical methods are
presented in detail for the first time.

The fundamental physical laws that are the basis of the static and dynamic analysis of
structures are over 100 years old. Therefore, anyone who believes they have discovered
a new fundamental principle of mechanics is a victim of their own ignorance. This book
contains computational tricks that the author has found to be effective for the
development of structural analysis programs.

The static and dynamic analysis of structures has been automated to a large degree
because of the existence of inexpensive personal computers. However, the field of
structural engineering, in my opinion, will never be automated. The idea that an expert-
system computer program, with artificial intelligence, will replace a creative human is
an insult to all structural engineers.

The material in this book has evolved over the past thirty-five years with the help of my
former students and professional colleagues. Their contributions are acknowledged.
Ashraf Habibullah, Iqbal Suharwardy, Robert Morris, Syed Hasanain, Dolly Gurrola,
Marilyn Wilkes and Randy Corson of Computers and Structures, Inc., deserve special
recognition. In addition, I would like to thank the large number of structural engineers
who have used the TABS and SAP series of programs. They have provided the
motivation for this publication.

The material presented in the first edition of Three Dimensional Dynamic Analysis of
Structures is included and updated in this book. I am looking forward to additional
comments and questions from the readers in order to expand the material in future
editions of the book.

Edward L. Wilson
July 1998
 CONTENTS
1. Material Properties
1.1 Introduction 1-1
1.2 Anisotropic Materials 1-1
1.3 Use of Material Properties within Computer Programs 1-4
1.4 Orthotropic Materials 1-5
1.5 Isotropic Materials 1-5
1.6 Plane Strain Isotropic Materials 1-6
1.7 Plane Stress Isotropic Materials 1-7
1.8 Properties of Fluid-Like Materials 1-8
1.9 Shear and Compression Wave Velocities 1-9
1.1 Axisymmetric Material Properties 1-10
1.11 Force-Deformation Relationships 1-11
1.12 Summary 1-12
1.13 References 1-12

2. Equilibrium and Compatibility

2.1 Introduction 2-1
2.2 Fundamental Equilibrium Equations 2-2
2.3 Stress Resultants - Forces And Moments 2-2
2.4 Compatibility Requirements 2-3
2.5 Strain Displacement Equations 2-4
2.6 Definition of Rotation 2-4
2.7 Equations at Material Interfaces 2-5
2.8 Interface Equations in Finite Element Systems 2-7
2.9 Statically Determinate Structures 2-7
2.1 Displacement Transformation Matrix 2-9
2.11 Element Stiffness and Flexibility Matrices 2-11
2.12 Solution of Statically Determinate System 2-11
2.13 General Solution of Structural Systems 2-12
CONTENTS ii

2.14 Summary 2-13

2.15 References 2-14

3. Energy and Work

3.1 Introduction 3-1
3.2 Virtual and Real Work 3-2
3.3 Potential Energy and Kinetic Energy 3-4
3.4 Strain Energy 3-6
3.5 External Work 3-7
3.6 Stationary Energy Principle 3-9
3.7 The Force Method 3-10
3.8 Lagrange’s Equation of Motion 3-12
3.9 Conservation of Momentum 3-13
3.1 Summary 3-15
3.11 References 3-16

4. One-Dimensional Elements
4.1 Introduction 4-1
4.2 Analysis of an Axial Element 4-2
4.3 Two-Dimensional Frame Element 4-4
4.4 Three-Dimensional Frame Element 4-8
4.5 Member End-Releases 4-12
4.6 Summary 4-13

5. Isoparametric Elements
5.1 Introduction 5-1
5.2 A Simple One-Dimensional Example 5-2
5.3 One-Dimensional Integration Formulas 5-4
5.4 Restriction on Locations of Mid-Side Nodes 5-6
5.5 Two-Dimensional Shape Functions 5-6
5.6 Numerical Integration in Two Dimensions 5-10
5.7 Three-Dimensional Shape Functions 5-12
5.8 Triangular and Tetrahedral Elements 5-14
5.9 Summary 5-15
CONTENTS iii

5.1 References 5-16

6. Incompatible Elements
6.1 Introduction 6-1
6.2 Elements With Shear Locking 6-2
6.3 Addition of Incompatible Modes 6-3
6.4 Formation of Element Stiffness Matrix 6-4
6.5 Incompatible Two-Dimensional Elements 6-5
6.6 Example Using Incompatible Displacements 6-6
6.7 Three-Dimensional Incompatible Elements 6-7
6.8 Summary 6-8
6.9 References 6-9

7. Boundary Conditions and General Constraints

7.1 Introduction 7-1
7.2 Displacement Boundary Conditions 7-2
7.3 Numerical Problems in Structural Analysis 7-3
7.4 General Theory Associated With Constraints 7-4
7.5 Floor Diaphragm Constraints 7-6
7.6 Rigid Constraints 7-11
7.7 Use of Constraints in Beam-Shell Analysis 7-12
7.8 Use of Constraints in Shear Wall Analysis 7-13
7.9 Use of Constraints for Mesh Transitions 7-14
7.1 Lagrange Multipliers and Penalty Functions 7-16
7.11 Summary 7-17

8. Plate Bending Elements

8.1 Introduction 8-1
8.2 The Quadrilateral Element 8-3
8.3 Strain-Displacement Equations 8-7
8.4 The Quadrilateral Element Stiffness 8-8
8.5 Satisfying the Patch Test 8-9
8.6 Static Condensation 8-10
8.7 Triangular Plate Bending Element 8-10
CONTENTS iv

8.8 Other Plate Bending Elements 8-10

8.9 Numerical Examples 8-11
8.9.1 One Element Beam 8-12
8.9.2 Point Load on Simply Supported Square Plate 8-13
8.9.3 Uniform Load on Simply Supported Square Plate 8-14
8.9.4 Evaluation of Triangular Plate Bending Elements 8-15
8.9.5 Use of Plate Element to Model Torsion in Beams 8-16
8.1 Summary 8-17
8.11 References 8-17

9. Membrane Element with Normal Rotations

9.1 Introduction 9-1
9.2 Basic Assumptions 9-2
9.3 Displacement Approximation 9-3
9.4 Introduction of Node Rotation 9-4
9.5 Strain-Displacement Equations 9-5
9.6 Stress-Strain Relationship 9-6
9.7 Transform Relative to Absolute Rotations 9-6
9.8 Triangular Membrane Element 9-8
9.9 Numerical Example 9-8
9.1 Summary 9-9
9.11 References 9-10

10. Shell Elements

10.1 Introduction 10-1
10.2 A Simple Quadrilateral Shell Element 10-2
10.3 Modeling Curved Shells with Flat Elements 10-3
10.4 Triangular Shell Elements 10-4
10.5 Use of Solid Elements for Shell Analysis 10-5
10.6 Analysis of The Scordelis-Lo Barrel Vault 10-5
10.7 Hemispherical Shell Example 10-7
10.8 Summary 10-8
10.9 References 10-8
CONTENTS v

11. Geometric Stiffness and P-Delta Effects

11.1 Definition of Geometric Stiffness 11-1
11.2 Approximate Buckling Analysis 11-3
11.3 P-Delta Analysis of Buildings 11-5
11.4 Equations for Three-Dimensional Buildings 11-8
11.5 The Magnitude of P-Delta Effects 11-9
11.6 P-Delta Analysis without Computer Program Modification 11-10
11.7 Effective Length - K Factors 11-11
11.8 General Formulation of Geometry Stiffness 11-11
11.9 Summary 11-13
11.1 References 11-14

12. Dynamic Analysis

12.1 Introduction 12-1
12.2 Dynamic Equilibrium 12-2
12.3 Step-By-Step Solution Method 12-4
12.4 Mode Superposition Method 12-5
12.5 Response Spectra Analysis 12-5
12.6 Solution in the Frequency Domain 12-6
12.7 Solution of Linear Equations 12-7
12.8 Undamped Harmonic Response 12-7
12.9 Undamped Free Vibrations 12-8
12.1 Summary 12-9
12.11 References 12-10

13. Dynamic Analysis Using Mode Superposition

13.1 Equations to be Solved 13-1
13.2 Transformation to Modal Equations 13-2
13.3 Response Due to Initial Conditions Only 13-4
13.4 General Solution Due to Arbitrary Loading 13-5
13.5 Solution for Periodic Loading 13-10
13.6 Participating Mass Ratios 13-11
13.7 Static Load Participation Ratios 13-13
CONTENTS vi

13.8 Dynamic Load Participation Ratios 13-14

13.9 Summary 13-16

14. Calculation of Stiffness and Mass Orthogonal Vectors

14.1 Introduction 14-1
14.2 Determinate Search Method 14-2
14.3 Sturm Sequence Check 14-3
14.4 Inverse Iteration 14-3
14.5 Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization 14-4
14.6 Block Subspace Iteration 14-5
14.7 Solution of Singular Systems 14-6
14.8 Generation of Load-Dependent Ritz Vectors 14-7
14.9 A Physical Explanation of the LDR Algorithm 14-9
14.1 Comparison of Solutions Using Eigen And Ritz Vectors 14-11
14.11 Correction for Higher Mode Truncation 14-13
14.12 Vertical Direction Seismic Response 14-15
14.13 Summary 14-18
14.14 References 14-19

15. Dynamic Analysis Using Response Spectrum Seismic Loading

15.1 Introduction 15-1
15.2 Definition of a Response Spectrum 15-2
15.3 Calculation of Modal Response 15-4
15.4 Typical Response Spectrum Curves 15-4
15.5 The CQC Method of Modal Combination 15-8
15.6 Numerical Example of Modal Combination 15-9
15.7 Design Spectra 15-12
15.8 Orthogonal Effects in Spectral Analysis 15-13
15.8.1 Basic Equations for Calculation of Spectral Forces 15-14
15.8.2 The General CQC3 Method 15-16
15.8.3 Examples of Three-Dimensional Spectra Analyses 15-17
15.8.4 Recommendations on Orthogonal Effects 15-21
15.9 Limitations of the Response Spectrum Method 15-21
15.9.1 Story Drift Calculations 15-21
15.9.2 Estimation of Spectra Stresses in Beams 15-22
CONTENTS vii

15.9.3 Design Checks for Steel and Concrete Beams 15-22

15.9.4 Calculation of Shear Force in Bolts 15-23
15.1 Summary 15-23
15.11 References 15-24

16. Soil Structure Interaction

16.1 Introduction 16-1
16.2 Site Response Analysis 16-2
16.3 Kinematic or Soil Structure Interaction 16-2
16.4 Response Due to Multi-Support Input Motions 16-6
16.5 Analysis of Gravity Dam and Foundation 16-9
16.6 The Massless Foundation Approximation 16-11
16.7 Approximate Radiation Boundary Conditions 16-11
16.8 Use of Springs at the Base of a Structure 16-14
16.9 Summary 16-15
16.1 References 16-15

17. Seismic Analysis Modeling to Satisfy Building Codes

17.1 Introduction 17-1
17.2 Three-Dimensional Computer Model 17-3
17.3 Three-Dimensional Mode Shapes and Frequencies 17-4
17.4 Three-Dimensional Dynamic Analysis 17-8
17.4.1 Dynamic Design Base Shear 17-9
17.4.2 Definition of Principal Directions 17-10
17.4.3 Directional and Orthogonal Effects 17-10
17.4.4 Basic Method of Seismic Analysis 17-11
17.4.5 Scaling of Results 17-11
17.4.6 Dynamic Displacements and Member Forces 17-11
17.4.7 Torsional Effects 17-12
17.5 Numerical Example 17-12
17.6 Dynamic Analysis Method Summary 17-15
17.7 Summary 17-16
17.8 References 17-18

18. Fast Nonlinear Analysis

18.1 Introduction 18-1
CONTENTS viii

18.2 Structures with a Limited Number of Nonlinear Elements 18-2

18.3 Fundamental Equilibrium Equations 18-3
18.4 Calculation of Nonlinear Forces 18-4
18.5 Transformation to Modal Coordinates 18-5
18.6 Solution of Nonlinear Modal Equations 18-7
18.7 Static Nonlinear Analysis of Frame Structure 18-9
18.8 Dynamic Nonlinear Analysis of Frame Structure 18-12
18.9 Seismic Analysis of Elevated Water Tank 18-14
18.1 Summary 18-15

19. Linear Viscous Damping

19.1 Introduction 19-1
19.2 Energy Dissipation in Real Structures 19-2
19.3 Physical Interpretation of Viscous Damping 19-4
19.4 Modal Damping Violates Dynamic Equilibrium 19-4
19.5 Numerical Example 19-5
19.6 Stiffness and Mass Proportional Damping 19-6
19.7 Calculation of Orthogonal Damping Matrices 19-7
19.8 Structures with Non-Classical Damping 19-9
19.9 Nonlinear Energy Dissipation 19-9
19.1 Summary 19-10
19.11 References 19-10

20. Dynamic Analysis Using Numerical Integration

20.1 Introduction 20-1
20.2 Newmark Family of Methods 20-2
20.3 Stability of Newmark’s Method 20-4
20.4 The Average Acceleration Method 20-5
20.5 Wilson’s Factor 20-6
20.6 The Use of Stiffness Proportional Damping 20-7
20.7 The Hilber, Hughes and Taylor Method 20-8
20.8 Selection of a Direct Integration Method 20-9
20.9 Nonlinear Analysis 20-9
20.1 Summary 20-10
CONTENTS ix

20.11 References 20-10

21. Nonlinear Elements

21.1 Introduction 21-1
21.2 General Three-Dimensional Two-Node Element 21-2
21.3 General Plasticity Element 21-3
21.4 Different Positive and Negative Properties 21-5
21.5 The Bilinear Tension-Gap-Yield Element 21-6
21.6 Nonlinear Gap-Crush Element 21-7
21.7 Viscous Damping Elements 21-8
21.8 Three-Dimensional Friction-Gap Element 21-10
21.9 Summary 21-12

22. Seismic Analysis Using Displacement Loading

22.1 Introduction 22-1
22.2 Equilibrium Equations for Displacement Input 22-3
22.3 Use of Pseudo-Static Displacements 22-5
22.4 Solution of Dynamic Equilibrium Equations 22-6
22.5 Numerical Example 22-7
22.5.1 Example Structure 22-7
22.5.2 Earthquake Loading 22-9
22.5.3 Effect of Time Step Size for Zero Damping 22-9
22.5.4 Earthquake Analysis with Finite Damping 22-12
22.5.5 The Effect of Mode Truncation 22-15
22.6 Use of Load Dependent Ritz Vectors 22-17
22.7 Solution Using Step-By-Step Integration 22-18
22.8 Summary 22-20

Appendix A Vector Notation

A.1 Introduction A-1
A.2 Vector Cross Product A-2
A.3 Vectors to Define a Local Reference System A-4
A.4 Fortran Subroutines for Vector Operations A-5
CONTENTS x

Appendix B Matrix Notation

B.1 Introduction B-1
B.2 Definition of Matrix Notation B-2
B.3 Matrix Transpose and Scalar Multiplication B-4
B.4 Definition of a Numerical Operation B-6
B.5 Programming Matrix Multiplication B-6
B.6 Order of Matrix Multiplication B-7
B.7 Summary B-7

Appendix C Solution or Inversion of Linear Equations

C.1 Introduction C-1
C.2 Numerical Example C-2
C.3 The Gauss Elimination Algorithm C-3
C.4 Solution of a General Set of Linear Equations C-6
C.5 Alternative to Pivoting C-6
C.6 Matrix Inversion C-9
C.7 Physical Interpretation of Matrix Inversion C-11
C.8 Partial Gauss Elimination, Static Condensation and Substructure
Analysis C-13
C.9 Equations Stored in Banded or Profile Form C-15
C.10 LDL Factorization C-16
C10.1 Triangularization or Factorization of the A Matrix C-17
C10.2 Forward Reduction of the b Matrix C-18
C10.3 Calculation of x by Backsubstitution C-19
C.11 Diagonal Cancellation and Numerical Accuracy C-20
C.12 Summary C-20
C.13 References C-21

Appendix D The Eigenvalue Problem

D.1 Introduction D-1
D.2 The Jacobi Method D-2
D.3 Calculation of 3d Principal Stresses D-4
D.4 Solution of the General Eigenvalue Problem D-5
D.5 Summary D-6
CONTENTS xi

Appendix E Transformation of Material Properties

E.1 Introduction E-1
E.2 Summary E-4

Appendix F A Displacement-Based Beam Element With Shear

Deformations
F.1 Introduction F-1
F.2 Basic Assumptions F-2
F.3 Effective Shear Area F-5

Appendix G Numerical Integration

G.1 Introduction G-1
G.2 One-Dimensional Gauss Quadrature G-2
G.3 Numerical Integration in Two Dimensions G-4
G.4 An Eight-Point Two-Dimensional Rule G-5
G.5 An Eight-Point Lower Order Rule G-6
G.6 A Five-Point Integration Rule G-7
G.7 Three-Dimensional Integration Rules G-8
G.8 Selective Integration G-11
G.9 Summary G-11

Appendix H Speed of Computer Systems

H.1 Introduction H-1
H.2 Definition of One Numerical Operation H-1
H.3 Speed of Different Computer Systems H-2
H.4 Speed of Personal Computer Systems H-3
H.5 Paging Operating Systems H-3
H.6 Summary H-4

Appendix I Method of Least Square

I.1 Simple Example I-1
I.2 General Formulation I-3
I.3 Calculation Of Stresses Within Finite Elements I-4
CONTENTS xii

Appendix J Consistent Earthquake Acceleration and Displacement

Records
J.1 Introduction J-1
J.2 Ground Acceleration Records J-2
J.3 Calculation of Acceleration Record From Displacement Record J-3
J.4 Creating Consistent Acceleration Record J-5
J.5 Summary J-8

Index
 1.

MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Material Properties Must Be Evaluated
By Laboratory or Field Tests

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The fundamental equations of structural mechanics can be placed in three

categories[1]. First, the stress-strain relationship contains the material property
information that must be evaluated by laboratory or field experiments. Second,
the total structure, each element, and each infinitesimal particle within each
element must be in force equilibrium in their deformed position. Third,
displacement compatibility conditions must be satisfied.

If all three equations are satisfied at all points in time, other conditions will
automatically be satisfied. For example, at any point in time the total work done
by the external loads must equal the kinetic and strain energy stored within the
structural system plus any energy that has been dissipated by the system. Virtual
work and variational principles are of significant value in the mathematical
derivation of certain equations; however, they are not fundamental equations of
mechanics.

1.2 ANISOTROPIC MATERIALS

The linear stress-strain relationships contain the material property constants,

which can only be evaluated by laboratory or field experiments. The mechanical
material properties for most common material, such as steel, are well known and
are defined in terms of three numbers: modulus of elasticity E , Poisson’s ratio
1-2 STATIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS

ν and coefficient of thermal expansion α . In addition, the unit weight w and the
unit mass ρ are considered to be fundamental material properties.

Before the development of the finite element method, most analytical solutions in
solid mechanics were restricted to materials that were isotropic (equal properties
in all directions) and homogeneous (same properties at all points in the solid).
Since the introduction of the finite element method, this limitation no longer
exists. Hence, it is reasonable to start with a definition of anisotropic materials,
which may be different in every element in a structure.

The positive definition of stresses, in reference to an orthogonal 1-2-3 system, is

shown in Figure 1.1.

σ3

τ13 τ 23
τ32
τ31 σ2
τ 21 τ12 2
σ1

Figure 1.1 Definition of Positive Stresses

All stresses are by definition in units of force-per-unit-area. In matrix notation,

the six independent stresses can be defined by:

f T = [σ 1 σ 2 σ 3 τ 21 τ 31 τ 23 ] (1.1)