18 - DEFECTS IN GALVANIZED COATINGS

INTRODUCTION
Unlike many manufacturing processes, the hot dip galvanizing of
fabricated steelwork involves many variables that can impact on the
appearance and characteristics of the finished product.

Hot dip galvanizing is primarily an industrial protective coating process

designed to provide a tough and durable protective coating for steel
that will generally outlast the design life of the structure to which it is Distortion of thin checker plate
applied. welded to heavier supporting
members can be reduced by
fixing the checker plate after
The variables inherent in the process can each affect the appearance galvanizing
of the galvanized product. Many of these variables are classified as
‘coating defects’. Most are easthetic and do not affect the performance
of the galvanizing as an anti-corrosion coating.

FACTORS AFFECTING HOT DIP GALVANIZED COATINGS

The factors affecting hot dip the appearance and characteristics of hot
dip galvanized coatings include:

• The size and shape of the item

• The steel chemistry
• The steel surface condition Drainage spikes will always
• The design of the item with respect to occur where edges are parallel
• The metallurgy of the galvanizing process. to the molten zinc surface.
These are removed by grinding
The hot dip galvanizing process involves immersing steel items in of filing during the inspection
molten zinc at 450oC after pre-treatment to remove organic materials, process.
rust and mill scale. This hot dipping process, where the steel is
immersed in the molten zinc for several minutes, gives the galvanized
coating its unique characteristics.

SIZE & SHAPE OF THE ITEM

Zinc freezes at 420oC, so there is very little superheat in the molten
zinc as the item is withdrawn from the bath of molten zinc. Thicker
sections will retain their heat longer and promote better drainage of the
molten zinc from their surfaces than thinner sections.

The angle with which the work can be withdrawn from the bath will
influence the drainage characteristics. One-dimensional items that are Blinding of small holes (6mm or
short enough to dip vertically will produce smoother and more uniform under) will occur because of the
coatings than 2- or 3-dimensional items where some surfaces will be at surface tension of the molten
shallow withdrawal angles from the molten zinc. zinc. This can be minimised by
detailed attention to the item as
it emerges from the molten zinc.
THE STEEL CHEMISTRY
The rate at which molten zinc reacts with steel to form the galvanized
coating is dependent on the steel chemistry. Pure iron has a very low
reaction rate and for this reason, galvanizing kettles are manufactured
from steel of this type.

Structural grades of steel always contains alloying elements, the most

common of which are carbon, manganese and silicon. Sulfur and
phosphorous are residual elements arising from the raw material used
to make the steel, although some special steels have these elements
added deliberately.
Blinding of small holes (6mm or
under) will occur because of the
Of these elements, silicon and phosphorous have the most significant surface tension of the molten
effect on the galvanized coating’s characteristics, with silicon being the zinc. This can be minimised by
most common steel alloying additive affecting coating appearance. detailed attention to the item as
it emerges from the molten zinc.
High silicon levels 9obive 0.20%) may result in the galvanized coating
have a duller or matt gray appearance, or a blotchy variable
appearance.

High phosphorous levels (not normally found in structural steels) can

give rise to dark gray or browning coatings that are prone to
delamination from the steel’s surface.

STEEL SURFACE CONDITION

The surface condition of the steel will be reflected in the galvanized
Threaded items will usually
coating in two ways. Rougher surfaces have a higher surface area per
require post-galvanizing
unit of surface and thus generate thicker galvanized coatings. Hot
treatment to clean the threads of
rolled sections typically produce hot dip galvanized coatings 30-50%
zinc. This can be done by
thicker than smooth, cold rolled surfaces.
reheating the threads to
galvanizing temperature (450
Galvanized coatings on steel with gross surface defects such as pitting oC), then removing the excess
will conform to the defects and follow the surface profile of the steel. zinc by wire brushing.

While the coating will provide the same degree of protection from
corrosion, the appearance may not be acceptable to the end-user and
thus steel surface quality is an issue where the highest standards of
surface appearance are required.

DESIGN OF THE ITEM FOR GALVANIZING

The design of a fabrication is critical in determining the surface quality
of the finished product. Unless the pre-treatment chemicals can
penetrate to all surfaces of the item, the inaccessible surfaces will not
be galvanized.
The fracture of Bisalloy wear
plate is a result of Hydrogen
Conversely, if the molten zinc cannot completely drain from the work, embrittlement arising from the
zinc puddles will freeze in pockets and cause problems. pickling process. High strength
(over 800 MPa) steel is
The techniques of designing for galvanizing are well understood by susceptible to this type of
galvanizers and consultation in the design stage of fabrication will embrittlement.
always result in a better quality outcome.

The main issues to be addressed in designing for galvanizing to

minimise defects are as follows:

1. The item needs to be suspended during galvanizing. The provision

of lifting lugs to eliminate touch marks from wire or chains is an
example of design improving quality.

2. The item needs to be have adequate venting and draining

provisions to ensure the smooth flow of zinc into and out of the item. These lateral striations are a
result of surface stresses in the
3. The dimensions of the item need to comfortably fit within the bath steel section cause by the rolling
dimensions to allow adequate withdrawal angles. Double dipping of the process reacting at a higher rate
item will frequently produce a better quality than single dipping an item with the molten zinc than the
that can be barely submerged in the bath. surrounding steel.
THE METALLURGY OF THE GALVANIZING PROCESS
Many of the surface imperfections that are characteristic of hot dip
galvanized coatings are a function of the metallurgy associated with
the process.

Prior to galvanizing, the steel is chemically pre-treated and at the final

stage, is immersed in a zinc ammonium chloride (ZAC) preflux
solution. This process puts a thin film of ZAC crystals on the steel
surface. The `white rust’ on these
galvanized flat bar sections has
When the steel is immersed in the molten zinc bath, a number of been caused by their being wet
reactions take place. These are: in the bundle. Galvanized
coatings require good ventilation
when newly applied to allow the
1. The preflux is activated by the molten zinc and performs a final passive oxide films to develop .
cleaning action on the steel surface. Oxidation products are produced
by this reaction that contain a combination of zinc chloride and zinc
oxide. These oxidation products are lighter than zinc and float to the
surface. This is called zinc ash.

2. When the steel reaches galvanizing bath temperature, the zinc

reacts with the steel to form a series of zinc-iron alloys. Some of these
zinc-iron alloy crystals float off the surface of the steel and enter the
zinc bath.

3. The zinc bath becomes saturated with iron in solution, either from
work entering the bath or from the steel galvanizing kettle. This Dross pimples on this pipe spool
saturation level is typically about 250 parts of iron per million at arise from dross crystals being
galvanizing temperature. stirred up from the bottom of the
galvanizing bath by long or deep
4. Over time, these zinc-iron crystals coalesce and sink to the bottom items. Appearance is unsightly
of the zinc bath. This forms a mushy layer called ‘dross’. The dross is but durability is unaffected.
periodically removed by scooping it from the bath with special
equipment. Zinc dross is crystalline and has a much higher melting
point than zinc (650oC versus 420oC).

5. The molten zinc surface is constantly oxidising, and this oxide film is
always present on the zinc surface to a greater or lesser degree.

In the process of galvanizing a steel fabrication, the presence of ash

and dross may have the following effects on the appearance of the hot
dip galvanized coating:

• If the item comes in contact with the dross layer in the bottom of the
bath, the dross can get caught in or on the work and form a rough,
lumpy deposit.

• If areas of the item are inaccessible for skimming, ash may stick to
the surface of the galvanizing as it is withdrawn from the bath.
Hydrogen embrittlement failure
• If the rate of withdrawal varies or stops during the extraction of the of Hercalloy chain is caused by
galvanized item from the bath, tide marks (oxide lines) may appear on exposing this 1200 MPa steel to
the surface of the galvanizing causing variations in the shiny pickling acid. These types of
appearance of the coating. steels should not be galvanized.

• With smooth-surfaced work such as tanks or large diameter pipes,

dross crystals floating in the bath may be caught up on the galvanized
coating. These ‘dross pimples’ give the coating a gritty appearance.

STEEL DEFECTS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON GALVANIZED

COATINGS
Hot dip galvanized coatings, as described above, are not ‘coatings’ in
the conventional sense, but alloys that form on the steel to make the
galvanized steel item a composite material.

As such, galvanized coatings, unlike paint coatings are not very

effective at covering up defects in the steel, and are more likely to
This miss in the galvanized
highlight steel surface quality problems.
coating is caused by surface
contamination by residual oxides
Steel, like most manufactured products, can be prone to a variety of not removed in the pickling
common defects, most of which are associated with the casting, rolling process.
and manufacturing processes.

The surface area of the steel per unit of area has a significant effect on
how the zinc reacts with the steel to form the galvanized coating.
Rough surfaces will react more vigorously than smooth surfaces to
form thicker galvanized coatings.

Hot rolled surfaces with mill scale may have 30 to 50% more surface
area per unit than smooth, cold rolled surfaces. Abrasive blasting will
artificially increase surface roughness and is a way to deliberately
increase coating thickness for heavy duty applications.
Zinc run caused by zinc freezing
Galvanized coatings are totally unlike paint films in the way in which while draining from flat RHS
they conform to sharp edges or corners. The surface tension effects surface. Durability is enhanced
with paint films tend to thin the paint film out over corners and edges. but thick runs may interfere with
connecting surfaces.

Hot dip galvanized coatings,, on the other hand, tend to be thicker on

edges and corners because the crystals in the alloy layer can flare out
and have more room to grow around the corner radius.

For this reason, hot dip galvanized coatings may exaggerate the
appearance of defects where rolling defects cause sharp ridges on the
steel surface.

Small particles or slivers of steel can be rolled into the steel’s surface,
and these may be almost invisible to the naked eye. However, when
the steel is pickled and the surrounding oxide is removed from these Flux staining has occurred on
shells and scales, as they are called, the galvanized coating can take unsealed vent holes in overlaps
on a pimply appearance as the zinc reacts more quickly with these on this fabrication. The stains
small, loosely attached steel slivers. are caused by iron salts, that
have penetrated the overlap
during pre-treatment, re-
The manufacturing operations performed on some steel sections can hydrating with atmospheric
also show up in the form of visual defects, the most common of these moisture.
being striations. These are narrow (typically about 1-2 mm wide)
longitudinal raised lines in the coating usually running the full length of
the section.

The most common cause of striations is stress lines on the surface of

the steel caused by cold working of the section. Heavy gauge rod will
sometimes show a spiral striation pattern arising from the rod or wire
being passed through a roller/straightener prior to final manufacture.
Welded sections will frequently have much thicker coatings in the weld
areas. While this is rarely a problem on structural steel sections, it can
cause aesthetic problems on high quality fabrications such as wrought
iron and security doors, where the welds have been ground flush and
the item is to be painted after galvanizing.

This phenomenon is caused by the differing chemistry of the weld

metal compared to the parent metal. Most weld metals contain high
levels of silicon, and the higher silicon in the weld metal will result in The gray coating on these pipes
thicker (sometimes 3-4X as thick) galvanized coatings. is a result of high silicon content
of the steel, making it more
reactive and converting all the
A reverse of this phenomenon can occur where heavier steel sections coating to zinc-iron alloy. These
(over 12mm) are flame-cut. The edges of flanges of welded beams are gray coatings are typically
a common example thicker than shiny galvanized
coatings on similar sections.
The flame cut edges of these heavy plate sections will frequently show
a wide variation in coating thickness from zone to zone in the flame-cut
area.

This is caused by irregular oxidation of some of the constituents in the

steel on the surface, giving the flame cut surface a variable metallurgy
compared to the parent metal. The zinc coating in these flame cut
areas may appear as a series of sharply defined plateaus, with low
thickness coatings where significant oxidation has taken place, and
normal coating thickness, typically well over the minimum standard
required, in less affected areas.
This miss in the galvanized
coating is caused by surface
EMBRITTLEMENT contamination by an incorrect
Embrittlement of steel as a result of the hot dip galvanizing process is type of marking paint that is
rarely encountered with structural grades of steel. However, the use of resistant to removal by pre-
higher-strength steel grades or inappropriate fabrication techniques treatment chemicals.
can lead to embrittlement problems with galvanized steel.

There are three types of embrittlement encountered in the hot dip

galvanizing process. These are:

1. Hydrogen embrittlement
2. Strain-age embrittlement
3. Liquid metal embrittlement

Hydrogen embrittlement is most commonly encountered and affects

susceptible steel whole yield strength is above 800 MPa. The textured surface on this
steel angle results from the
Hydrogen atoms from the acid pickling process penetrate the grain rough as-rolled surface of the
boundaries of these high strength steels and can cause brittle fractures base steel, usually cause by
under certain conditions. Many high strength steels can be galvanized excessive mill-scale on the steel
and standard pre- or post-galvanizing treatments are available to section in the hot rolling process.
eliminate the risk of hydrogen embrittlement.

Consultation with the galvanizer is essential where fabrications

involving the use of high-strength steel are involved.

Strain-age embrittlement is caused by excessive cold working of the

steel prior to galvanizing. The heat of the galvanizing process
accelerates the embrittlement , so susceptible steels present a long-
term embrittlement risk, even if they were not galvanized. Localised Fishbone striations on large
heating of severely cold worked steels through welding may also diameter pipes arise from
precipitate stain-ageing failure. surface stresses in the steel
causing different zinc-steel
Bending steel through too tight a radius, re-bending already cold reaction rates on the pipe
worked steel, or hole punching through thick sections are all surface.
manufacturing processes that can give rise to strain-age embrittlement
problems.

Many manufacturing standards for products such as re-bar address

this issue within the standard, and fabricators and manufacturers who
abide by established practices and use appropriate steel grades rarely
experience problems.

Liquid metal embrittlement is specific to certain types of steels that are Thin, flat sheet will always
infrequently encountered in the galvanizing process. The most buckle in the galvanizing
susceptible are many grades of stainless steel that from time to time, process. Corrugating or ribbing
are attached to mild steel assemblies as fittings or components. of these type of sections will
significantly reduce the
The molten zinc penetrates the grain boundaries of these steels and likelihood of distortion during
fracture under load may result. If the use of stainless steel components galvanizing.
is required, mechanical attachments after galvanizing is strongly
recommended.

DISTORTION
Distortion in galvanizing is one of the most common causes for
concern, In practice, a small proportion of fabricated items are prone to
distortion during the galvanizing process.

Some items will always represent a high risk of distortion, and the
galvanizer is well aware of the types of steel sections that are prone to
distortion.
Where jigs are used to support
There are three significant causes of distortion with steel sections. large items in the galvanizing
These are: processes, touch marks will
occur where the galvanized
coating adheres to the jig at the
1. The thickness and shape of the section being galvanized. point of cobntact.
2. The design of the fabrication with respect to location of welds,
symmetry and fabrication stresses present prior to galvanizing.
3.The way the work is handled during the galvanizing process.

It is the heat of the galvanizing process and the manner it is

transferred and withdrawn from the steel during processing that
determines the dimensional stability of an item being galvanized.

The work has to be heated from around ambient temperature to 450oC

almost instantaneously as it enters the molten zinc. Weld splatter left on the steel will
be galvanized along with the
Not all of the item is heated at the same time as it has to be lowered work, resulting in a rough and
into the bath at a rate that is safe for the operators and consistent with pimply appearance.
the ability of the molten zinc to flow over and into the item.

At the galvanizing temperature, steel loses 50% of its yield strength,

and regains it as it cools down. Much research has been done on the
effect of the galvanizing process on steel strength, and this has
revealed that there is no measurable loss, and in most cases, there is
a slight increase, in yield strength after galvanizing.
Thin plate sections are most prone to distortion, and this is caused by
the rapid differential heating and cooling of the sections, and its
relative weakness as a thin section.

Thin steel that has been processed into hollow sections or cold-formed
structural shapes is much more stable and is routinely galvanized
without problems. Corrugating thin sheet will also largely eliminate the
tendency to distort.

Fabrications that are asymmetrical, or have significant welding on one Delamination of this hot dip
side of the section are in a highly stressed state due to the heat effects galvanized coating has occurred
of the welding processes. Hot dip galvanizing will stress relieve these because of excessive coating
sections and distortions may result, typically cambering or sweeping of thickness (500 microns)
beam sections. generated by highly reactive
steel
Fabrications containing elements of significantly different section
thickness are another potential problem area, and high stresses can
be generated during the heating and cooling cycle that may cause
distortion due to differential heating and colloing..

Platforms with checker plate welded to structural framing are a

common problem area that can be avoided by galvanizing the thin and
thick sections as separate elements.

The galvanizer has the responsibility to handle the work in a way that
will reduce the risk of distortion. Locating lifting points located at the
optimum points to support the fabrication so that its own unsupported This small RHS section has
weight does not contribute to it bending or sagging during galvanizing severe galvanized coating
is a galvanizers’ responsibility. delamination arising from very
high phosphorous levels in the
The way the item is immersed in the molten zinc and the post steel, creating a thick, fragile
galvanizing quenching process may also have an influence on the coating almost 1000 microns in
dimensional stability of the finished product. Competent galvanizers thickness.
should be aware of these issues and be prepared to advise the client
on design details that can minimise distortion problems.

Where distortion is unavoidable, particularly with products such as

waste bins and trailers, clients are now prepared to accept the
appearance of the thin metal plate sections because of the dramatic
increase in service life provided by the coating.

The acceptance of unavoidable distortion during hot dip galvanizing

will thus always be a trade-off between appearance and performance.
Only the client can decide.

PICKLING CORROSION
Hydrochloric acid is used for pickling steel prior to galvanizing. Some
galvanizers add inhibitor to the acid but most operate at acid
concentration levels of around 10%.

At this level, the acid will efficiently attack and dissolve rust and mill
scale but will not react with the base steel at a very high rate.

The exception is with high sulfur steel. The main application for these
types of steel is for small part manufacture of machined components.
The sulfur is added to the steel to weaken its grain structure so that
during high speed machining operations, the chips break off in short
sections and facilitate the machining operations.

These steels are used for non-critical components such as threaded

fittings and repetition machined steel non-stressed components.

From time to time, threaded fitting such as sockets, spigots, nipples

and bushes are welded into fabricated assemblies.

Attack by the acid on these threaded components can quickly dissolve

the threads and render the item unserviceable.

The corrosion of the threaded area may also be caused by zinc attack
in the galvanizing bath, but it is largely a function of acid attack during
the pickling process.

BLOWOUTS AND BLEEDING

Molten zinc at galvanizing temperature is only about 30 degrees above
its freezing point. The viscosity of the molten metal limits its ability to
penetrate small cavities and crevices, and gaps less than 1 mm in
width may not allow penetration by the molten zinc.

Many fabricated items have overlapping surfaces, and during the pre-
treatment process, pretreatment chemicals will penetrate these
overlaps and may not drain out because of surface tension holding the
liquor in place.

When the item enters the galvanizing bath, any moisture trapped in
these crevices will rapidly boil and eject steam and pretreatment
resides onto the adjacent surface of the work.

This contamination interferes with the zinc’s ability to react with the
steel and uncoated areas adjacent to these `blowouts’ will result.

Another defect arising from unsealed overlapping surfaces is the

`bleeding’ which occurs out of the overlap after galvanizing.

This is commonly referred to as `acid staining’. Hydrochloric acid

vaporises at below 200 degrees C so there is never any acid residues
left in or on the item after galvanizing.

The staining that occurs is caused by flux residues that have been
desiccated by the heat of the galvanizing process, re-hydrating from
contact with atmospheric moisture.

The brown liquor bleeding from overlaps is not particularly aggressive

to zinc but causes unsightly staining of the work and highlight the lack
of a galvanized coating, and a potential for corrosion, in the uncoated
overlap area.

FLAKING
Flaking of galvanized coatings can occur on reactive steels which
produce thick alloy layers in the galvanizing process.
On thick reactive steel, coating thicknesses in the order of 300-500
microns may be produced. These alloy layers are very hard and
inflexible and differential expansion or contraction of the steel can
cause areas of the alloy layers to shear off the steel surface.

Localised flaking can occur with these types of coatings if there are
subject to impact or point pressure from lifting slings or handling
equipment. Flaking can be minimised by quick cooling of the work after
it exits the galvanizing bath but may be aggravated by slow air-cooling.

Modification of standard galvanizing practice in handling reactive steel

sections prone to flaking will generally minimise the risk of
delamination of heavy coatings after galvanizing, but careful design is
required to ensure that the items can be immersed and withdrawn from
the molten zinc as quickly as possible.

WHITE RUST
Zinc is a reactive metal, relying on the development of inert complex
carbonate oxide films for its excellent atmospheric corrosion
resistance.

When freshly galvanized steel is exposed to pure water (rain, dew,

condensation), the zinc will react with the water to form zinc hydroxide,
a characteristically bulky white deposit.

If the zinc surface remains wet and cannot get access to good air
circulation (the main source of carbon dioxide to form the stable oxide
films), the water will continue to react with the zinc and can severely
damage the coating at worst and result in unsightly staining at best.

Most galvanizers post-treat items with a chromate solution integral with

the quenching process. This provides a short-term passivating film on
the zinc surface that will prevent white rusting in the event of wet
weather.

The main white rusting problems arise where galvanized work is

stacked or packed in tightly nested bundles, where water can be
trapped and air circulation is poor.

Additional post-treatments that provide more durable protection from

white rust over time can be arranged in consultation with the
galvanizer , usually at an additional small cost.

Exposure to sea water will also rapidly promote white rust, and for this
reason, it is recommended that galvanized products such as boat
trailers be washed down with fresh water after each salt water
immersion.

Leaving salt water to dry on the surface will accelerate the

consumption of the galvanized coating as the chlorides will strip the
stable carbonate film from the surface.

PINHOLING
On some fabrications, particularly welded beams and heavier sections
that have been assembled using submerged arc welding techniques,
the weld areas may show evidence of a series of small pinholes along
the weld bead. These pinholes are generally less than 1mm in
diameter.

The small size of the pinholes, combined with the thickness of the
galvanized coating on the weld metal (typically 200 microns or more)
means that they have no measurable effect on coating performance.

The cause of this phenomenon has been attributed to small particles of

sub-arc welding slag powder being fused into the weld surface. These
refractory particles are not affected by the pre-treatment processes
and remain on the surface throughout the galvanizing process and
form small barriers to the galvanized coating’s formation.

PUDDLING, DROSS & SPLATTER

Puddling caused by poor drainage, dross caught in an item, and
splatter from the zinc bath ending up in or on the surface of the
galvanized item are processing issues. Some of these, such as
removal of splatter, are dealt with the inspection/QA stage. Design
issues are the main cause of puddling and can only be eliminated by
good design.

CONCLUSION
With the exception of blowouts and bleeding, and where the
galvanized coating is missing, most galvanizing defects have no effect
on the coatings’ durability. In fact, many `defects’, because they result
in thickening of the coating or deposition of much more zinc or zinc-
rich residues, coating life may be increased significantly.

For example, a dull or mottled galvanized coating may be 2X or 3X as

thick as a standard shiny coating that complies with the relevant
standard. The thicker gray coatings will thus have a coating life 2X or
3X as long as the standard coating.

Where aesthetic issues are involved, hot dip galvanized coatings can
only deliver a level of quality within the limitations of the process.

However, an understanding of the issues of design, steel composition

and the hot dip galvanizing process will go a long way to ensure that
hot dip galvanized coatings on structural fabrications can be produced
to a standard that will satisfy architectural applications.