(Chapter 1-8) EDCT Low Quality
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muzammil(Chapter 1-8) EDCT Low Quality
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muzammil0 V) A forward-bias ot “on” condition is established by applying the positive potential-to-the- ype material and the negative potential to the n-type material as shown in Fig. 1.14, So Depletion region > eo (Similar) @ w) FIG. 1.14 Forward-biased p-n junction. (a) Internal distribution of charge under forward bias conditions; (b) forward-bias polarity and direction of resulting current. ‘The application of a forward-bias potential V will “pressure” electrons in the n-type ma~ terial and holes in the p-type material to recombine with the ions near the boundary and Seduce the width of the depletion region as shown in Fig. 1.14a—The resulting minority. [eetrons from the p-type material to the n-type material (and of holes from pt iz 8 ne in_magnitude (since the conduction level is controlled primarily by the limited number of impurities in the material), ‘but the reduction in the width of the depletion region has resulted in.a heavy majority flow. =actoss.the junction. An electron of the n-type material now “sees” a reduced barrier at the junction due to the reduced depletion region and a strong attraction for the positive poten- tial applied to the p-type material, As the applied bias increases in magnitude, the depletion region will continue to decrease in width until a flood of can pass through the junc- tion, resulting in an exponential rise in current as shown in the forward-bias region of the “characteristics of Fig. 1.15. Note that the vertical scale of Fig. 1.15 is measured in mil- “Tiamperes (although some semiconductor diodes have a vertical scale measured in am- peres), and the horizontal scale in the forward-bias region has a maximum of 1 V. Typically, therefore, the voltage across a forward-biased diode will be less than 1 V. Note also how quickly the current rises beyond the knee of the curve. Tt can be demonstrated through the use of solid-state physics that the general character- istics of a semiconductor diode can be defined by the following equation, referred to as Shockley's equation, for the forward- and reverse-bias regions: Tp = Ie"! — 1) | (A) (1) Vpiis the applied forward-bias vollage across the diode ris an ideality factor, which is a function of the operating conditions and physical construction; it has a range between I and 2 depending 2 wide variety of factors (n= 1 will be assumed throughout this text unless otherwise noted). ‘The voltage V; in Eq, (1-1) is called the thermal voltage and is determined by (vy) (1.2) where kis Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 x 107 J/K. Tis the absolute temperature in kelvins = 273 + the temperature in °C iis the magnitude of electronic charge = 1.6 x 10" C. Ea EXAMPLE 1 Ata temperature of 27°C (common temperature for components in an en- closed operating system), determine the thermal voltage Vr, Solution: Substituting into Eq, (1.2), we obtain T = 273 + °C = 273 + 27 = 300K (1.38 x 10-9 J/K){300) 16 x 10°C = 25.875 mV = 26mV ‘The thermal voltage will become an important parameter in the analysis to follow in this chapter and a number of those co follow. Initiatly, Eq. (1.1) with all its defined quantities may appear somewhat complex. How- ever, it will not be used extensively in the analysis to follow. It is simply important at this point to understand the source of the diode characteristics and which factors affect its shape. A plot of Eq, (1.1) with J, = 10 pA is provided in Fig. 1.15 as the dashed line. If we ex- pand Eq, (1.1) into the following form, the contributing component for each region of Fig. 1.15 can be described with increased clarity: In = Tell — 1, For positive values of Vp the first term of the above equation will grow very quickly and totally overpower the effect of the second term. The result is tie following equation, which only has positive values and takes on the exponential format e* appearing in Fig. 1.16: Ip = Le" (Vp positive SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE 3 4 ‘SEMICONDUCTOR Ip (mA) DIODES + __pj = ss Forward-bias region (Wp >0V, [p>0 mA). 30 [20 [io Tt Tov) Reverse-bias region (>< 0VsIp=-He) FIG. 1.15 Silicon semiconductor diode characteristics. FIG. 1.16 Plot of ‘The exponential curve of Fig. 1.16 increases very rapidly with increasing values of x. At x = 0,€? = 1, whereas at x = 5, it jumps to greater than 148. If we continued tox = 10, the curve jumps to greater than 22,000. Clearly, therefore, as the value of x increases, the ccurve becomes almost vertical, an important conclusion to keep in mind when we examine the change in current with increasing values of applied voltage. For negative values of Vp the exponential term drops very quickly below the level of /, and the resulting equation for Ip is simply Ip =I, (Vpnegative) Note in Fig. 1.15 that for negative values of Vo the current is essentially horizontal at the level of ~1,. At V = OV, Eq. (1.1) becomes Ip = 1 — 1) = (1 = 1) = OMA as confirmed by Fig. 1.15. ‘The sharp change in direction of the curve at Vp = 0'V is simply due to the change in current scales from above the axis to below the axis. Note that above the axis the scale is in milliamperes (mA), whereas below the axis it is in picoamperes (pA). ‘Theoretically, with all things perfect, the characteristics of a silicon diode should appear as shown by the dashed line of Fig. 1.15. However, commercially available silicon diodes devi- ate from the ideal for a variety of reasons including the internal “body” resistance and the ex- ternal “contact” resistance of a diode. Each contributes to an additional voltage at the same current level, as determined by Ohm’s law, causing the shift to the right witnessed in Fig, 1.15. ‘The change in current scales between the upper and lower regions of the graph was noted carlier. For the voltage Vp there is also a measurable change in scale between the right-hand region of the graph and the left-hand region. For positive values of Vp the scale is in tenths of volts, and for the negative region itis in tens of volts. It is important to note in Fig. 1.14b how: The defined direction of conventional current for the positive voltage region matches the arrowhead in the diode symbol. This will always be the case for a forward-biased diode. It may also help to note that the forward-bias condition is established when the bar representing the negative side of the ap- plied voltage matches the side of the symbol with the vertical bar. Going back a step further by looking at Fig. 1.14b, we find a forward-bias condition is established across a p-n junction when the positive side of the applied voltage is applied to the p-type material (noting the correspondence in the letter p) and the nega- tive side of the applied voltage is applied to the n-type material (noting the same cor respondence). Iti particularly interesting to note that the reverse saturation current of the commercial unit is significantly larger than that of /, in ShocKley’s equation. This is due to effects not included in Shockley’s equation, such as the generation of carriers in the depletion region and surface leakage currents, which are sensitive to the contact area at the junction. In other words: The actual reverse saturation current of a commercially available diode will normally be measurably larger than that appearing as the reverse saturation current in Shockley’s equation. tis important to keep in mind, however, that even if the actual reverse saturation cur- zent is 1,000 times greater, if J, = 10 pA, the reverse saturation current will simply increase to only 10 nA, which can still be ignored for most applications. Another factor that has a strong effect on the magnitude of the reverse saturation current is the contact area at the junction: There is a direct correspondence between the area at the junction and the level of reverse saturation current. Forexample, if we assume that the contact area necessary to handle a high-current diode of 1 A is 1000 times that of a diode with a maximum rated forward current of 1 mA (with 1,= 1 nA), then, according to the above statement, the reverse saturation current of the 1-A diode will be 1000 times that of the 1-mA diode, or 1 #1A (a level that could cause some ‘concern for some applications). ‘We will find in the discussions to follow thatthe ideal situation is for 7, to be 0 A in the reverse-bias region, The fact that it is typically in the range of 0.01 pA to 10 pA today as compared to 0.1 A to 1 A a few decades ago is a credit to the manufacturing industry. Comparing the common value of 10 pA to the I-A level of years past shows an improve- ment factor of 100,000. SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE 16 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES Zener Region Even though the scale of Fig. 1.15 is in tens of volts in the negative region, there is a point where the application of too negative a voltage will result ir a sharp change in the char- acteristics, as shown in Fig. 1.17. The current increases at a very rapid rate in a direction opposite to that of the positive voltage region. The reverse-bias potential that results in this dramatic change in characteristics is called the Zener potential and is given the symbol Vz ‘As the voltage across the diode increases in the reverse-bias region, the velocity of the minority carriers responsible for the reverse saturation current J, will also increase. Even- tually, their velocity and associated kinetic energy (Wx = }mv*) will be sufficient to release additional carriers through collisions with otherwise stable atomic structures. That is, an ionization process will result whereby valence electrons absorb sufficient energy to leave the parent atom. These additional carriers can then aid the ionization process to the point where a high avalanche current is established and the avalanche breakdown region determined. The avalanche region (Vz) can be brought closer to the vertical axis by increasing the doping levels in the p- and n-type materials. However, as Vz decreases to very low levels, such as —5 V, another mechanism, called Zener breakdown, will contribute to the sharp ‘change in the characteristic. It occurs because there is a strong electric field in the region of the junction that can disrupt the bonding forces within the atom and “generate” carriers. Al- though the Zener breakdown mechanism is a significant contributor only at lower levels of Vz this sharp change in the characteristic at any level is called the Zener region, and diodes employing this unique portion of the characteristic of a p-n junction are called Zener diodes. They are described in detail in Section 1.15, ‘The Zener region of the semiconductor diode described must be avoided if the response of a system is not to be completely altered by the sharp change in characteristics in this reverse-voltage region. The maximum reverse-bias potential that can be applied before entering the Zener region is calied the peak inverse voltage (referred to simply as the PIV rating) or the peak reverse voltage (denoted the PRV rating). if an application requires a PIV rating greater than that of a single unit, a namber of diodes of the same characteristics can be connected in series. Diodes are also connected in parallel to increase the current-carrying capacity. It will be shown in Section 1.12 when we review the specification sheets provided with commercially available diodes that: Ata fixed temperature, the reverse saturation current of a diode increases with an increase in the applied reverse bias. For instance, the diode described in Section 1.12 has 2 reverse saturation current of 1 nA. at 20 V at room temperature but a reverse saturation current of 5 nA at 100 V at the same ‘temperature. Ge, Si, and GaAs ‘The discussion thus far has solely used Si as the base semiconductor material. It is now im- portant to compare it to the other two materials of primary importance: GaAs and Ge. A plot comparing the characteristics of commercially available Si, GaAs, and Ge diodes is provided in Fig. 1.18. Itis immediately obvious that the point of vertical rise in the charac- teristics is different for each material, although the general shape of each characteristic is guite similar. Germanium is closest to the vertical axis and GaAs is the most distant. As noted on the curves, the center of the knee of the curve is about 0.3 V for Ge, 0.7 V for Si, and 1.2 V for GaAs (see Table 1.3). FIG. Comparison of Ge, Si, and GaAs diodes. 18 ‘The shape of the curve in the reverse-bias region is also quite similar for each material, but notice the measurable difference in the magnitudes of the typical reverse saturation cur- rents. For GaAs, the reverse saturation current is typically about 1 pA, compared to 10 pA for Si and 1 A for Ge, a significant difference in levels. Also note the relative magnitudes of the reverse breakdown voltages for each material. GaAs typically has maximum breakdown levels that exceed those of Si devices of the same power level by about 10%, with both having breakdowa voltages that typically extend between 50 V and 1 kV. There are Si power diodes with breakdown voltages as high as 20 kV. Germanium typically has breakdowe voltages of less than 100 V, with maxi- ‘mums around 400 V. The curves of Fig. 1.18 are simply designed to reflect relative breakdown voltages for the three materials. When one considers the levels of reverse SEMICONDUCTOR 17 DIODE TABLE 1.3 Knee Voltages Vg ‘Semiconductor V<(¥) Ge 03 Si 07 Gass 12 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES saturation currents and breakdown voltages, Ge certainly sticks out as having the least desirable characteristics. Temperature Effects ‘Temperature can have a marked effect on the characteristics of a semiconductor diode, as demonstrated by the characteristies of a silicon diode shown in Fig. 1.19: In the forward-bias region the characteristics of a silicon diode shift to the left at a rate of 2.5 mV per centigrade degree increase in temperature, oe sorte EEE FIG. 1.19 Variation in Si diode chavacteristics with temperature change. AA increase from room temperature (20°C) to 100°C (the boiling point of water) results, in adrop of 80(2.5 mV) = 200 mY, or 0.2 V, which is significant on 2 graph scaled in tenths of volts. A decrease in temperature has the reverse effect, as also shown in the figure: In the reverse-bias region the reverse saturation current of a silicon diode doubles {for every 10°C rise in temperature. For a change from 20°C to 100°C, the level of /, increases from 10 nA to a value of 2.56 wA, which is a significant, 256-fold increase. Continuing to 200°C would result in a ‘monstrous reverse saturation current of 2.62 mA. For high-temperature applications one ‘would therefore look for Si diodes with room-temperature /, closer to 10 pA, a level com- monly available today, which would limit the current to 2.62 j1A. It is indeed fortunate that both Si and GaAs have relatively small reverse saturation currevts at room temperature, Gas devices are available that work very well in the —200°C to +200°C temperature range, with some having maximum temperatures approaching 400°C. Consider, for a mo- ‘ment, how huge the reverse saturation current would be if we started with a Ge diode with a saturation current of | j.A and applied the same doubling factor. Finally, itis important to note from Fig. 1.19 that: The reverse breakdown voltage of a semiconductor diade will increase or decrease with temperature depending on the Zener potential. Although Fig. 1.19 reveals that the breakdown voltage will increase with temperature, if the initial breakdown voltage is less than 5 V, the breakdown voltage may actually decrease with temperature. The sensitivity of the Zener potential to changes of temperature will be examined in more detail in Section 1.15. Summary A great deal has been introduced in the foregoing paragraphs about the construction of a semiconductor diode and the materials employed. The characteristics have now been pre: sented and the important differences between the response of the materials discussed. Ic is ‘now time to compare the p-n junction response to the desired response and reveal the pri- ‘mary functions of a semiconductor diode. Table 1.4 provides a synopsis of material regarding the three most frequently used semi: conductor materials. Figure 1.20 includes a short biography of the first research s discover the p-n junction in a semiconductor material. TABLE 1.4 The Current Commercial Use of Ge, Si, and GaAs Ge: Germanium is in limited production due to its temperature sensitivity and high reverse saturation current, Its still commercially available but is limited 19 some high-speed applications (due toa relatively high mobility factor) and applications that use its sensitivity to light and heat such as photodetectors and security systems. ‘Without question the semiconductor used most frequently forthe full ange of electronic devices. It has the advantage of being readily available at low cost and has relatively low reverse saturation currents, cod temperature characteristics, and excellent breakdown Voltage levels. t also benefits from decades of enormous attention to the design of large-scale integrated circuits and processing technology. GaAs: Since the early 1990s the interest in GaAs has grown in leaps and bounds, and it ‘il! eventually take a good share of the development from silicon devices, espe- cially in very large scale integrated circuits ts high-speed characteristics ae in more demand every day, with the added features of low reverse saturation currents, excellent temperature sensitivities, and high breakdown voltages. More than 80% of its applications are in optoelectronics withthe development of light-emitting diodes, solar celts, and other photodetector devices, but that will probably change dramatically as its manufacturing costs drop and its use in inte- grated circuit design continues to grow; perhaps the semiconductor material of the future, IDEAL VERSUS 19 PRACTICAL, Russell Ohl (1898-1987) American (Allentown, PA; Holmdel, NJ; Vista, CA) Army Signal Corps, University of Colorado, Westinghouse, AT&T, Bell Labs Fellow, Institute of Radio Engineers—1955 (Courtesy Pennsylvania State University Archives, Pennsylvania State University Libraries.) Although vacuum tubes were used in all forms of communication in the 1930s, Russell Ohl was deter- ‘mined to demonstrate that the future of the field was defined by semiconductor crystals. Germanium ‘was not immediately available for his research, so he turned to silicon, ‘and found a way to raise its level of purity to 99.8%, for which he re. ceived a patent. The actual discov- cry of the p-n junction, as often happens in scientific research, was the result ofa set of circumstances that were not planned, On February 23, 1940, Ohl found that a silicon crystal with a crack down the muiddlle ‘would produce a significant rise in current when placed near a source of light. This discovery led to further research, which revealed that the pu- rity levels on each side ofthe crack ‘were different and that a baer was formed at the junction that allowed the passage of current in only one direction—the first solid-state diode ‘had been identified and explained. In addition, this sensitivity to light was the beginning of the development of solar cells. The results were quite in strumental in the development of the transistor in 1945 by three individu- als also working at Bell Labs. FIG. 1.20 —_ ‘Multisim 1.7__ \OEAL VERSUS PRACTICAL @ In the previous section we found that a p-n junction will permit a generous flow of charge when forward-biased and a very small level of current when reverse-biased. Both condi- tions are reviewed in Fig. 1.21, with the heavy current vector in Fig. 1.21 matching the di- rection of the arrow in the diode symbol and the significantly smaller vector in the opposite direction in Fig. 1.21b representing the reverse saturation current. An analogy often used to describe the behavior of semiconductor diode is a mechani- cal switch. In Fig. 1.21a the diode is acting like a closed switch permitting a generous flow of charge in the direction indicated, In Fig. 1.21b the level of current is so small in most ceases that it can be approximated as 0 A and represented by an open switch. @ © FIG. 1.21 Ideal semiconductor diode: (a) forward- biased; (b) reverse-biased. In other words: The semiconductor diode behaves in a manner similar to a mechanical switch in that it can control whether current will flow between it’s two terminals, However, itis important to also be aware that: The semiconductor diode is different from a mechanical switch in the sense that when the switch is closed it will only permit current to flow in one direction. Ideally, if the semiconductor diode is to behave like a closed switch in the forward-bias region, the resistance of the diode should be 0 ©. In the reverse-bias region its resistance should be 2% 91 to represent the open-circuit equivalent, Such levels of resistance in the forward- and reverse-bias regions result in the characteristics of Fig. 1.22. ‘The characteristics have been superimposed to compare the ideal Si diode to areal-world Si diode. First impressions might suggest that the commercial unit is a poor impression of the ideal switch. However, when one considers that the only miajor difference is that the commercial diode rises ata level of 0.7 V rather than.0 V, there are a number of similarities between the two plots. ‘When a switch is closed the resistance between the contacts is assumed to be 0 2. At the plot point chosen on the vertical axis the diode current is 5 mA and the voltage across the diode is 0 V. Substituting into Ohm's law results in Vp _ OV 1 Sma ~ 9% (short-circuit equivalent) Re In fact: At any current level on the vertical line, the voltage across the ideal diode is 0 V and the resistance is 0.0, For the horizontal section, if we again apply Ohm's law, we find Yo _ 20V Oma icuit equivalent) oo (oper Ideal characteristics 10mA Actual characteristics FIG. 1.22 Tdeal versus actual semiconductor characteristics. Again: Because the current is 0 mA anywhere on the horizontal line, the resistance is oo 0. at any point on the axis. Due to the shape and the location of the curve for the commercial unit in the forward- bias region there will be a resistance associated with the diode that is greater than 0 © However, if that resistance is small enough compared to other resistors of the network in series with the diode, itis often a good approximation to simply assume the resistance of the commercial unit is 0 ©. In the reverse-bias region, if we assume the reverse satura: tion current is so small it can be approximated as 0 mA, we have the same open-circuit equivalence provided by the open switch. ‘The result, therefore, is that there are sufficient similarities between the ideal switch and the semiconductor diode to make it an effective electronic device. In the next section the various resistance levels of importance are determined for use in the next chapter, where the response of diodes in an actual network is examined, 8 RESISTANCE LEVELS @ As the operating point of a diode moves from one region to another the resistance of the diode will also change due to the nonlinear shape of the characteristic curve. It will be demonstrated in the next few paragraphs that the type of applied voltage or signal will de- fine the resistance level of interest. Three different levels will be introduced in this section, which will appear again as we examine other devices. It is therefore paramount that their determination be clearly understood. DC or Sti ‘The application of a de voltage to a circuit containing a semiconductor diode will result in an operating point on the characteristic curve that will not change with time. The resistance of the diode at the operating point can be found simply by finding the corresponding levels of Vp and Jy as shown in Fig. 1.23 and applying the following equation: Resistance (1.3) RESISTANCE LEVELS 2 2 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES FIG. 1.23 Determining the de resistance of a diode at a particular operating point. / ‘The de resistance levels at the knee and below will be greater than zhe resistance levels obtained for the vertical rise section of the characterist es. The resistance levels in the ias region will naturally be quite high. Since ohmmneters typically employ a rela- tively constant-current source, the resistance determined will be at a preset current level (typically, a few milliamperes} In general, therefore, the higher the current through a diode, the lower is the de resistance level. [0D Sissi ae See Ree Tec EXAMPLE 1.2 Determine the de resistance levels for the diode of Fig. 1.24 at a. Ip = 2mA (low level) b. Ip = 20mA (high level) c. Vp = —10V (reverse-biased) FIG, 1.24 Example 1.2. Solution: a. At Ip = 2mA, Vp = 0.5 V (from the curve) and Vp _ OSV Yo _ 95 _ a590 Ro ly 2mA u b. At lp = 20mA, Vp = 0.8 V (from the curve) and VY _ 08V Ro Ty 20mA “1 ©. AtVp = —10V, Ip = —I, = —1 2A (from the curve) and Yo _ 10V 1,7 pa 7 10MO clearly supporting some of the earlier comments regarding the de resistance levels of adiode. R= AC or Dynamic Resistance Its obvious from Eq. (1.3) and Example 1.2 that the de resistance of a diode is independ- ent of the shape of the characteristic in the region surrounding the point of interest. If a sinusoidal rather than a de input is applied, the situation will change completely. The vary- ing input will move the instantaneous operating point up and down a region of the char teristics and thus defines a specific change in current and voltage as shown in Fig. 1.25. ‘With no applied varying signal, the point of operation woutd be the Q-point appearing on Fig. 1.25, determined by the applied dc levels. The designation Q-point is derived from the word quiescent, which means “still or unvarying.” Diode characteristic 25 Defining the dynamic or ac resistance. A straight line drawn tangent to the curve through the Q-point as shown in Fig. 1.26 will define a particular change in voltage and current that can be used to determine the ac ordyna~ mic resistance for this region of the diode characteristics. An effort should be made to keep the change in Voltage and current as small as possible and equidistant to either side of the Q-point. In equation form, a AY, a (s "% where A signifies a finite change in the quantity. ‘The steeper the slope, the lower is the value of AV, for the same change in AT, and the lower is the resistance, The ac resistance in the vertical-rise region of the characteristic is there~ fore quite small, whereas the ac resistance is much higher at low current levels. In general, therefore, the lower the Q-point of operation (smaller current or lower voltage), the higher is the ac resistance. RESISTANCE LEVELS 23, opoind [har —S as FIG. 1.26 Determining the ac resistance at a O-point. 24 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES EXAMPLE 13 For the characteristics of Fig. 1.27: a. Determine the ac resistance at [y = 2 mA. b. Determine the ac resistance at fy = 25 mA. c. Compare the results of parts (a) and (b) to the de resistances at each current level. To(mA) OT 0203 04 05 06 07 08 09 1 Vet) we Vg FIG.1.27 Example 1.3 Solution: a. For [p = 2 mA, the tangent line at , = 2 mA was drawn as shown in Fig. 1.27 and a swing of 2mA above and below the specified diode current was chosen. At [p = 4 mA, Vp = 0.76 V, and at /p = 0 mA, Vp = 0.65 V. The resulting changes in current and voltage are, respectively, Al, = 4mA — OmA = 4mA. and AV, = 0.16 V — 0.65V = 0.11 and the ac resistance is AV, _ O.11V “Ale” 4mA b. For /y = 25 mA, the tangent line at J, = 25 mA was drawn as shown in Fig. 1.27 anda swing ofS mA above and below the specified diode current was chosen. At Ip = 30mA, Vp = 0.8 V, and at fp = 20 mA, Vp = 0.78 V. The resulting changes in current and voltage are, respectively, Al, = 30mA — 20mA = 10mA and AV, = 0.8 V ~ 0.78 V = 0.02V and the ac resistance is ve =2750 ny = B¥e — 0.02V _ “Al 10mA c. For Ip = 2mA, Vp = 0.7 V and Vp _ O.7¥ Ry = 72 = STV Tp 2ma~ 350% which far exceeds the x, of 27.5 Q. For Ip = 25 mA, Vp = 0.79 V and Vp _ 0.79V R=—2= 2 Tp 25mA = 31.620 which far exceeds the rz of 2.0. We have found the dynamic resistance graphically, but there is a basic definition in dif. ferential calculus that states: The derivative of a function at a point is equal to the slope of the tangent line drawn at that point, Equation (1.4),as defined by Fig. 1.26, is, therefore, essentially finding the derivative of the function at the Q-point of operation. If we find the derivative of the general equation (1.1) for the semiconductor diode with respect to the applied forward bias and then invert the result, we will have an equation for the dynamic or ac resistance in that egion. That is, tak- ing the-derivative of Eq. (1.1) with respect to the applied bias will result in d dy ely avs = av,l )) and Alp ae viet) after we apply a few basic maneuvers of differential calculus, In general, >> /, inthe verticalslope section of the characteristics and aly _ Io Wp = Vy Flipping the result to define a resistance ratio (R = V/D) gives ay _ nVp dy" Substituting n = 1 and V; = 26 mV from Example 1.1 results in 26mV uo as) ‘The significance of Eq, (1.5) must be clearly understood. It implies that the dynamic re- sistance can be found simply by substituting the quiescent value of the diode current into the equation. There isno need to have the characteristics available or to worry about sketch- ing tangent lines as defined by Eq, (1.4). It is important to keep in mind, however, that Eq. (1.5) is accurate only for values of /p in the vertical-rise section of the curve, For lesser val- ues of Ip, 2 = 2 (silicon) and the value of rz obtained must be multiplied by a factor of 2 For small values of Ip below the knee of the curve, Eq. (1.5) becomes inappropriate, Al the resistance levels determined thus far have been defined by the p-n junction and do not include the resistance of the semiconductor material itself (called body resistance) and the resistance introduced by the connection between the semiconductor material and the external metallic conductor (called contact resistance). These additional resistance lev- cls can be included in Eq. (1.5) by adding a resistance denoted rg: = 228V 41, | ohms (1.6) Tp. ‘The resistance rj, therefore, includes the dynamic resistance defined by Eq. (1.5) and the resistance r just introduced. The factor rg can range from typically 0.1 0. for high-power devices to 2 Q for some low-power, general-purpose diodes. For Example 1.3 the ac re- sistance at 25 mA was calculated to be 2 (2. Using Eq. (1.5), we have _26mV _ 26mV Tp 25mA ‘The difference of about 1 9 could be treated as the contribution of rp. Loo RESISTANCE LEVELS 25 26 ‘SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES For Example 1.3 the ac resistance at 2 mA was calculated to be 27.5 ©. Using Eq. (1.5) ‘but multiplying by a factor of 2 for this region (in the knee of the curve n = 2), ne (2 av) = of 26m0V) Ip \2mA / ‘The difference of 1.5 0 could be treated as the contribution due to rp. In reality, determining 7, to a high degree of accuracy from a characteristic curve using Eq. (1.4) is adifficut process at best and the results have to be treated with a grain of salt. At low levels of diode current the factor rp is normally small enough compared to ry to permit ignor- ing its impact on the ac diode resistance. At high levels of current the level of rp may approach that of rz, but since there will frequently be otfier resistive elements of a much larger magni- tude in series with the diode, we will assume in this book that the ac resistance is determined solely by rg, and the impact of rg will be ignored unless otherwise noted. Technological im- provements of recent years suggest thatthe level of rg will continue to decrease in magnitude and eventually become a factor that can certainly be ignored in comparison to ry. ‘The discussion above centered solely on the forward-bias region. In the reverse-bias re- gion we will assume that the change in current along the /, line is nil from 0 V to the Zener region and the resulting ac resistance using Eq, (1.4) is sufficiently high to permit the open- circuit approximation. = 213.0) = 260 Average AC Resistance Ifthe input signal is sufficiently large to produce a broad swing such as indicated in Fig. 1.28, the resistance associated with the device for this region is called the average ac re- sistance. The average ac resistance is, by definition, the resistance determined by a straight line drawn between the two intersections established by the maximum and minimum val- ues of input voltage. In equation form (note Fig. 1.28), Ave Ala lpviope. (7) Poe For the situation indicated by Fig, 1.28, Al, = 17mA ~ 2mA = 15mA 4 Io(ma) 20 Ale 10} Le Of 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 1 mM avy FIG. 1.28 Determining the average ac resistance between indicated limits. and AV, = 0.725 V ~0.65V = 0.075V DIODE EQUIVALENT 27 AV, _ 0075V CIRCUITS Ty = t= =50 with 0 = sma 75 If the ac resistance (rz) were determined at [ = 2 mA, its value would be more than 5 O, and if determined at 17 mA, it would be less. In between, the ac resistance would make the transition from the high value at 2 mA to the lower value a¢ 17 mA. Equation (1.7) de- fines a value that is considered the average of the ac values from 2 mA to 17 mA. The fact that cone resistance level can be used for such wide range of the characteristics will prove quite useful in the definition of equivalent circuits for a diode in a later section. As with the de and ac resistance levels, the lower the level of currents used to determine the average resistance, the higher is the resistance level. Summary Table ‘Table 1.5 was developed to reinforce the important conclusions of the last few pages and to emphasize the differences among the various resistance levels. As indicated earlier, the con- tent of this section is the foundation for a number of resistance calculations to be performed in later sections and chapters TABLE 1.5 Resistance Levels Spe Graphical ‘Type Equation Characteristics Determination DC orstatic Ry = Defined as a point on the characteristics Wy _ 26m ACordynamic y= AM 26RY— Derneatyatangenn — teh || Ale Io Tine at the Q-point Me « | ay AV) Aly Average 2c tw oe Defined by a straight ‘inom line between limits of operation a 9 DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS An equivalent circuit is a combination of elements properly chosen to best represent the actual terminal characteristics of a device or system in a particular operating region. nother words, once the equivalent circuit is defined, the device symbol can be removed from a schematic and the equivalent circuit inserted in its place without severely affecting the actual behavior of the system. ‘The result is often a network that can be solved using tra- ditional circuit analysis techniques. 28 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES Pieces e-Linear Equivalent Circuit One technique for obtaining an equivalent circuit for a diode is to approximate the charac~ teristics of the device by straight-line segments, as shown in Fig. 1.29. The resulting equiv- alent circuit is called a piecewise-linear equivalent circuit. It should be obvious from Fig 1.29 that the straight-line segments do not result in an exact duplication of the actual char- acteristics, especially in the knee region. However, the resulting segments are sufficiently lose to the actual curve to establish an equivalent circuit that will provide an excellent first approximation to the actual behavior of the device. For the sloping section of the equiva- lence the average ac resistance as introduced in Section 1.8 is the resistance level appear- ing in the equivalent circuit of Fig. 1.28 next to the actual device. In essence, it defines the resistance level of the device when it is in the “on” state. The ideal diode is included to establish that there is only one direction of conduction through the device, and a reverse- bias condition will result in the open-circuit state for the device. Since a silicon semicon- ductor diode does not reach the conduction state until Vp reaches 0.7 V with a forward bias (as shown in Fig. 1.29), a battery Vj opposing the conduction direction must appear in the equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 1.30. The battery simply specifies that the voltage the device must be greater than the threshold battery voltage before conduction through the device in the direction dictated by the ideal diode can be established. When conduction is established the resistance of the diode will be the specified value of r,,. Lola) O7VO8V Vp(V) Wp FIG, 1.29 Defining the piecewise-linear equivalent circuit using straight-line segments to ap- proximate the characteristic curve. + Ym - al ioe + le bey GI => FIle = — trv, 3 i FIG. 1.30 Components ofthe piecewise-linear equivalent circuit Keep in mind, however, that Vj in the equivalent circuit is not an independent voltage source. Ifa voltmeter is placed across an isolated diode on the top of a lab bench, a reading of 0.7 V will not be obtained. The battery simply represents the horizontal offset of the char- acteristics that must be exceeded to establish conduction. The approximate level of ryy can usually be determined from a specified operating point on the specification sheet (to be discussed in Section 1.10). For instance, for a silicon semiconductor diode, if Jp = 10 mA (a forward conduction current for the diode) at Vp = 0.8 V, we know that for silicon a shift of 0.7 V is required before the characteristics rise, and we obtain Av, O8V-07V _ 01V ry = = = = 00 "Malan, 10mA—OmA~ 10mA as obtained for Fig. 1.29. Simplified Equivalent Circuit For most applications, the resistance r,y is sufficiently small to be ignored in comparison to the other elements of the network. Removing r,, from the equivalent circuit is the same as implying that the characteristics of the diode appear as shown in Fig, 1.31. Indeed, this approximation is frequently employed in semiconductor circuit analysis as demonstrated in Chapter 2. The reduced equivalent circuit appears in the same figure. It states that a forward- biased silicon diode in an electronic system under de conditions has a drop of 0.7 V across. it in the conduction state at any level of diode current (within rated values, of course). 'y + - ry =O ve07V all =P alll 1D ode diode 0 Ve=09V Vy FIG. 1.31 Simplified equivalent cieuit for te silicon semiconductor diode Ideal Equivalent Circuit Now that ry has been removed from the equivalent circuit, let us take the analysis a step further and establish that a 0.7-V level can often be ignored in comparison to the applied voltage level. In this case the equivalent circuit will be reduced to that of an ideal diode as shown in Fig. 1.32 with its characteristics. In Chapter 2 we will see that this approximation is often made without a serious loss in accuracy. Ib + wD oe 7S ideal diode oe FIG. 1.32 Ideal diode and its characteristics In industry a popular substitution for the phrase “diode equivalent circuit” is diode model— ‘a model by definition being a representation of an existing device, object, system, and so on, In fact, this substitute terminology will be used almost exclusively in the chapters to follow. Summary Table For clarity, the diode models employed for the range of circuit parameters and applica- tions are provided in Table 1.6 with their piecewise-linear characteristics. Each will be investigated in greater detail in Chapter 2. There are always exceptions to the general rule, but itis fairly safe to say thatthe simplified equivalent model will be employed most frequently DIODE EQUIVALENT caRcuITS Igik University Library 30 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES TABLE 1.6 Diode Equivalent Circuits (Models) Conditions Model Characteristies Piecewise-linear model Simplified modet Recess 7 Far Ideal device: Reso > fy ot pf» 5 I Enevats 7 Vi in the analysis of electronic systems, whereas the ideal diode is frequently applied in the analysis of power supply systems where larger voltages are encountered. 1.10___ TRANSITION AND DIFFUSION CAPACITANCE @ Itis important to realize that: Every electronic or electrical device is frequency sensitive. ? ‘That is, the terminal characteristics of any device will change with frequency. Even the re- sistance of a basic resistor, as of any construction, willbe sensitive to the applied frequency. At low to mid-frequencies most resistors can be considered fixed in value, However, as we approach high frequencies, stray capacitive and inductive effects stat to play arole and will affect the total impedance level of the element. For the diode it is the stray capacitance levels chat have the greatest efféct. At low fre- quencies and relatively small levels of capacitance the reactance of a capacitor, determined by Xc = 1/27fC, is usually so high it can be considered infinite in magnitude, represented bby an open circuit, and ignored. At high frequencies, however, the level of Xc can drop to the point where it will introduce a low-reactance “shorting” path. If this shorting path is across the diode, it can essentially keep the diode from affecting the response of the network. In the p-n semiconductor diode, there are two capacitive effects to be considered. Both types of capacitance are present in the forward- and reverse-bias regions, but one so out- weighs the other in each region that we consider the effects of only one in each region. In the reverse-bias region we have the transition. or depletion-region capacitance (Cz), whereas in the forward-bias region we have the diffusion (Cp) or storage capacitance. Recall that the basic equation for the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is defined by C = €A/d, where e is the permittivity ofthe dielectric (jasulator) between the plates of area A separated by a distance d, In the reverse-bias regioir te is a depletion region (free of carriers) that behaves essentially ike an insulator between the layers of opposite charge. Since the depletion width (4) will increase with increased reverse-bias potential, the result- ing transition capacitance will decrease, as shown in Fig. 1.33. The fact that the capacitance is dependent on the applied reverse-bias potential has application in a number of electronic systems, In fact, in Chapter 16 a diode will be introduced whose operation is wholly de- pendent on this phenomenon, Although the effect described above will also be present in the forward-bias region, it is overshadowed by a capacitance effect directly dependent on the rate at which charge is in- jected into the regions just outside the depletion region. The result is that increased levels of FIG. 1.33 Transition and diffusion capacitance versus applied bias for a silicon diode, current will result in increased levels of diffusion capacitance. However, increased levels of current result in a reduced level of associated resistance (to be demonstrated shortly), and the resulting time constant (r = XC), which is very important in high-speed applications, does not become excessive. ‘The capacitive effects described above are represented by capacitors in parallel with the ideal diode, as shown in Fig. 1.34. For low- or mid-frequency applications (except in the ower area), however, the capacitor is normally not included in the diode symbol. REVERSE RECOVERY TIME ‘There are certain pieces of data that are normally provided on diode specification sheets pro- ed by manufacturers. One such quantity that has not been considered yet isthe reverse re- covery time, denoted by 1, In the forward-bias state it was shown earlier that there are a large ‘umber of electrons from the n-type material progressing through the p-type material and a large number of holes in the n-type material—a requirement for conduction. The electrons in the p-type material and holes progressing through the n-type material establish a large num- ber of minority carriers in each material. Ifthe applied voltage should be reversed to establish a reverse-bias situation, we would ideally like to see the diode change instantaneously from the conduction state to the nonconduction state. However, because of the large number af mi- nority carriers in each material, the diode current will simply reverse as shown in Fig. 1.35 and stay at this measurable level for the period of time t, (storage time) required for the mi- nority carriers to return to their majority-carrier state in the opposite material. In essence, the diode will remain in the short-circuit state with a current Imyene determined by the network pa- rameters. Eventually, when this storage phase has passed, the current will be reduced in level to that associated with the nonconduction state. This second period of time is denoted by 1, (transition interval). The reverse recovery time is the sum of these two intervals: t,, = t, + f, This is an important consideration in high-speed switching applications. Most commercially available switching diodes have a, in the ange of a few nanoseconds to 1 4s. Units are avail- able, however, with a, of only a few hundred picoseconds (10 Ho ee ferns |_/eatetaren Desired response Teste tht FIG. 1.35 Defining the reverse recovery time. REVERSE RECOVERY 31 TIME yiL er Jeo FIG. 134 Including the effect of the transition or diffusion capacitance on the semiconductor diode. 2 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES 1.12__ DIODE SPECIFICATION SHEETS @ Data on specific semiconductor devices are normally provided by the manufacturer in one of two forms. Most frequently, they give a very brief description limited to perhaps one page. At other times, they give a thorough examination of the characteristics using graphs, art- work, tables, and so on. In either case, there are specific pieces of data that must be included for proper use of the device. They include: 1, The forward voltage Ve (at a specified current and temperature) 2. The maximum forward current I (at a specified temperature) 3. The reverse saturation current fe (at @ specified voltage and temperature) 4, The reverse-voltage rating [PIV or PRV or V(BR), where BR comes from the term “breakdown” (at a specified temperature)] ‘ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS (Note 1) | ft Temperatures __ - an [Storage Temperature Range ESC DOT ; Maximum Junetion Operating Temperature H17S'C ead Temperate 206 Power Dissipation (Note 2) aan imum Total Power Dissipation a 25°C Ambient” ——~~S00mmW "Linear Power Deating Factor (rom 25°C) Maximum Voltage and Currents wiv ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS (25°C Ambient Temperature uatess otherwise noted) 333 mW7C | "Working Inverse Vollage BAYS 100 v Treen cosusn, Beak Repetive Forward Curent @00 mA rane Peak Forward Surge Curent Cou pula” Pulse Width = 1s 104 emcee psge Pulse Width = Ips 40A Poop vest gum DO.35 OUTLINE BAY73 7 SYMBOL| CHARACTERISTIC UNITS NS. MI /ARACTERI in| MAK ‘TEST CONDITIONS EB [V1 Forwai Valine: as [too |v ost | 094 |v a7 | oss |v 069 | 080 | v 067 | 075 |v. 060 | 068 |v ~ Tee Reverse Current 15007] =na 10 | HA 02 | na os | aa BV | _ Breakdown Voliage 125 v G c. Capacitenc 1 H Sig} Reverse Recovery Time— | TOMA, Vp = 35 V. qetowie L Cr = 10 pF, JAN 256, 2 The eg seins The ery sad cna open avon pts ctf ce eran. FIG. 1.36 Electrical characteristics of a high-voltage, low-leatage diode. ‘The maximum power dissipation level at a particular temperature DIODE SPECIFICATION Capacitance levels SHEETS Reverse recovery time f,. Operating temperature range Depending on the type of diode being considered, additional data may also be provided, such as frequency range, noise level, switching time, thermal resistance levels, and peak repetitive values. For the application in mind, the significance of the data will usually be self-apparent. If the maximum power or dissipation rating is also provided, itis understood to be equal to the following product: 33 Pomx = Volo (1.8) where Jy and Vp are the diode current and voltage, respectively, at a particular point of operation. If we apply the simplified model for a particular application (a common occurrence), we can substitute Vp = Vy = 0.7 V fora silicon diode in Eq. (1.8) and determine the resulting power dissipation for comparison against the maximum power rating. That is, Psssipaea = (0.7 Vp (1.9) a ‘The data provided for a high-voltage/low-leakage diode appear in Figs. 1.36 and 1.37. ‘This example would represent the expanded list of data and characteristics. The term rectifier is applied to a diode when itis frequently used in a rectification process, described in Chapter 2. FORWARD VOLTAGE VERSUS REVERSE VOLTAGE VERSUS POWER DERATING CURVE FORWARD CURRENT REVERSE CURRENT 1000 —=- = 1.0) 2 i : Fos 3 : pe a 3 g Ol i E 3 E E os é é ; f u % oon 01 0-2 50 75 1001251801200 02 04 06 08 10 12 0355075 ton as T,~-Ambien emperaure—"C Vp ~Fonvard vote vols Vp Reverse volage—vots @) tb) © : VERSE CURRENT VERSUS CAPACITANCE vesus DYNAMIC IMPEDANCE VERSUS ‘TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT REVERSE VOLTAGE ORWARD CURRENT Ky Pe z t . ? 2 a 3 10 e & 3 A oo é Pen S jo? iT 0 001 ‘0353075 100 15 150 16 2-80-40 ‘01010 100 1K TOK ~ Ambien temperature Vj Reverse volage— wots p~ Dynamic impedance —2 @ 0 Terminot characteristics of a high-voltage diode. Er SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES Specific areas of the specification sheet are highlighted in blue, with leters correspon- ding to the following description: ‘A The data sheet highlights the fact that the silicon high-voltage diode has a minimum reverse-bias voltage of 125 V at a specified reverse-bias current. B Note the wide range of temperature operation. Always be aware that data sheets typi- cally use the centigrade scale, with 200°C = 392°F and ~65°C = —85°F. C The maximum power dissipation level is given by Py = Vp ip = 500 mW = 0.5 W. The effect of the linear derating factor of 3.33 mW/°C is demonstrated in Fig. 1.37a Once the temperature exceeds 25°C the maximum power rating will drop by 3.33 mW for each 1°C increase in temperature. At a temperature of 100°C, which is the boiling point of water, the maximum power rating kas dropped to one half of its original value. An initial temperature of 25°C is typical inside a cabinet containing operating electronic equipment in a low-power situation. D_ The maximum sustainable current is 500 mA. The plot of Fig. 1.37b reveals that the for- ward current at 0.5 V is about 0.07 mA, but jumps to I mA (100 times greater) at about 0.65. AtO.8 V the currentis more than 10 mA, and just above 0.9 V itis close to 100 mA. ‘The curve of Fig. 1.37b certainly looks nothing like the characteristic curves appearing in the last few sections. This is a result of using a log scale for the current and a linear scale for the voltage, Log scales are often used to provide a broader range of values for a variable in a limited amount ef space. Ifalinear scale were used for the current, it would be impossible to show a range of val- ues from 0.01 mA to 1000 mA. If the vertical divisions were in 0.01-mA increments, it would take 100,000 equal intervals on the vertical axis to reach 1000 mA. For the moment recognize that the voltage level at given levels of current can be found by using the inter- section with the curve, For vertical values above a level such as 1.0 mA, the next level is 2mA, followed by 3 mA, 4 mA, and 5 mA. The levels of 6 mA to 10 mA can be deter: mined by simply dividing the distance into equal intervals (not the true distribution, but close enough for the provided graphs). For the nextlevel it would be 1OMA, 26mA, 30mA, and so on. The graph of Fig. 1.37b is called a semt-fog plot to reflect the fact that only one axis uses a log scale. A great deal more will be said about log scales in Chapter 9, E. The data provide a range of V- (forward-bias voltages) for each current level. The higher the forward current, the higher is the applied forward bias. At | mA we find V, can range from 0.6 V to 0.68 V, but at 200 mA it can be as high as 0.85 V to 1.00 V. For the full range of current levels with 0.6 V at I mA and 0.85 V at 200 mA it is certainly a rea- sonable approximation to use 0.7 V as the average value. F The data provided clearly reveal how the reverse saturation current increases with ap- plied reverse bias at a fixed temperature. At 25°C the maximum reverse-bias current increases from 0.2 nA to 0.5 nA due to an incresse in reverse-bias voltage by the same factor of 5. At 125°C it jumps by a factor of 2to the high level of 1 zA. Note the extreme change in reverse saturation current with temperature as the maximum current rating jumps from 0.2 nA at 25°C to 500 nA at 125°C (at a fixed reverse-bias voltage of 20 V). A similar increase occurs at a reverse-bias potential of 100 V. The semi-log plots of Figs. 1.37¢ and 1,374 provide an indication of how the reverse saturation current changes with changes in reverse voltage and temperature. At first glance Fig. 1.37¢ might suggest that the reverse saturation current is fairly steady for changes in reverse voltage. However, this can sometimes be the effect of using a log scale for the vertical axis. The current has actually changed from a level of 0.2 nA to a level of 0.7 nA for the range of voltages rep- resenting a change of almost 6 to I. The dramatic effect of temperature on the reverse saturation current is clearly displayed in Fig. 1.374, At a reverse-bias voltage of 125 V the reverse-bias current increases from a level of about | nA at 25°C to about I A at 150°C, an increase of a factor of 1000 over the initial value. Temperature and applied reverse bias are very important factors in designs sensitive 10 the reverse saturation current, G As shown in the data listing and on Fig. 1.37e, the transition capacitance at a reverse- bias voltage of 0 V is 6 pF at a test frequency of 1 MHz. Note the severe change in capacitance level as the reverse-bias voltage is increased. As mentioned eartier, this sensitive region can be put to good use in the design of a device (Varactor; Chapter {6) whose terminal capacitance is sensitive to the applied voltage. H The reverse recovery time is 3 1s for the test conditions sown. This is nota fast time for some of the current high-performance systems in use today. However, for a variety of low- and mid-frequency applications it is acceptable. ‘The curves of Fig. 1.37f provide an indication of the magnitude of the ac resistance of the diode versus forward current. Section 1.8 clearly demonstrated that the dynamic resistance of adiode decreases with increase in current. AS we go up the current axis of Fig. 1. that if we follow the curve, the dynamic resistance will decrease. At 0.1 mA it is close to 1k; at 10 mA, 10.0; and at 100 mA, only 1 0; this clearly supports the earlier discussion. Unless one has had experience reading log scales, the curve is challenging to read for lev- cls between those indicated because it is a log-log plot. Both the vertical axis and the hor- izontal axis employ a log scale. ‘The more one is exposed to specification sheets, the “friendlier” they will become, es- pecially when the impact of each parameter is clearly understood for the application under investigation. 1.13__ SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE NOTATION @ ‘The notation most frequently used for semiconductor diodes is provided in Fig. 1.38. For ‘most diodes any marking such as a dot or band, as shown in Fig. 1.38, appears at the cathode end. The terminology anode and cathode is a carryover from vacuum-tube notation. The anode refers to the higher or positive potential, and the cathode refers to the lower or nega: tive terminal. This combination of bias levels will result in a forward-bias or “on” condition forthe diode. A number of commercially available semiconductor diodes appear in Fig. 1.39. A ne LE ore, k, ete Cathode] FG. 1.38 Semiconductor diode notation FIG. 1.39 Various types of junction diodes. (a) Courtesy of Motorola Inc.; (b) and (c) Courtesy International Rectifier Corporation.] SEMICONDUCTOR 35 DIODE NOTATION 36 OE 1.14__ DIODE TESTING Di ——__—_————_® ‘The condition of a semiconductor diode can be determined quickly using (1) a digital display meter (DDM) with a diode checking function, (2) the ohmmeter section of @ multimeter, or 3) a curve tracer Diode Checking Function A digital display meter with a diode checking capability appears in Fig. 1.40. Note the small diode symbol as the bottom option of the rotating dial. When set in this position and hooked up as shown in Fig. 1 41a, the diode should be in the “on” state and the display will provide an indication of the forward-bias voltage such as 0.67 V (for Si). The meter has an internal constant-current source (about 2 mA) that will define the voltage level as indicated in Fig. 1.41b. An OL indication with the hookup of Fig. 1.41a reveals an open (defective) diode. If the leads are reversed, an OL indication should result due to the expected open-circuit equivalence for the diode. In general, therefore, an OL indication in both directions is an indication of an open or defective diode. “ty @ ) Checking a diode in the forward-bias state. Ohmmeter Testing In Section 1.8 we found that the forward-bias resistance of semiconductor diode is quite low compared to the reverse-bias level. Therefore, if we measure the resistance of a diode using the connections indicated in Fig. 1.42, we can expect a relatively low level. The resulting ‘ohmmeter indication will be a function of the current established through the diode by the internal battery (often 1.5V) of the ohmmeter circuit. The higher the current, the lower is the resistance level. For the reverse-bias situation the reading should be quite high, requiring a high resistance scale on the meter, as indicated in Fig. 1.42b. A high resistance reading in (Obmnetr) Relatively low R Relatively bigh Red lead ¥ Black lead Black lead vy tes, Red lead ‘om | | ‘Cony YeoNd | | ny + = wt, + ® ® FIG. 1.42 Checking a diode with an ohmmeter both directions obviously indicates an open (defective-device) condition, wher resistance reading in both directions will probably indicate a shorted device. Curve Tracer ‘The curve tracer of Fig. 1.43 can display the characteristics of a host of devices, including the semiconductor diode. By properly connecting the diode to the test panel at the bottom center of the unit and adjusting the controls, ane can obtain the display of Fig. 1.44, Note that the vertical scaling is 1 mA/div, resulting inthe levels indicated. For the horizontal axis the scaling is 100 mV/diy, resufting in the voltage levels indicated. For a 2-mA level as fined for a DDM, the resulting voltage would be about 625.mV-=0.625-V. Although the instrument initially appears quite complex, the instruction manual and a few moments of exposure will reveal that the desired results can usually be obtained without an excessive amount of effort and time. The display of the instrument will appear on more than one occasion in the chapters to follow as we investigate the characteristics of the variety of devices. FIG. 1.03 Curve tracers. (Used with permission from Tektronix Inc.) Vertical 104, ms |-— Tah 0A mA Boren perdi imal | Oma (ov OV 02V O3V OAV OSV O6y O7V OSV OSV IOV FIG. 1.44 Curve tracer response to IN4007 silicon diode. DIODE TESTING a” SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES 1.15__ ZENER DIODES @ ‘The Zener region of Fig. 1.45 was discussed in some detail in Section 1.6. The characteris- tic drops in an almost vertical manner at a reverse-bias potential denoted V;. The fact that the curve drops down and away from the horizontal axis rather than up and away for the positive-Vp region reveals that the current in the Zener region has a direction opposite to that of a forward-biased diode. The slight slope to the curve in the Zener region reveals that there is a level of resistance to be associated with the Zener diode in the conduction mode. to FIG. 1.45 Reviewing the Zener region. ‘This region of unique characteristics is employed in the design of Zener diodes, which have the graphic symbol appearing in Fig. 146a. The semiconductor diode and the Zener diode are presented side by side in Fig. 1.46 to ensure that the direction of conduction of each is clearly understood together with the required polarity of the applied voltage. For the semiconductor diode the “on” state will support a current in the direction of the arrow in the symbol. For the Zener diode the direction of conduction is opposite to that of the arrow in the symbol, as pointed out in the introduction to this section. Note also that the polarity of V; and Vare the same as would be obtained if each were a resistive element as shown in Fig. 1.46c. + + fo “The " nS» @ ) © fia. 1.46 Conduction direction: (a) Zener diode; (b) semiconductor diode; (c) resistive element. The location of the Zener tegion can be controlled by varying the doping levels. An ia- crease in doping that produces an increase in the number of added impurities, will decrease the Zener potential. Zener diodes are available having Zener potentials of 1.8 V to 200 V ‘with power ratings from W to 50 W. Because of its excellent temperature and current ca- abilities, silicon is the preferred material in the manufacture of Zener diodes. It would be nice to assume the Zener diode is ideal with a straight vertical line at the Zener potential. However, there is a slight slope to the characteristics requiring the piece- wise equivalent model appearing in Fig. 1.47 for that region. For most of the applications appearing in this text the series resistive element can be ignored and the reduced equivalent ‘model of just a de battery of V; volts employed. Since some applications of Zener diodes FIG, 1.47 Zener diode characteristics with the equivalent model for each region. swing between the Zener region and the forward-bias region, it is important to understand the operation of the Zener diode in all regions. As shown in Fig. 1.47, the equivalent model for a Zener diode in the reverse-bias region below Vis a very large resistor (as forthe stan- dard diode). For most applications this resistance is so large it can be ignored and the open- circuit equivalent employed. For the forward-bias region the piecewise equivalent is the same as described in earlier sections. ‘The specification sheet for a 10-V, 500-mW, 20% Zener diode is provided as Table 1.7, and a plot of the important parameters is given in Fig. 1.48. The ¢erm nominal used in the specification of the Zener voltage simply indicates that it isa typical average value. Since this is a 20% diode, the Zener potential of the unit one picks out of a /or (a term used to des- cribe a package of diodes) can be expected to vary as 10 V + 20%, or from 8 V to 12 V. Both 10% and 50% diodes are also readily available. The test current /zris the current de- fined by the %-power level. It is the current that will define the dynamic resistance Zr and appears in the general equation for the power rating of the device. That is, AlgVz (1.10) Substituting /zp into the equation with the nominal Zener voltage results in Pr, = Merz = 4(12.5mA)(10 V) = 500mW TABLE 1.7 Electrical Characteristics (25°C Ambient Temperature) Zener Maximum Maximum = Maximum Voltage Test Dynamic Knee Reverse Test Nominal Current’ —Impedance_—_—_‘Impedance Current Voltage v, Ter Zap at Ley Za at Tee [pat Ve Ve o (ma) (0) (Q) (map (wa) 2) 10 125 8s 700 0.25 10 72 40 ‘SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES Temperature coefficient (Tc) ‘versus Zener current oun 1 1ka ef q 300 & +008 ~74 9. Bers a © |e ym 1 +008 100 2 of tie t 7” 3 it E x got TH zg @ Bev, mS | Tl ge o5 2-008 HH a tH 5 H 2 . & I 7 2 “hor 00501 051 510 50100 0102 05 1 2 5 1020 50100 Zener curtent ~(@0A) Zener cutent fz~(@0A) @) & FIG. 1.48 Electrical characteristics for a 10-V, 500-mW Zener diode. which matches the 500-mW label appearing above. For this device the dynamic resistance is 8.5 ©, which is usually small enough to be ignored in most applications. The maximum knee impedance is defined at the center of the knee ata current of Izy = 0.25 mA, Note that in all the above the letter Tis used in subscripts to indicate test values and the letter K to in- dicate knee values. For any level of current below 0.25 mA the resistance will only get larger in the reverse-bias region. The knee value therefore reveals when the diode will start to show very high series resistance elements that one may not be able to ignore in an application. Cer- tainly 500 © = 0.5 kO may be a level that can come into play. Ata reverse-bias voltage the application of a test voltage of 7.2 V results in a reverse saturation current of 10 j4A, a level that could be of some concer in some applications. The maximum regulator current is the ‘maximum continuous current one would want to support in the use of the Zener diode in a regulator configuration. Finally, we have the temperature coefficient (Tz) in percent per de~ gree centigrade, The Zener potential of a Zener diode is very sensitive to the temperature of operation. ‘The temperature coefficient can be used to find the change in Zener potential due to a change in temperature using the following equation: AVeIVe 5 sooep/ec | (%6/°C) (1.11) Te where 7; is the new temperature level Ty is room temperature in an enclosed cabinet (25°C) Te isthe-tempefature coefficient and Vzis the nominal Zener potential at 25°C. To demoristrate the effect of the temperature coefficient on the Zener potential, consider the following example. Ra EXAMPLE 14 Analyze the 10-V Zener diode described by Table 1.7 if the temperature is increased to 100°C (the boiling point of water). Solution: Substituting into Eq. (1.11), we obtain THe op 4 Too tt — To) (0.072%/°C)(10 V) =e (100°e - 25°C) AV, = and 54V ‘The resulting Zener potential is now LIGHT-EMITTING — at Vp! = Vo + 0.54V = 10.54V DIODES which is not an insignificant change. Itisimportant to realize that inthis case the temperature coefficient was positive. For Zener diodes with Zener potentials less than 5 V itis very common to see negative temperature co- efficients, where the Zener voltage drops with an increase in temperature. Figure 1.48a pro- vides a plot of T versus Zener current for three different levels of diodes. Note that the 3.6-V diode has a negative temperature coefficient, whereas the others have positive values. ‘The change in dynamic resistance with current for the Zener diode in its avalanche re~ gion is provided in Fig. 1.48b. Again, we have a log-log plot, which has to be carefully read. Initially it would appear that there is an inverse linear relationship between the dynamic re~ sistance because of the straight line. That wouid imply that if one doubles the current, one cuts the resistance in half. However, itis only te log-log plot that gives this impression, because if we plot the dynamic resistance for the 24-V Zener diode versus current using lin- ear scales we obtain the plot of Fig. 1.49, which is almost exponential in appearance. Note on both plots that the dynamic resistance at very low currents that enter the knee of the curve is fairly high at about 200 0. However, at higher Zener currents, away from the knee, at, say 10 mA, the dynamic resistance drops to about 5 0. FIG. 1.49 Zener terminal identification and symbols. ‘The terminal identification and the casing for a variety of Zener diodes appear in Fig. 1.49, Figure 1.50 provides a photograph of a variety of Zener diodes. Their appearance is similar in many ways to that of the standard diode, Some areas of application for the Zener diode will be examined in Chapter 2. FIG, 1.50 Zener diodes. (Courtesy Siemens Corporation.) 116__ LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES The increasing use of digital displays in calculators, watches, and all forms of instrumen- tation has contributed to an extensive interest in structures that emit light when properly bi- sed. The two types in common use to perform this function ae the light-emitting diode (LED) a2 ‘SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES and the liquid-crystal display (LCD). Since the LED falls within the family of p—n junction devices and will appear in some of the networks of the next few chapters, it will be intro- duced in this chapter. The LCD display is described in Chapter 16, ‘As the name implies, the light-emitting diode is @ diode that gives off visible or invisi- ble (infrared) light when energized. In any forward-biased p-n junction there is, within the structure and primarily close to the junction, a recombination of holes and electrons. This recombination requires that the energy possessed by the unbound free electrons be trans- ferred to another state. In all semiconductor pr janctions some of this energy is given off in the form of heat and some in the form of photons. In Si and Ge diodes the greater percentage of the energy converted during recombi- nation at the junction is dissipated in the form of heat within the structure, and the emitted light is insignificant. For this reason, silicon and germanium are not used in the construction of LED devices. On the other hand: Diodes constructed of GaAs emit light in the infrared (invisible) zone during the re- combination process at the pn junction, Even though the light is not visible, infrared LEDs have numerous applications where visible light is not a desirable effect. These include security systems, industrial processing, optical coupling, safety controls such as on garage door openers, and in home entertainment centers, where the infrared light of the remote control is the controlling element. ‘Through other combinations of elements a coherent visible light can be generated, Table 1.8 provides a list of common compound semiconduciors and the light they generate. In addi- tion, the typical range of forward bias potentials for each is listed. TABLE 1.8 Light-Emitting Diodes ‘Typical Forward ‘olor Construction ‘Voltage (V) ‘Amber AllnGaP 24 Blue GaN 5.0 Green GaP 22 Orange GaAsP 20 Red GassP 18 White GaN 41 Yellow AllnGaP 2 ‘The basic construction of an LED appears in Fig. 1.51 with the standard symbol used for the device. The external metallic conducting surface connected to the p-type material is smaller to permit the emergence of the maximum number of photons of light energy when the device is forward-biased. Note in the figure that the recombination of the injected car- tiers due to the forward-biased junction results in emitted light at the site of the recombi- nation. There will, of course, be some absorption of the packages of photon energy in the structure itself, but a very large percentage can leave, as shown in che figure. Just as different sounds have different frequency spectra (high-pitched sounds generally have high-frequency components, and iow sounds have a variety of low-frequency compo- nents), the same is true for different light emissions. The frequency spectrum for infrared light extends from about 100 THz(T = tera = 10") to 400 THz, with the visible light spectrum extending from about 400 to 750 THz. Itis interesting to note that invisible light has a lower frequency spectrum than visible light. In general, when one talks about the response of electroluminescent devices, one refer- ences their wavelength rather than their frequency. ‘The two quantities are related by the following equation: F(a) (1.12) where c = 3 X 10° m/s (the speed of light in a vacuum) Jf = frequency in Hertz A= wavelength in meters, (He Meta” Nts contact contact @ FIG. 1.51 (a) Process of electrotuninescence in the LED; (b) graphic symbol. EXAMPLE 15 Using Eq. (1.12), find the wavelength for the frequency range provided for visible light above, Solution: c=3x 108 neo) =3 x 10" mm/s 2X10" m/s 3X10" nms oes Ff 400THz — ~ 400 x 107 Hz €_ 3X 10nm/s _ 3x 10" mm/s _ soy f 750THz 750 x 10" Hz Note in the above example the resulting inversion from higher frequency to smaller wave- length. That is, the higher frequency results in the smaller wavelength. Also, most charts use either nanometers (nm) or angstrom (A) units. Orie angstrom unit is equal to 10~®° m. ‘The response of the average human eye is provided in Fig. 1.52. It extends from about 350 nm to 800 nm with a peak near 550 nm. Iti interesting to note that the peak response of the eye is to the color green, with red and blue at the lower ends of the bell curve. The curve reveals that a red or a blue LED must have a much stronger efficiency than a green one to be visible at the same intensity. In other words, the eye is more sensitive to the color green than to other colors. Keep in mind that the wavelengths showa are for the peak response of each color. Al the colors indicated on the plot will have a bell-shaped curve re- sponse, $0 green, for example, is still visible at 600 nm, but at a lower intensity level In Section 1.4 it was mentioned briefly that GaAs with its higher energy gap of 1.43 eV ‘made it suitable for electromagnetic radiation of visible light, whereas Si at 1.1 eV resulted pri- ‘marily in heat dissipation on recombination. The effect of this difference in energy gaps can be explained to some degree by realizing that to move an electron from one discrete energy level to another requires a specific amount of energy. The amount of energy involved is given by (1.13) with hh = Planck's constant = 6.626 x 10 J-s, & = Multisie, LIGHT-EMITTING bioDes as 44 ‘SEMICONDUCTOR DIObES Luminosity (L/w) 700 Green, 600 500 400 <— ULTRAVIOLET 300 0 a a a Kam) FIG. 1.52 Standard response curve of the human eye, showing the eye's response to light energy peaks at green and falls off for blue and red. If we substitute the energy gap level of 1.43 eV into the equation, we obtain the following wavelength: 16 xX 10S reser! 10%F) «an 95 and = le _ (6.626 x 1015)(3 10 m/s) i: 2.288 x 10-7 = 869 nm. This certainly places GaAs in the wavelength zone typically used in infrared devices. For a compound material such as GaAsP with a band gap of 1.9 eV the resulting wavelength is 654 nm, which is ia che center of the red zone, making it an excellent compound semicon- ductor for LED production. In general, therefore: The wavelength and frequency of light of a specific color are directly related to the energy band gap of the material. A first step, therefore, in the production of a compound semiconductor that can be used to generate light is to come up with a combination of elements that will generate the desired energy band gap. The appearance and characteristics of a subminiature high-efficiency red LED manu- factured by Hewlett-Packard are given in Fig. 1.53. Note in Fig. 1.53b that the peak forward current is 60 mA, with 20 mA the typical average forward current. The text conditions listed in Fig, 1.53c, however, are for a forward current of 10 mA. The level of Vp under forward- bias conditions is listed as Vp and extends from 2.2 to 3 V. In other words, one can expect a typical operating current of about 10 mA at 2.3 V for good light emission, as shown in Fig. 1.53e. In particular, note the typical diode characteristics for an LED, permitting sim- ilar analysis techniques to be described in the ext chapter. ‘Two quantities yet undefined appear under the heading Electrical/Optical Characteristics ac, = 25°C. They are the axial luminous intensity ([,) and the luminous efficacy (ny)-Light intensity is measured in cardelas. One candela (cd) corresponds to a light flux of 4r lumens (en) and is equivalent to an illumination of J footcandte on a 1-£¢ area 1 ft from the light source. Even if this description may not provide a clear understanding of the candela as a unit of ate Maximum Ratings at 7, [1.6 mm (0.063 in, fom body} High-Efficiency Red 4160, Parameter Units Power dissipation 120 mW ‘Average forward curent 201" mA ‘Peak forward curreat 60 mA Operating and storage 55°C to 100°C temperature range Lead soldering temperature 230°C for 3 s bss NOTE: 1, Derate from 50°C at 02 VC ®) Etectrical/Opticel Charactersties at Ty High Efcioncy Red tia Symbot Deerpton Min Typ. Max hv Axial mines 19 30 intensity 20 Included angle 20 etween ball Iuminous itensty points et wavelength os NM Dominant wavelength 6 = Speed of response 30 ¢ Capacitance 11 he “Thermal resistance 10 ve Forvard vole 22 30 BVp Revers beddown 50 vollage » Lomsinous efficacy ur NOTES: 1. Bais he off-axis angle at which the laminous intensity is half the axial luminous intensity 2. The dominant wavelength, his detived fom the CIE chromaticity diagram and represents the single wavelength that defines the color ofthe device. 3 Radiat intensiy. Zin watliteradian, may be found fem the equation luminous intensity in indelas and i the luminous efficacy in lumens/vat. © Unies med degree pF “cw v v Iw Test Conditions 10 mA, Meas at peak Note 2 Vp= 0; f= 1 Mba Jnetion to cathode lead at 0.79 mm (0.031 in.) from body Jp= 10 ma, Ty 100 HA Note 3 de where I isthe FIG. 1.55 Hewlett-Packard subminiature high-efficiency red solid-state lamp: (a) appearance; (b) absolute maximum ratings; (c) electicaVoptical characteristic; (d) relative intensity versus wavelength (e) forward curren versus forward vokage; (f) relative luminous intensity versus forward current; (g) relative eficiency versus peak current; (h) relative luminous intensity versus angular displacement (Courtesy Hewlett-Packard Corporation.) ‘measure, it should be enough to allow its level to be compared between similar devices. Figure 1.53f is a normalized plot of the relative uminous intensity versus forward current. The term. normalized is used frequently on graphs to give comparisons of response to a particular level. A normalized plot is one where the variable of interest is plotted with a specific level defined as the reference value with a magnitude of one. In Fig. 1.53f the normalized level is taken at Jr = 10 mA. Note that the relative lumi- ‘nous intensity is one at J = 10 mA. The graph quickly reveals that the intensity of the light is almost doubled at a current of 15 mA and is almost three times as much at a current of 30 mA. [tis important to therefore note that: The light intensity of an LED will increase with forward current until a point of satu- ration arrives where any further increase in current will not effectively increase the level of illumination. a5 1A) Relative luminous intensity (normalized st 46 Relative intensity 10 os 20 10 Green — Yellow Gabe? Red High efficiency Red 10 5 10 Ip Forward current = mA 0 350 Jp —Porward current mA, 600 650 700 750 Wavelength-am 0 @ 005 10 15 20 25 30 Vp ~ Forward voltage -V © 16 Is vy 13 12 ur 10 os os 07 06, 90" 20 ‘0 10 20 30 40 50 60 20° 40° 60" 80" 100° Ip Peak current A, @ ® FIG. 1.53 Continued. wo 10) Relative efficiency (oormelied at 10 mA de) 0 For instance, note in Fig. 1.53g that the increase in relative efficiency starts to level off as the current exceeds 50 mA. The term efficacy is, by definition, a measure ofthe ability of a device to produce the de- sired effect. For the LED this is the ratio of the number of lumens generated per applied watt of electrical power. ‘The plot of Fig. 1.53d supports the information appearing on the eye-response curve of Fig. 1.52. As indicated above, note the bell-shaped curve for the range of wavelengths that will result in each color. The peak value of this device is near 630 nm, very close to the peak value of the GaAsP red LED. The curves of green and yellow are only provided for refer- ence purposes. Figure 1.53h is a graph of light intensity versus angle measured from 0° (head on) to 90° (ide view). Note that at 40° the intensity has already dropped to 50% of the head-on intensity, One of the major concerns when using an LED is the reverse-bias breakdown voltage, which is typically between 3 V and 5 V (an occasional device has a 10-V level). This range of values is significantly less than that of a standard commercial diode, where it can extend to thousands of volts. As a result one kas to be acutely aware of this severe limitation in the design process. Ir the next chapter one protective approach will be introduced. Jn the analysis and design of networks with LEDs it is helpful to have some idea of the voltage and current levels to be expected. For many years the only colors available were green, yellow, orange, and red, permitting the use of the average values of Vp = 2V and Ip = 20 mA for obtaining an approximate ‘operating level. However, with the introduction of blue in the early 1990s and white in the late 1990s the ‘magnitude of these two parameters has changed. For blue the average forward bias voltage canbe as high as 5 V, and for white about 4.1 V, although both have a typical operating cur. rent of 20 mA or more. In general, therefore: ‘Assume an average forward-bias voliage of SV for blue and 4 V for white LEDs at currents of 20 mA to initiate an analysis of networks with these types of LEDs. Every once in a while a device is introduced that seems to open the door to slue of pos- sibilities. Such is the case with the introduction of white LEDs. The slow start for white LEDs is primarily due to the fact that itis not a primary color like green, blue, and red. Every other color that one requires, such as on a TV screen, can be generated from these three col- ors (as in virtually all monitors available today). Yes, the right combination of these three colors can give white—hard to believe, but it works. The best evidence is the human eye, which only has cones sensitive to red, green, and blue. The brain is responsible for pro- cessing the input and perceiving the “white” light and color we see in our everyday lives. ‘The same reasoning was used to generate some of the first white LEDs, by combining the right proportions of a red, a green, and a blue LED in a single package. Today, however, ost white LEDs are constructed of a blue gallium stitride LED below a film of yttrium- aluminum garnet ({8G) phosphor. When the blue light hits the phosphor, « yellow light is generated. The mix of this yellow emission with that of the central blue LED forms a white light— incredible, but true. Now, we have an LED that gives off white light, as shown in Fig. 1.54%, what are its limitations, considering that most of the lighting for homes and offices is a white light? ‘The thought that these small solid-state devices with lifetimes thousands of times that of ‘an incandescent bulb could replace current lighting techniques has entered the realm of the possible. In fact, the Fioravanti Yak concept car presented at the Geneva Motor Show uses white LEDs for its headlamps, fog lights, and signals as shown in Fig. 1.54b, Today white LEDs can generate about 25 Im/W, but in 2012 they are forecast to reach 150 Im/W, with maxima near 400 Im/W. At this rate 7 W of power will some day be able to gener- ate 1000 Im of light, which exceeds the illumination of a 60-W bulb and can be run off four D batteries. To demonstrate the interest in this area of development, there are already specially designed offices and meeting rooms that use LEDs for their complete lighting, an exciting development to follow in the next few decades. No more fragile bulbs to replace, just solid-state devices with lifetime guarantees exceeding 10 years and signifi- cantly lower power levels. Before leaving the subject, let us look at a seven-segment digital display housed in a typical dual in-line integrated circuit package as shown in Fig. 1.55. By energizing the proper pins with a typical 5-V de level, a number of the LEDs can be energized and the desired numeral displayed. In Fig. 1.55a the pins are defined by looking at the face of the display and counting counterclockwise from the top left pin, Most seven-segment displays are either common-anode or common-cathode displays, with the term anode re~ ferring to the defined positive side of each diode and the cathode refesring to the nega- tive side. For the common-cathode option the pins have the functions listed in Fig. 1.55b and appear as in Fig. 1.55e. In the common-cathode configuration all the cathodes are @ FIG. 1.54 (a) White LED unit; (b) used in the headlamps, fog lights, ‘and turn signals of the Fioravantt Yak concept car. (After IEEE Spectrum, September 2002.) LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES a7 48 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES Multsim ‘coMMON caTHONE BDV # FUNCTION Anode f ANODE g No PIN COMMON CATHODE Nop ANODE ANODE ANODE ANODE d NO PIN NOPIN COMMON CATHODE ‘ANODES ANODE ® @ © De Bel! | 1.0875" — 4! = os30" Fe Es Computer contro © FIG. 1.55 Seven-segment display: (a) face with pin idenfication; (b) pin function; (c) displaying the numeral 5. connected together to form a common point for the negetive side of each LEI). Any LED with 2 positive 5 V applied to the anode or numerically numbered pin side will tura on and produce light for that segment. In Fig. 1.55c, 5 V has been applied to the terminals that generate the numeral 5. For this particular unit the average forward turn-on voltage is 2.1 V at a current of 10 mA. Various LED configurations are examined in the next chapter. SUMMARY important Conclusions d Concepts 1. The characteristics of an ideal diode are a close match with those of a simple switch except for the important fact that an ideal diode can conduct in only one direction. 2. The ideal diode is « short in the region of conduction and an open cireuit in the region of nonconduction. 3. A semiconductor is a material that has a conductivity level somewhere between that of a good conductor and that of an insulator. 4. A bonding of atoms, strengthened by the sharing of electrons between neighboring atoms, is called covalent bonding. 5. Increasing temperatures can cause a significant increase in the number of free elec- trons in a semiconductor material. 6. Most semiconductor materials used in the electronics industry have negative temper- ature coefficients; that is, the resistance drops with an increase in temperature. 7. Intrinsic materials are those semiconductors that have very low level of impurities, whereas, extrinsic materials are semiconductors that have been exposed to a doping process. 8. An n-type material is formed by adding donor atoms that have five valence electrons to establish a high level of relatively free electrons. In an n-type material, the electron is the majority carrier and the hole is the minority carrier. 9. A p-type material is formed by adding acceptor atoms with three valence electrons to establish a high level of holes in the material. In a p-type material, the hole is the ma. jority carrier and the electron is the minority carrier. 10. The region near the junction of a diode that has very few carriers is called the depletion region. 11. Inthe absence of any externally applied bias, the diode current is zero. 12. In the forward-bias region the diode current increases exponenti voltage across the diode, 13, In the reverse-bias region the diode current is the very small reverse saturation cur- rent until Zener breakdown is reached and current will flow in the opposite direction through the diode. 14, The reverse saturation current /, will just about double in magnitude for every 10-fold increase in temperature. 15. The de resistance of a diode is determined by the ratio of the diode voltage and cur- rent at the point of interest and is not sensitive to the shape of the curve. The de re~ sistance decreases with increase in diode current or voltage. 16. The ac resistance of a diode is sensitive to the shape of the curve in the region of in- terest and decreases for higher levels of diode current or voltage. 17. The threshold voltage is about 0.7 V for silicon diades and 0.3 V for germanium diodes. 18, The maximum power dissipation level of a diode is equal to the product of the diode voltage and current, 19. The capacitance of a diode increases exponentially with increase in the forward-bias, voltage. Its lowest levels are in the reverse-bias region 20. ‘The direction of conduction for a Zener diode is opposite to that of the arrow in the symbol, and the Zener voltage has a polarity opposite to that ofa forward-biased diode. 21. Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) emit light under forward-bias conditions but require 2V to 4 V for good emission. lly with increase in Ip = He" = 1) Te = Te +298 k= 138 X 107 3/K Va = 0.7 V(Si) Vx = 1.2V GaAs) _ _ AVs _ 26mV eA, Ip AY, Ale won Po. = Voln 18 COMPUTER ANALYSIS @ The computer has now become such an integral part of the electronics industry that the ca- pabilities of this working “tool” must be introduced at the earliest possible opportunity. For those students with no prior computer experience there is a common initial fear of this seem: ingly complicated powerful system. With this in mind the computer analysis of this book was designed to make the computer system more “friendly” by revealing the relative ease with which it can be applied to perform some very helpful and special tasks in a minimum amount of time with a high degree of accuracy. The material was written with the assump- tion that the reader has no prior computer experience or exposure to the terminology to be applied. There is also no suggestion that the content of this book is sufficient to permit a complete understanding of the “hows” and “whys” that will surface. The purpose here is COMPUTER ANALYSIS a9 50 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES FIG. 1.56 Mathcad 11 package. (Courtesy of Mathsoft. Mathead and Mathsoft are registred trademarks of Mathsoft Engineering and Education, Inc, lutp:thowy.mathsofi.con.) FIG. 1.57 PSpice Design package. OrCAD version 9.2. FIG. 1.58 ‘Mulisim 7. (Courtesy of Electronics Workbench.) solely to introduce some of the terminology, discuss a few of its capabilities, reveal the pos: sibilities available, touch on some of its limitations, and demonstrate its versatility with a number of carefully chosen examples. In general, the computer analysis of electronic systems can take one of two approaches: using a language such as C+, Pascal, FORTRAN, or QBASIC; or using @ software pack- ‘age such as PSpice, Multisim (Electronics Workbench, EWB), MicroCap Il, Breadboard, or Circuit Master, to name a few. A language, through its symbolic notation, forms a bridge between the user and the computer that permits a dialogue between the two for establish ing the operations to be performed. Inearliereditions ofthis text, the chosen language was BASIC, primarily because it uses ‘a number of familiar words and phrases from the English language that in themselves re~ veal the operation to be performed. When a language is employed to analyze a system, a program is developed that sequentially defines the operations to be performed—in much the same order in which we perform the same analysis in longhand. As with the longhand approach, one wrong step and the result obtained can be completely meaningless. Programs typically develop with time and application as more efficient paths toward a solution be- come ol ‘Once established in its “best’ form it can be cataloged for future use. The important advantage of the language approsch is that a program can be tailored to meet all the special needs of the user. It permits innovative “moves” by the user that can result in printouts of data in an informative and interesting manner. ‘The alternative approach referred to above uses a software package to perform the de- sired investigation. A software package is a program written and tested over a period of time designed to perform a particular type of analysis or synthesis in an efficient manner with a high level of accuracy. The package itself cannot be altered by the user, and its ap- plication is limited to the operations built into the system. A user must adjust his or her desire for output information to the range of possibilities offered by the package. In addi- tion, the user must input information exactly as requested by the package or the data may be misinterpreted. ‘The software packages available today have become so extensive in their coverage and range of operations that extensive exposure is now required to become truly proficient in their use. In fact, an associate with the broadest exposure to a particular software package is always an important source of information for those just starting out, The help that such aan associate can initially provide is often invaluable in the time and effort it can save. But always keep in mind that at one time that local expert also had to pick his or her way through the provided manuals and sources of help to get a task done. Becoming proficient in the use of any software package is simply the end result of many hours of exposure, with the abi ity to ask questions and seek help when needed. In this text, three software packages will be used extensively. However, the coverage is very introductory in nature, so the guidance provided by this text and the software man- uals should be more than enough to enable readers to clearly understand the examples and work through the exercises. Mathcad will be introduced to provide an awareness of the type of available mathematical assistance that extends well beyond the capability of the typical scientific calculator. Although the Mathcad 11 package appearing in Fig. 1.56 is used in this text, the level of coverage is such that all the operations can be accomplished with older versions of Mathcad. For the networks to be explored in this text, two software packages were employed: PSpice and Multisim. A photograph of the PSpice OrCAD Capture 9.2-Lite Edition appears in Fig. 1.57 in the CD-ROM format. A more sephisti- cated version, referred to simply as SPICE, has widespread application in industry. The package for Version 7 of Multisim appears in Fig. 1.58. Again, the coverage of this text is such that older versions can also be used to complete the exercises. For all the software packages, an effort was made to provide sufficient detail in the text to take the reader through each step in the analysis process. If questions do arise, first consalt with your instructor and the software manuals, and as a last resort use the help-line provided with each package. PSpice Windows Readers familiar with the older versions of PSpice sch as version 8 will find that the major changes in this latest 9.2 version are primarily in the front end and ‘he simulation process. Afier executing a few programs, you will find that most ofthe procedures you learned from older versions will be applicable here also—at least the sequential process has a number of strong similarities. The introduction in this text is to the Orcad Family Release 9.2 Lite Edition. ‘Once the CD has been installed and selected, the PSpice screen will appear. The first step is to establish a folder for the storage of the various networks to be analyzed. ‘This is ac- complished by first placing the cursor on the Start pad at the bottom left of the screen and performing @ right click of the mouse. Then use the sequence File-New-Folder to obtain new folder on the screen, waiting for a label. Type in PSpice (the author’s choice) followed by a left click of the mouse to install. Then exit the Exploring-Start disiog box, and the first step is complete. The folder PSpice has been established for all the projects you plan to work on in this text. Inthe next chapter the procedure for labeling the network will be introduced along with the construction of the network. Finally, an analysis will be performed and compared to @ handwritten solution to verify the results. Multi: Fortunately, there are a numer of similarities between PSpice and Multisim. Of course, there are also an extensive number of differences, but the point is that once you become pro- ficient in the use of one software package, the other will be much easier to learn. Once the Multisim icon is chosen, the screen of Fig. 1.59 will appear. At first, the menu, bars seem quite extensive. In fact, simply familiarizing yourself with the range of options already available can take some time, Keep in mind, however, that for each item on a menu bar there is probably a subset that can be chosen, so the list of options is quite extensive. First note atthe top of the screen that the menu bar (second row of options) has been broken up into six distinct sections. The system toolbar, which includes the first four sections start- ing from the left, should be somewhat familiar from other software packages such as Mi- crosoft Word. The remaining set of eight pads, called the Multisim design bar, is specifi- cally designed for Multisim. Each will be described in detail as the need arises. The vertical toolbars to the left of the screen are an extensive list of components to choose from. Sinan rea [eo em oe ee ew be oe OS osu seasle 5 @[wleGa yaa a? [aac > : = = i StEaPOUGTATIS ts [i ir = FIG. 1.59 Basic Multisim screen. COMPUTER ANALYSIS 52 SEMICONDUCTOR DiopES FIG. 1.60 ‘Multisiee component family toolbar ‘When you enter Multisim you have the choice of using “real” components or “virtual” components. The term “real” is applied to standard values available on a commercial basi ‘The term “virtual” is applied to elements where the user has the option of choosing any value he or she prefers, whether itis commercially available or not. For most ofthis text the virtual option will be used the most frequently because itis the less complex of the two op- tions. Sefecting the third pad down on the right vertical toolbar of Fig. 1.59 (looks like a re- sistor symbol) will result in the BASIC COMPONENTS dialog box with 18 options as shown in Fig. 1.60. The appearance of this dialog box can be changed by simply dragging one of the edges to establish the desired shape. In the next chapter the details of how to se- lect and place an element from this list are described in detail ‘The rernaining options of the Multisim design bar will be described as the need arises. In the next chapter a simple circuit will be constructed and tested. Mathcad ‘Throughout the text a mathematical software package called Mathead® will be used to ia- troduce the student to the variety of operations this popular package can perform and the advantages associated with its use, There is na aeed to obtain a copy of the software pro- ‘gram unless you feel inclined to learn and use it after this brief introduction. In general, however, the coverage is only at the very introductory level to simply introduce the scope and power of the package. Alll the exercises appearing at the end of each chapter can be done without resorting to Mathcad. The usefulness of Mathcad extends well beyond that of a hand-held scientific calcu- lator. Mathcad can plot graphs, perform matrix algebra, permit the addition of text to any calculation, communicate with other data sources such as Excel® and MATLAB® or the Internet, store data, store information, and so on—the list is quite extensive and im- pressive. The more you learn about the package, the more uses you will find for it on a daily basis FIG. 1.61 Basic Mathcad screen. Once the package is installed, all operations begin with the basic screen of Fig. 1.61; la- bls have been added to this screen to identify the components of the display. In general, all the mathematical operations are performed in specific sequence such as shown in Fig. 1.62, that is, from left to right and then from top to bottom. For example, if line 2 is to operate on a variable, the value of the variable must be defined to the left on the same line or on line 1. Note that Mathcad is very sensitive to this order of things. For example, if you define a se~ ries of quantities on the same line but place one @ little bit higher than the others, it will not be recognized by the other variables if it happens to be part of their definition. In other words, when writing on the same line, be absolutely sure that you stay on that same line for ceach new entry. Fortunately, Mathcad is well equipped to tell you when something is wrong. When you first use the program, you will get tired of seeing things in red, indicating that something was not entered or defined correctly. But, in time, as with any learning process, you will become quite comfortable with the software. ‘To perform basic arithmetic operations, simply click on the screen at any point to es- tablish a crosshair on the display (the location of the first entry). If you decide you don’t like the location, simply move the arrow to another jocation, and a simple click will move the crosshair. Then type in the mathematical operation 20 — 2X 8/6 as shown in Fig. 1.63. ‘The instant the equal sign is typed, the result will appear as shown in Fig. 1.63. The equal sign can come fram the keyboard or the menu bar at the top of the screen. In fact, by going sin cs fan Uo ep nie 7 4 1 FIG. 1.63 Basic mathematical eperation. COMPUTER ANALYSIS 53 eompuse seen FIG. 1.62 Defining the onder of mathematical ‘operations for Mathcad. 5a ‘SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES vi-asansx0°V w=s(¢-)) | iF FIG. 1.64 Determining the diode current Ip with Vp = 0.5 ¥. to View-Tool bars-Caleulator, you can use the calculator in Fig. 1.63 and enter the entire expression and get the result using the mouse in the same way you use your finger on a typi cal calculator. All the other mathematical operations such as powers, square roots, sine, tan- gent, and so on, found in a typical scientific calculator are also available. For practice using variables, let us calculate the current of a diode using Eq, (1.1). For equations with variables, the letter or symbol applied to the variable is first typed as shown in Fig. 1.64 followed by a colon sign. When the colon sign is entered, an equal sign will also appear as shown in the same figure, The Value of the constant for the first series of cal- culations can then be entered. Next, enter the remaining constants on the same line, and con- tinue by calculating additional variables on the second line that are a function of those on the first two lines. Note that x requires that k,'TK, , IS, n, and VD first be defined on the previous lines or to the left on the same line. On the next line the value of x can be found by simply typing x followed by an equal sign. The multiplication process between constants and their units and between variables in an equation is obtained using the star (+) key (above the number 8) on the keyboard. It will appear as a dot when entering the data or equation but appear as a x in the solution. For numbers with powers of 10, the superscript (*) key (above the number 6) on the keyboard is used to enter the power of 10. Throughout the process of entering data and equations the arrow keys of the keyboard (normally in the bot- tom right) control where the entered piece of data will appear. The units for each are ob- tained by first selecting the multiplication operation followed by the Insert option appear- ing at the head of the screen. After you select Unit, the Unit dialog box will appear. For the constant & first find Joules (J) and after selecting OK select the division sign on the keyboard and repeat the process to place the Kelvin (K) unit at the bottom. The result will be the units appearing in Fig. 1.64 for the constant k. It is important to realize that a result will only have the proper unit of measurement if all the units are entered for each quantity in the equation. The computer will check that all the units were properly entered and in fact will display the units obtained through its internal checking process. If the entries are cor- rect, the result will have the correct units. Note in Fig. 1.64 that the units are in amperes as required. Note also, however, that the powers of 10 are written in long form rather than the abbreviated form using mA. The units associated with the constants can be entered using prefixes before ampere such as m, k, M, and so on, but the results will always display the corresponding power of 10. ‘The correct response of 19.324 will appear immediately. Now Eq, (1.1) must be entered. As you enter each quantity, a bracket will appear around the quantity defining the quantity to be entered. In time, it becomes a friendly asset. Once the equation is correctly entered, TD can be written on the next line (orto the right of the equation), and the result of 2.467 mA will appear directly after the equal sign is selected. The result is that for a voltage of 0.5 V the current for this diode is 2.467 mA. Gitshad famed meal =e Ge a te fet feet oe eS ee BP a DSH 6DY 2=G 00 *F MDE wor [tow Mae 7 wees we Ga FIG. 1.65 Demonstrating the effect of changing the parameter Vp, ‘The beauty of Mathcad can now be effectively demonstrated by simply changing the voltage VD to 0.45 V. The instant the value is changed, the new level of x and ID will appear as shown in Fig. 1.65. A reduction in VD has reduced the diode current to 0.357 mA. There is no need to enter the entire sequence of calculations again or to calculate all the quanti- ties over again with a calculator. The results appear immediately. ‘Additional examples using Mathcad will appear throughout the text, but keep in mind that itis not necessary to become proficient in its use to grasp the material ofthis text—our purpose is simply to introduce the available software. PROBLEMS @ “Note: Asterisks indicate more difficult problems. 13 Covalent Bonding and intrinsic Materials 1. Sketch the atomic structure of copper and discuss why itis a good conductor and how its struc- ture is different from that of germanium, silicon, and gallium arsenide. 2. In your own words, define an intrinsic material, a negative temperature coefiicient, and cova lent bonding, 3. Consult your reference library and list three materials that have a negative temperature coeffi- cient and three that have a positive temperature coefficient. 14 Energy Levels 4, How much energy in joules is required to move a charge of 6 C through a difference in poten- tial of 3? 5. 1F48 eV of energy is required to move a charge through a potential difference of 12 V, deter- mine the charge involved, 6. Consult your reference library and determine the level of E, for GaP and ZnS, two semicon- ductor materials of practical value. In addition, determine the written name for each material. 15 Extrinsic Material Type and p-Type Materials 7. Describe the difference between n-type and p-type semiconductor materials. 8. Describe the difference between donor and acceptor impurities 9. Describe the difference between majority and minority carriers. 10, ‘Sketch the atomic structure of silicon and insert an impurity of arsenic as demonstrated for sil icon in Fig. 1.7. 11. Repeat Problem 10, but insert an impurity of indium. PROBLEMS 2 16 14, 15. 16. a. 18. 19. au, $ 31. 32, 33. Consult your reference library and find another explanation of hole versus electron flow. Using, both descriptions, describe in your own words the process of hole conduction, Semiconductor Diode Describe in your own words the conditions established by forward- and reverse-bias conditions ‘on a p-n junction diode and how the resulting current is affected. Describe how you will remember the forward and reverse-bias slates ofthe pn junction diode. ‘Thats, how you will remember which potential (positive or negative) is applied to which terminal? ‘Using Eq, (1.1, determine the diode current at 20°C for a silicon diode with [, = 50 nA and an ‘applied forward bias of 0.6 V. Repeat Problem 15 for 7= 100°C (boiling point of water). Assurme that has increased 105.0 pA. ‘a, Using Eq, (1.1), determine the diode current at 20°C for a silicon diode with J, = 0.1 A at a reverse-bias potential of —10 V. 'b. Is the result expected? Why? a. Plot the function y = efor x from 0 to 10. Why is it difficult to plot? . What is the value of y = eat x = 0? Based on the results of part (b), why is the factor ~1 important in Eq. (1-1)? In the reverse-bias region the saturation current of a silicon diode is about 0.1 A (T= 20° Determine its approximate value if the temperature is increased 40°C. Compare the characteristics ofa silicon and a germanium diode and determine which you would prefer to use for most practical applications. Give some details. Refer to a manufscturer’s listing and compare the characteristics of a germanium and a silicon diode of similsr maximum ratings. Determine the forward voltage drop across the diode whose characteristics appear in Fig 1.19 at temperatures of ~-75°C, 25°C, 100°C, and 200°C and a current of 10 mA. For each temper- ature, determine the level of saturation current. Compare the extremes of each and comment on the ratio of the two. ‘deal versus Practical 3. Describe in your own words the meaning of the word ideal as applied to a device or a system. Describe in your own words the characteristics of the ideal diode and how they determine the ‘on and off states ofthe device. That is, deseribe why the short-circuit and open-circuit equiva- Jents are appropriate. ‘What isthe one important difference between the characteristics of a simple switch and those fan ideal diode? Resistance Levels Determine the static or de resistance of the commercially available diode of Fig. 1.15 at a for- ward current of 2:mA. Repeat Problem 25 ata forward current of 15 mA and compare results. . Determine the static or de resistance of the commercially availabe diode of Fig. 1.15 ata reverse voltage of ~10 V. How does it compare to the value determined at a reverse voltage of —30 V2 . a. Determine the dynamic (ac) resistance of the diode of Fig. 1.27 at a forward current of 10 mA using Eq, (1.4). '. Determine the dynamic (ac) resistance of the diode of Fig. 1.27 at a forward current of 10mA using Eq, (1.5). € Compare solutions of pats (a) and (b). ). Calculate the de and ac resistances for the diode of Fig. 1.27 at a forward current of 10 mA and compare their magnitudes. - Using Eq. (1.4), determine the ac resistance at a current af 1 mA and 15 mA for the diode of Fig. 1.27. Compare the solutions and develop a general conclusion regarding the ac resistance and inereasing levels of diode current. Using Eq, (1.5), determine the ac resistance ata current of | mA and 15 mA for the diode of Fig. 1.15. Modify the equation as necessary for low levels of diode curent. Compare tothe o- lutions obtained in Problem 2. Determine the average ac resistance for the diode of Fig. 1.15 for the region between 0.6 V and 0.9V. Determine the ac resistance forthe diode of Fig. 1.15 at 0.75 V and compare it tothe average 2c resistance obtained in Problem 32. 19 Diode Equivalent Circuits 34, Find the piecewise-linear equivalent circuit for the diode of Fig. 1.15. Use a straight-line seg- ‘ment that intersects the horizontal axis at 0.7 V and best approximates the curve for the region greater than 0.7 V. 35. Repeat Problem 34 for the diode of Fig. 1.27. 110 Transition and Diffusion Capacitance "36. a. Referring to Fig. 1.33, determine the transition capscitance at reverse-bias potentials of 25 V and ~10 V. What is the ratio of the chaige in capacitance to the change in voltage? . Repeat part (a) for reverse-bias potentials of ~10 V and —1 V. Determine the ratio of the change in capacitance to the change in voltage. c. How do the ratios determined in parts (a) and (b) compare? What does this tell you about which range may have more areas of practical application? 37. Referring to Fig. 1.33, determine the diffusion capacitance at 0 V and 0.25 V. 38. Describe in your own words how diffusion and transition capacitances differ, 39. Determine the reactance offered by a diode described by the characteristics of Fig. 133 atafor- \ward potential of 0.2 V and a reverse potential of ~20 V if the applied frequency is 6 MHz. Reverse Recovery Time 40. ‘Sketch the waveform fori of the network of Fig, 1.66 iff, = 21, and the total reverse recovery time is 9 ns ty % wa Sas FIG. 1.66 Problem 40. 112 Diode Specification Sheets 41. Plot J, versus V-using linear scales forthe diode of Fig. 1.37. Note thatthe provided graph em- ploys a log scale for the vertical axis (log scales are covered in Sections 9.2 and 9.3) 42, Comment on the change in capacitance level with increase in reverse-bias potential forthe diode of Fig. 1.37, 43, Does the reverse saturation current of the diode of Fig. 1.37 change significantly in magnitude for reverse-bias potentials in the range ~25 V to ~100 V? 44, For the diode of Fig. 1.37 determine the level of /y at room temperature (25°C) and the boiling point of water (100°C). Is the change significant? Does the level just about double for every 10°C increase in temperature? 48. For the diode of Fig. 1.37, determine the maximum ac (dynamic) resistance at a forward cur- rent of 0.1, 1.5, and 20 mA. Compare levels and comment on whether the results support con: clusions derived in earlier sections of this chapter. 46, Using the characteristics of Fig, 1.37, determine the maximum power dissipation levels for the iode at room temperature (25°C) and 100°C. Assuming that V_ remains fixed at 0.7 V, how has the maximum level of /; changed between the two temperature levels? 47. Using the characteristics of Fig. 1.37, determine the temperature at which he diode current will bbe 50% of its value at room temperature (25°C). 115 Zener Diodes 48,_‘The following characteristics are specified for a particular Zener diode: Vz = 29V, Vq = 16.8, Jay = 1OmA, Ty = 20 A, and py = 4 mA. Sketch the characteristic curve in the manne dis- played in Fig. 1.47. PROBLEMS 49, 50, 51. 2, 53, 16 54 53. “56. 8. +58. ‘At what temperature will the 10-V Zener diode of Fig. 47 have a nominal voltage of 10.75 V? (Hint: Note the data in Table 1.7.) Determine the temperature coefficient of a 5-V Zener diode (rated 25°C value) ifthe nominal voltage drops to.8 V ata temperature of 100°C. Using the curves of Fig. 1.48a, what level of temperature coefficient would you expect for & 20-V diode? Repeat for a5-V diode. Assume a linear scale between nominal voltage levels and ‘current evel of 0.1 mA. Determine the dynamic impedance for the 24-V diode at ly = 10 mA for Fig. 1.48b, Note that itis a log scale. Compare the levels of dynamic impedance for the 24-V diode of Fig. 148b at current levels oF 0.2, 1, and 10 mA, How do the results relate to the shape of the characteristics in this region? Light-Emitting Diodes ‘Referring to Fig. 1.53e, what would appear tobe an appropriate value of Vx for this device? How does it compare to the value of Ve for silicon and germanium? Using the information provided in Fig. 1.53, determine the forward voltage across the diode if the relative luminous intensity is 15. a, What isthe percentage increase in relative efficiency of the device of Fig. 1.53 if the peak current is increased from 5 mA to 10 mA? b. Repeat part (a) for 30 mA to 35 mA (the same increase in current). Compare the percentage inerease from parts (a) and (b). At wat point on the curve would you say there is litte to be gained by further increasing the peak current? ‘a. If the Juminous intensity at 0° angular displacement is 3.0 med for the device of Fig. 1.53, at what angle will it be 0,75 med? b. At what angle does the loss of luminous intensity drop below the 50% level? Sketch the current derating curve for the average forward current ofthe high-efficiency red LED of Fig. 1.53 as determined by temperature, (Note the absolute maximum ratings.) Diode Applications CHAPTER OUTLINE © 21 Introduction 22 Load-Line Analysis 23 Series Diode Configurations 24 Paralle) and Series-Parallel Configurations 25 AND/OR Gates 2.6 ‘Sinusoidal Inputs; Half-Wave Rectification 2.7 Pull-Wave Rectification 28 Clippers 29 — Clampers 2.10 Zener Diodes 211 Voltage-Multiplier Circuits 2.12 Practical Applications 2.13 Summary 2.14 Computer Analysis 2.1 INTRODUCTION ‘The construction, characteristics, and models of semiconductor diodes were introduced in Chapter 1. The primary goal of this chapter is to develop a working knowledge of the diode in a variety of configurations using models appropriate for the area of application. By ‘chapter's end, the fundamental behavior patter of diodes in dc and ac networks should be clearly understood. The concepts learned in this chapter will have significant carryover in the chapters to follow. For instance, diodes are frequently employed in the description of the basic construction of transistors and in the analysis of transistor networks in the de and ac domains. ‘This chapter demonstrates an interesting and very useful aspect of the study of a field ‘such as electronic devices and systems: Once the basic behavior of a device is understood, its function and response in an infi- nite variety of configurations can be examined. In other words, now that we have a basic knowledge of the characteristics of a diode along with its response to applied voltages and currents, we can use this knowledge to ex- amine a wide variety of networks, There is no need to reexamine the response of the device for each application, DIODE APPLICATIONS In general: The analysis of electronic circuits can follow one of two paths: using the actual characteristics or applying an approximate model for the device. For the diode the initial discussion will include the actual characteristics to clearly demonstrate how the characteristics of a device and the network parameters interact. Once there is confidence in the results obtained, the approximate piecewise model will be em- ployed to verify the results found using the complete characteristics. It is important that the role and the response of various elements of an electronic system be understood without continually having to resort to lengthy mathematical procedures. This is usually accomplished through the approximation process, which can develop into an art itself. Al though the results obtained using the actual characteristics may be slightly different from those obtained using a series of approximations, keep in mind that the characteristics ob- tained from a specification sheet may be slightly different from those of the device in ac~ tual use. In other words, for example, the characteristics of a IN4001 semiconductor diode may vary from one element to the next in the same lot. The variation may be slight, but it will often be sufficient to justify the approximations employed in the analysis. Also con- sider the other elements of the network: Is the resistor labeled 100 © exactly 100 1? Is the applied voltage exactly 10 V or perhaps 10.08 V? All these tolerances contribute to the general belief that a response determined through an appropriate set of approximations can often be “as accurate” as one that employs the full characteristics. In this book the empha- sis is toward developing 2 working knowledge of a device through the use of appropriate approximations, thereby avoiding an unnecessary level of mathematical complexity. Suffi- t detail will normally be provided, however, to permit a detailed mathematical analysis if desired 2. LOAD-LINE ANALYSIS ry ‘The circuit of Fig. 2.1 is the simplest of diode configurations. It will be used to describe the analysis of a diode circuit using its actual characteristics. In the next section we will replace the characteristics by an approximate model for the diode and compare solutions. Solving the circuit of Fig. 2.1 is all about finding the current and voltage levels that wil satisfy both the characteristics of the diode and the chosen network parameters at the same time. In (ma) 0 Ww) © FIG.2.1 Series diode configuration: (a) circuit; (b) characteristics In Fig. 2.2 the diode characteristics are placed on the same set of axes as a straight line defined by the parameters of the network. The straight line is called a load line because the intersection on the vertical axis is defined by the applied load R. The analysis to follow is therefore called load-line analysis. The intersection of the two curves will define the solu- tion for the network and define the current and voltage levels for the network. Before reviewing the details of drawing the load line on the characteristics, we need to determine the expected response of the simple circnit of Fig. 2.1. Note in Fig. 2.1 that the effect of the “pressure” established by the de supply is to establish a conventional current _= Characters (device) O-point _-— Load line (network) Yoo FIG, 2.2 Drawing the load line and finding the point of operation. in the direction indicated by the clockwise arrow. The fact that the direction of this current has the same direction as the arrow in the diode symbol reveals that the diode is in the “on” state and will conduct a high level of current. In other words, the applied voltage has re- sulted in a forward-bias situation. With the current direction established, the polarities for the voltage across the diode and resistor can be superimposed. The polarity of Vp and the direction of Ip clearly reveal that the diode is indeed in the forward-bias state, resulting in a voltage across the diode in the neighborhood of 0.7 V and a current on the order of 10 mA or more. ‘The intersections of the load line on the characteristics of Fig. 2.2 can be determined by first applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law in the clockwise direction, which results in +E — Vp — Vp or E= Vp + Ip) (2.1) ‘The two variables of Eq. (2.1), Vp and Jp, are the same as the diode axis variables of Fig. 2.2. This similarity permits plotting Eq. (2.1) on the same characteristics of Fig. 2.2. ‘The intersections of the load line on the characteristics can easily be determined if one simply employs the fact that anywhere on the horizontal axis Ip = 0 A and anywhere on the vertical axis Vp = OV. If we set Vp = 0 V in Eq, (2.1) and solve for Jp, we have the magnitude of Ip on the vertical axis. Therefore, with Vp = 0 V, Eq. (2.1) becomes Vp + IR =0V+IR E and =e (2.2) as shown in Fig. 2.2. If we set Ip = 0 A in Eq, (2.1) and solve for Vp, we have the magni- tude of Vp on the horizontal axis. Therefore, with I = 0 A, Eq. (2.1) becomes E=Vp+IpR = Vp + (OA)R and Z| (2.3) as shown in Fig. 2.2. A straight line drawn between the two points will define the load line as depicted in Fig. 2.2. Change the level of R (the load) and the intersection on the vertical axis will change. The result will be a change in the slope of the load line and a different point of intersection between the load line and the device characteristics. ‘We now have a load line defined by the network and a characteristic curve defined by the device. The point of intersection between the two is the point of operation for this circuit. LOAD-LINE ANALYSIS DIODE APPLICATIONS Muldsin PSpice By simply drawing a line down to the horizontal axis, we can determine the diode voltage Vg whereas a horizontal line from the point of intersection to the vertical axis will provide the level of Jp. The current [p is actually the current zhrough the entire series configuration of Fig. 2.12. The point of operation is usually called the quiescent point (abbreviated “Q-point”) to reflect its “still, unmoving” qualities as defined by a de network. ‘The solution obtained at the intersection of the two curves is the same as would be ob- tained by a simultaneous mathematical solution of derived from Eq. (2.1)] and Ip = 1(e'™ — 1) as demonstrated later in this section in a Mathcad example. Since the curve for a diode has nonlinear characteristics, the mathematics involved would require the use of nonlinear techniques that are beyond the needs and scope of this book. The load-line analysis de- scribed above provides a solution with a minimum of effort and a “pictorial” description of why the levels of solution for Vp, and Jp, were obtained. The next example demonstrates the techniques introduced above and reveals the relative ease with which the load line can be drawn using Eqs. (2.2) and (2.3). EXAMPLE 2.1 For the series diode configuration of Fig. 2.3, employing the diode char- acteristics of Fig. 2.3b, determin: a Vp, and Ip, b. Vee A Ions) + vy = + RQOSKN ve + @ FIG. 2.3, (a) Circuit; (b) characteristics. Solution: 10V Fq.(22)) p= = = x a. Eq. (2.2) Blgeov 7 05%@ ~ 204 Eq. (23): ¥p neon = 10V The resulting load line appears in Fig. 2.4. The inters the characteristic curve defines the Q-point as, ion between the load line and Vg = 0.78 In, = 18.5 mA The level of Vp is certainly an estimate, and the accuracy of [p is limited by the chosen scale. A higher degree of accuracy would require a plot that would be much larger and perhaps unwieldy, b. Ve = IeR = Ip,R = (18.5mA)(1KQ) = 18.5V = 18.5 mAygh poi 7) © FIG. 2.4 Solution to Example 2.1. As noted in the example above, the load line is determined solely by the applied network, whereas the characteristics are defined by the chosen device. If we tum to our approximate ‘model for the diode and do not disturb the network, the load line will be exactly the same as obtained in the example above. In fact, the next two examples repeat the analysis of Example 2.1 using the approximate model to permit a comparison of the results. EXAMPLE2.2 Repeat Example 2.1 using the approximate equivalent model for the silicon semiconductor diode. Solution: The load line is redrawn as shown in Fig. 2.5 with the same intersections as de- fined in Example 2.1. The characteristics of the approximate equivalent circuit for the diode have also been sketched on the same graph. The resulting Q-point is Vp, = 0.7V Ip, = 18.5mA Ing 185A 18 10 Bw Vo 20.7V FIG. 2.5 Solution to Example 2.1 using the diode approximate model. The results obtained in Example 2.2 are quite interesting. The level of Ip, is exactly the same as obtained in Example 2.1 using a characteristic curve that is a great deal easier to draw than that appearing in Fig. 2.4. The Vp = 0.7 V here and the 0.78 V from Example 2.1 are of a different magnitude to the hundredths place, but they are certainly in the same neighbor- hood if we compare their magnitudes to the magnitudes of the other voltages of the network. LOAD-LINE ANALYSIS 6s 64 DIODE APPLICATIONS In the next example we go a step further and substitute the ideal model. The results will reveal the conditions that must be satisfied to apply the ideal equivalent properly. EXAMPLE 2,3 Repeat Example 2.1 using the ideal diode model. Solution: As shown in Fig. 2.6 the load line is the same, but the ideal characteristics now intersect the load line on the vertical axis. The Q-point is therefore defined by Vp, = OV 20mA. FIG. 2.6 Solution to Example 2.1 using the ideal diode model ‘The results are sufficiently different from the solutions of Example 2.1 to cause some con- ccem about their accuracy. Certainly, they do provide some indication of the level of voltage and current to be expected relative to the other voltage levels of the network, but the addi- mal effort of simply including the 0.7-V offset suggests that the approach of Example 2.2 is more appropriate. Use of the ideal diode model therefore should be reserved for those occasions when the role of a diode is more important than voltage levels that differ by tenths of a volt and in those situ- ations where the applied voltages are considerably larger than the threshold voltage Vj. In the next few sections the approximate model will be employed exclusively since the voltage levels obtained will be sensitive to variations that approach Vj. In later sections the ideal model will bbe employed more frequently since the applied voltages will frequently be quite abit larger than Vj-and the authors want to ensure thatthe role of the diode is correctly and clearly understood, Mathcad will now be used to find the solution of the two simultaneous equations defined by the diode and network of Fig. 2.7. ‘The diode’s characteristics are defined by Ip = L,(e’¥"¥" — 1) = 10 pa (et02929¥ — 1) Inthe equation for the diode n was chosen to be 1.5 to establish characteristics that would provide a better match with commercial units. Increasing 1 has the effect of shifting the characteristics to the right. Applying Kirchhof’s voltage law around the closed loop, we have E~ Vp ~ V_= OE — Vp = [gRE - Vo and solving for the diode current results in E-Vp 1p = 0X Yo ?05kO ~ 05k0 Ih Yhe=tg come Network equation rams 24 (38%) Cae) + ol 10% @ ® FIG. 2.7 rest Finding the operating point defined by a diode’s characteristics and the network (a) Nenwork;(b) graphical solution; (c) computer solution. Since we now have two equations and two unknowns (I> and Vp), we can solve for each un- known using Mathcad as follow: When using Mathcad to solve simultaneous equations, you must guess a value for each quantity to give the computer some direction in its iterative process. In other words, the computer will test solutions and work its way toward the actual solution by responding to the results obtained. For our situation the initial guesses for ID and VD were 18 mA and 0.7 V, respectively, as shown on the top of Fig. 2.7c, Then, following the word Given (required), the two equations are entered using the equal sign obtained from Ctrl = . Note throughout Fig. 2.7¢ that units are applied to the guess values and to all the equations, a requirement ifthe results are to have units also. Note, however, that the guess values and the equations can use prefixes, as in mA and kO, but the answer will always be in a power-of-10 format. Text, type Find(1D, VD) to tell the computer what needs to be determined. Once the equal sign is entered, the results will appear as shown in Fig. 2.7c and as supported by Fig. 2.7b, [p = 18.34 mA and Vp = 0.83 V. 2. SERIES DIODE CONFIGURATIONS In the last section we found that the results obtained using the approximate piecewis linear equivalent model were quite close, if not equal, to the response obtained using the full characteristics. Infact, if one considers all the variations possible due to tolerances, tem- perature, and so on, one could certainly consider one solution to be “as accurate” as the other. Since the use of the approximate model normally results in a reduced expenditure of time and effort to obtain the desired results, itis the approach that will be employed in this book unless otherwise specified. Recall the following: The primary purpose of this text is to develop a general knowledge of the behavior, capabilities, and possible areas of application of a device in a manner that will minimize the need for extensive mathematical developments. For all the analysis to follow in this chapter it is assumed that, The forward resistance of the diode is usually so small compared to the other series elements of the network that it can be ignored. This isa valid approximation forthe vast majority of applications that employ diodes. Using this fact will result in the approximate equivalents for a silicon diode and an ideal diode that appear in Table 2.1. For the conduction region the only difference between the and the ideal diode is the vertical shift in the characteristics, which is accounted for in the equiv- alent model by a de supply of 0.7 V opposing the direction of forward current through the de- vice. For voltages less than 0.7 V fora silicon diode and 0'V for the ideal diode the resistance is so high compared to other elements of the network that its equivalent is the open cir © 66 DIODE APPLICATIONS Si FIG. 2.8 Series diode configuration. TABLE 2.1 Approximate and Ideal Semiconductor Diode Models. do Tp=0A eal: blo +0v— + ¥p=0V— Fora Ge diode the offset voltage is 0.3 V and for a Gas diode itis 1.2 V. Otherwise the equivalent networks are the same. For each diode the label Si, Ge, or GaAs will appear along with the diode symbol. For networks with ideal diodes the diode symbol will appear as shown in Table 2.1 without any labels. The approximate models will now be used to investigate a number of series diode con- figurations with dc inputs. This will establish a foundation in diode analysis that will carry over iato the sections and chapters to follow. The procedure described can, in fact, be ap- plied to networks with any number of diodes in a variety of configurations. For each configuration the state of each diode must first be determined. Which diodes, are “on” and which are “off”? Once determined, the appropriate equivalent can be substi- tuted and the remaining parameters of the network determined. In general, a diode is in the “on” state if the current established by the applied sources is such that its direction matches that of the arrow in the diode symbol, and Vp = 0.7 V {for silicon, Vy = 0.3 V for germanium, and Vp = 1.2V for gallium arsenide. For each configuration, mentally replace the diodes with resistive elements and note the resulting current direction as established by the applied voltages (“pressure”). If the resulting direction is a “match” with the arrow in the diode symbol, conduction through the diode will occur and the device is in the “on” state. The description above is, of course, contingent on the supply having a voltage greater than the “turz-on” voltage (Vx) of each diode. If a diode is in the “on” state, one can either place a 0.7-V drop across the element or redraw the network with the Vx equivalent circuit as defined in Table 2.1. In time the preference will probably simply be to include the 0.7-V drop across each “on” diode and draw a line through each diode in the “off” or open state. Initially, however, the sub- stitution method will be used to ensure that the proper voltage and current levels are determined. ‘The series circuit of Fig. 2.8 described in some detail in Section 2.2 will be used to demonstrate the approach described in the above paragraphs. The state of the diode is first determined by mentally replacing the diode with a resistive element as shown in Fig, 2.9a, ‘The resulting direction of Tis a match with the arrow in the diode symbol, and since E> Vj, the diode is in the “on” state. The network is then redrawn as shown in Fig. 2.9b with the appropriate equivalent model for the forward-biased silicon diode, Note for future reference o eo FIG.2.9 (a) Determining the stare of the diode of Fig. 2.8; (b) substituting the equivalent model for the “on” diode of Fig. 2.9a that the polarity of Vp is the same as would result if in fact the diode were a resistive ele- ‘ment. The resulting voltage and current levels are the following: (2.4) (2.5) 2.6) In Fig. 2.10 the diode of Fig. 2.7 has been reversed. Mentally replacing the diode with a resistive element as shown in Fig. 2.11 will reveal that the resulting current direction does not match the arrow in the diode symbol, The diode is in the “off” state, resulting in the equivalent circuit of Fig. 2.12. Due to the open circuit, the diode current is 0 A and the volt- age across the resistor R is the following: Vq = IgR = IpR = (0A)R = OV 4g lan + RQ, SERIES DIODE CONFIGURATIONS FIG. 2.10 FIG. 2.11 Reversing the diode of Fig. 28. Determining the state of the diode of Fig. 2.10, FIG. 2.12 Substinuing the equivalent model ‘for the “off” diode of Fig. 2.10, The fact that Ve = OY will establish £ volts across the open circuit as defined by Kirchhoft’s voltage law. Always keep in mind that under any circumstances —de, a¢ instantaneous values, Pulses, and so on—Kirchhoff’s voltage law must be satisfied! EXAMPLE 2.4 For the series diode configuration of Fig. 2.13, determine Vp, Vg, and Ip. Solution: ‘match the arrow of the symbol and the diode is in the “on” state, o7v 3 E-Vp=8V-0.7V=73V Maltsim Ip = Ip = V8 = 23%. we 3.32ma PSpice R 22k0 Since the applied voltage establishes a current in the clockwise direction to. FIG. 2.13, Cireuit for Example 2.4. 67 DIODE APPLICATIONS wosv ot s¥ % FIG. 2.16 Series diode circuit for Example 2.6. EXAMPLE 2.5 Repeat Example 2.4 with the diode reversed. Solution: Removing the diode, we find that the direction of Fis opposite to the arrow in the diode symbol and the diode equivalent is the open circuit no matter which model is em- ployed. The result is the network of Fig. 2.14, where Jy = 9A due to the open circuit. Since Vp = IR we have Vp = (0) = 0 V. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the closed Joop yields E~Vp—~V,=0 and en Supt View + + C RZ22KO Vp FIG. 2.14 Determining the unknown quantities for Exaniple 2.5. In particular, note in Example 2.5 the high voltage across the diode even though itis an “off” state. The current is zero, but the voltage is significant. For review purposes, keep the following in mind for the analysis to follow: An open circuit can have any voltage across its terminals, but the current is always 0 A. A short circuit has a 0-V drop across its terminals, but the current is limited only by the surrounding network. In the next example the notation of Fig. 2.15 will be employed for the applied voltage. tis a common industry notation and one with which the reader should become very famil- iar, Such notation and other defined voltage levels are treated further in Chapter 4. Bas10VO —e psiov + wv FIG. 2.15 Source notation. EXAMPLE 2.6 For the series diode configuration of Fig. 2.16, determine Vp, Vp, and Ip. Solution: Although the “pressure” establishes a current with the same direction as the arrow symbol, the level of applied voltage is insufficient to turn the silicon diode “on.” The point of operation on the characteristics is shown in Fig. 2.17, establishing the open-circuit equivalent as the appropriate approximation, as shown in Fig, 2.18. The resulting voltage and current levels are therefore the following: [p= 0A Vp = Ig = IpR = (0A)12k0 = 0V and Vp = E=05V 105V fo=oma FIG. 2.18 Determining lp, Vp aid Vo forthe circuit of Fig. 216. FIG.2.17 Operating point with E = 05V. EXAMPLE 2.7. Determine V, and Jp for the series circuit of Fig. 2.19. Solution: An attack similar to that applied in Example 2.4 will reveal thatthe resulting cur- rent has the same direction as the arrowheads of the symbols of both diodes, and the network of Fig. 2.20 results because E = 12 V > (0.7 V + 18 [Table 1.8]) = 2.5 V. Note the re drawn supply of 12 V and the polarity of V, across the 680-0 resistor. The resulting voltage is = Vg, = 12V-25V = 95 9sV and sang = 13.97mA Sio4 oh +12. ve— tt ©, ates 7 377 +|™ ov sv + oma fony eon ¥%, FIG. 2.19 FiG. 2.20 Circuit for Example 27. Determining the unknown quantities for Example 27. EXAMPLE 2.8 Determine /p, Vp,, and V, for the circuit of Fig. 2.21 Solution: Removing the diodes and determining the direction of the resulting current [ result in the circuit of Fig. 2.22. There is a match in current direction for the silicon diode bbut not for the germanium diode. The combination of a short circuit in series with an open circuit always results in an open circuit and [p = 0A, as shown in Fig. 2.23. FIG. 2.22 Determining the state ofthe diodes of Fig. 2.21. FIG. 2.23 Substituting the equivatent state for the open diode, SERIES DIODE 69 CONFIGURATIONS + Yo, sist +0" ae tb 56ka FIG. 2.21 Cirewit for Example 2.8. 70 DIODE APPLICATIONS FIG. 2.24 Determining the unknown quantities for the circuit of Example 2.8, ‘The question remains at to what to substitute for the silicon diode. For the analysis to follow in this and succeeding chapters, simply recall forthe actual practical diode that when Ip = 0A, Vp = OV (and vice versa), as described for the no-bias situation in Chapter 1. ‘The conditions described by [, = 0.A and Vp, = OV are indicated in Fig. 2.24. We have Ink = IpR = (OA)R = OV 2» = Vopencicuit = 20V Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law in a clockwise direction gives E~ Vp, -Vp,—Vo=0 and Vo, = E — Vp, — Vo = 20V - 20v with v,=0v and a Ee EXAMPLE 2.9 Determine J, Vi, V> and V, forthe series de configuration of Fig, 2.25. -_ Mattisim PSpice Mo x t" Tho + RQ22k2 vy meV FIG, 2.25 Circuit for Example 2.9 Solution: ‘The sources are drawn and the current direction indicated as shown in Fig. 2.26. ‘The diode is in the “‘on” state and the notation appearing in Fig. 2.27 is included to indi- cate this state. Note that the “on” state is noted simply by the additional V;, = 0.7 V on the figure. This eliminates the need to redraw the network and avoids any confusion that may oh — Vor, [ 47K + 7 22a nsw . - Aesy T+ FIG, 2.26 FIG. 2.27 Determining the state ofthe diode for the Determining the unknown quantities forthe network network of Fig. 2.2. of Fig. 225. KVL, Kirchhoff voltage loop. result from the appearance of another source. As indicated in the introduction to this sec- tion, this is probably the path and notation that one will take when a level of confidence has been established in the analysis of diode configurations. In time the entire analysis will be performed simply by referring to the original network. Recall that a reverse-biased diode can simply be indicated by a line through the device. The resulting current through the circuit is pa Fit B= Vo _ WV +5V 143, Rt 47KO422KQ ~ = 2.07 mA and the voltages are V, = IR, = (2.07mA)(4.7kQ) = 9.73,V Vy = IR, = (2.07 mA)(2.2kQ) = 4.58 V Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the output section in the clockwise direction results in -Ey+V,-V,=0 and V, = Va— B= 455V—-5V= -048V ‘The minus sign indicates that V, has a polarity opposite to that appearing in Fig. 2.25. 2.4 PARALLEL AND SERIES-PARALLEL CONFIGURATIONS ‘The methods applied in Section 2.3 can be extended to the analysis of parallel and series— parallel configurations. For each area of application, simply match the sequential series of steps applied to series diode configurations. EXAMPLE210 Determine V,, fy /p,-and [p, for the parallel diode conf +i = — 033K0 + oF Orv FIG. 2.28 ‘Network for Example 2.10, FIG. 2.29 Determining the unknown quantities for the network of Example 2.10. Solution: For the applied voltage the “pressure” of the source acts to establish a current through each diode in the same direction as shown in Fig. 2.29, Since the resulting current direction matches that of the arrow in each diode symbol! and the applied voltage is greater than 0.7 V, both diodes are in the “on” state. The voltage across parallel elements is always the same and Vv, = 0.7V ‘The current is pp - Yt E=Yo OV =07V _ sigma R R 0.33kQ Assuming diodes of similar characteristics, we have Ip, = Io, = 8 = B18 A _ 14. 09mA ae 2 PARALLEL AND 71 ‘SERIES—PARALLEL CONFIGURATIONS Muldsim PSpice 72 DIODE APPLICATIONS : Green Rede ye FIG. 2.30 Network for Example 2.11. 48 Tama 8 [od 2v Lt FIG. 2.31 Operating conditions for the nepwork of Fig. 2.30, A S +3 sv FIG, 2.32 Network of Fig. 2.31 with a blue diode. This example demonstrates one reason for placing diodes in parallel. If the current rating of the diodes of Fig. 2.28 is only 20 mA, a current of 28.18 mA would damage the device if it appeared alone in Fig. 2.28. By placing two in parallel, we limit the current to a safe value of 14.09 mA with the same terminal voltage. )s that can be used as a polarity d tor. Apply a positive source voltage and a green light results, Negative supplies result in a red light. Packages of such combinations are commercially available Find the resistor R to ensure a current of 20 mA through the “on” diode for the configu ration of Fig. 2,30. Both diodes have a reverse breakdown voltage of 3 V and an average turn-on voltage of 2 V, Solution: The application of a positive supply voltage results in a conventional current that matches the arrow of the green diode and turns it on. ‘The polarity of the voltage across the green diode is such that it reverse biases the red diode by the same amount. The result is the equivalent network of Fig. 2.31. Applying Ohm’s law, we obtain Vio _ 8V R R ov and R= aq 7 3000 Note that the reverse breakdown voltage across the red diode is 2 V, which is fine for an LED with a reverse breakdown voltage of 3 V. However, ifthe green diode were to be replaced by a blue diode, problems would de- velop, as shown in Fig. 2.32, Recall that the forward bias required to turn on a blue diode is about 5 V. The result would appear to require a smaller resistor R to establish the current of 20 mA. However, note that the reverse bias voltage of the red LED is 5 V, but the reverse breakdown voltage of the diode is only 3 V. The result is the voltage across the red LED would lock in at 3 V as shown in Fig. 2.33. The voltage across R would be 5 V and the cur rent limited to 20 mA with a 250 01 resistor but neither LED would be on av 1=20mA = 48v FIG. 2.33 Demonstrating damage to the red LED if the reverse breakdown voltage is exceeded. A simple solution to the above is to simply add the appropriate resistance level in series with each diode to establish the desired 20 mA and to include another diode to add to the reverse-bias total reverse breakdown voltage rating, as shown in Fig. 2.34. When the blue LED is on, the diode in series with the blue LED will also be on, causing a total voltage drop of 5.7 V across the two series diodes and a voltage of 2.3 V across the resistor Xj, establishing a high emission current of 19.17 mA. At the same time the red LED diode and Inz8V=5I¥ = 19.179 AV SSTY 819.17 mA Rx1Q1200 Ry Y1200 (standard value) + + t sony oe TV Reda ee sy I * Fic. 23¢ Protective measure for the red LED of Fig. 2.3. its series diode will also be reverse biased, but now the standard diode with a reverse break- down voltage of 20'V will prevent the full reverse-bias voltage of 8 V from appearing across the red LED. When forward biased the resistor R, will establish a current of 19,63 mA to ensure a high evel of intensity for the red LED. EXAMPLE 2.12 Determine the voltage V, for the network of Fig. 2.35. Solution: Initially, it might appear that the applied voltage will tum both diodes “on” be. cause the applied voltage (“pressure”) is trying to establish a conventional current through each diode that would suggest the ‘on’ state. However, ifboth were on, there would be more than one voltage across the parallel diodes, violating one of the basic rules of network analy- sis: The voltage must be the same across parallel elements. ‘The resulting action can best be explained by remembering that there isa period of build- up of the supply voltage from 0 V to 12 V even though it may take milliseconds or micro- seconds. At the instant the increasing supply voltage reaches 0.7 V the silicon diode will ‘turn “on” and maintain the level of 0.7 V since the characteristic is vertical at this voltage— the current of the silicon diode will simply rise to the defined level. The result is that the voltage across the green LED will never rise above 0.7 V and will remain in the equivalent open-circuit state as shown in Fig. 2.36. The result is 12V~07V=113V 22 ka FIG. 2.36 Determining V, for the network of Fig. 235. PARALLEL AND 73 SERIES-PARALLEL CONFIGURATIONS si ES green 22 KO FIG.2.35 Network for Example 2.12. 74 DIODE APPLICATIONS & \ al Mutisin si () £=10Ve—Pp}— TD si © — ove—py % a a Sika FIG. 2.39 Positive logic OR gate. PSpice EXAMPLE 2.13 Determine the currents /,, f, and Ip, for the network of Fig. 2.37. Fold FIG. 2.37 FIG. 2.38 Network for Example 2.13. Determining the unknown quantities for Example 2.13. Solution: The applied voltage (pressure) is such as to turn both diodes on, as indicated by the resulting current directions in the network of Fig, 2.38. Note the use of the abbreviated notation for “on” diodes and that the solution is obtained through an application of tech- niques applied to de series-parallel networks. We have Ye, 0.7 ama R 33KQ ~ 022m Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the indicated loop in the clockwise direction vields hea =Vy + B= Va, Vg, = 0 and Vy = E~ Vg, — Vg, = 20V - 0.7 - 0.7V = 18.6V with n= B= BSY 37m " n> sexo *?™ Atthe bottom node a, In th=h and 332mA ~ 0.212mA = 3.11mA 2.5 __ AND/OR GATES ® ‘The tools of analysis are now at our disposal, and the opportunity to investigate a computer configuration is one that will demonstrate the range of applications of this relatively sim: ple device. Our analysis will be limited to determining the voltage levels and will not in- clude a detailed discussion of Boolean algebra or positive and negative logic. ‘The network to be analyzed in Example 2.14 is an OR gate for positive logic. That is, the 10-V level of Fig. 2.39 is assigned a “1” for Boolean algebra and the 0-V input is as- signed a “0.” An OR gate is such that the output voltage level will be a 1 if either or both inputs is a 1. The output is 2 0 if both inputs are at the 0 level ‘The analysis of AND/OR gates is made easier by using the approximate equivalent for a diode rather than the ideal because we can stipulate that the voltage across the diode must be 0.7 V positive for the silicon diode to switch to the “on” state. In general, the best approach is simply to establish a “gut” feeling for the state of the diodes by noting the direction and the “pressure” established by the applied potentials. The analysis will then verify or negate your initial assumptions. EXAMPLE 214 Determine V, for the network of Fig. 2.39. Solution: First note that there is only one applied potential; 10 V at terminal 1. Terminal 2 with a 0-V input is essentially at ground potential, as shown in the redrawn network of 2.40, Figure 2.40 “suggests” that D, is probably in the “on” state due to the applied 10 V, whereas D, with its “positive” side at 0 V is probably “off.” Assuming these states will result in the configuration of Fig. 2.41. ile — I yA Va= E~Vg=Vg=IR + —o V, E 10V| ° ov FIG. 2.40 FIG. 2.41 Redrawn network of Fig. 2.39. Assumed diode states for Fig. 2.40. ‘The next step is simply to check that there is no contradiction in our assumptions. That is, note that the polarity across 2 is such as to turn it on and the polarity across Dy is such as to turn it off. For D; the “on” state establishes V, at Vp = E ~ Vp = 10V ~ 0.7V = 9.3 V. With 9.3 V at the cathode (—-) side of D, and 0 V at the anode (+) side, D> is definitely in the “off” state. The current direction and the resulting continuous path for conduction further con- {firm our assumption that D, is conducting. Our assumptions seem confirmed by the resulting voltages and current, and our initial analysis can be assumed to be correct. The output voltage level is not 10 V as defined for an input of 1, but the 9.3 V is sufficiently large to be consid- ered I level. The output is therefore ata 1 level with only one input, which suggests that the gate is an OR gate. An analysis of the same network with two 10-V inputs will result in both diodes being in the “on” state and an output of 9.3 V. A 0-V input at both inputs will not pro- vide the 0.7 V required to turn the diodes on, and the output will be a 0 due to the O-V output level. For the network of Fig. 2.41 the current level is determined by E-Vp _10V-07V — = 9.3mA T=" 1k0 EXAMPLE 215 Determine the output level for the positive logic AND gate of Fig. 2.42. Solution: Note in this case that an independent source appears in the grounded leg of the network. For reasons soon to become obvious, it is chosen at the same level as the input logic level. The network is redrawn in Fig. 2.43 with our initial assumptions regarding the state of the diodes. With 10 V at the cathode side of D, it is assumed that D, is in the “off” state even though there is z 10-V source connected to the anode of D, through the resistor. FIG. 2.43 Substituting the assumed states for the diodes of Fig, 2.42. AND/OR GATES 75 si D, © si E,=0V 2b FIG. 2.42 Positive logic AND gate. @ Multisim 16 DIODE APPLICATIONS Multisim However, recall that we mentioned in the introduction to this section thatthe use of the ap- proximate model will be an aid to the analysis. For D,, where will the 0.7 V come from if the input and source voltages are at the same fevel and creating opposing “pressures”? D, is assumed to be in the “on” state due to the low voltage at the cathode side and the avail- ability of the 10-V source through the 1-0 resistor. For the network of Fig. 2.43 the voltage at V, is 0.7 V due to the forward-biased diode ‘Dz, With 0.7 V at the anode of D, and 10V at the cathode, D, is definitely in the “off” state, ‘The current / will have the direction indicated in Fig. 2.43 and a magnitude equal to 722M _ WV -07V Rea > 93m ‘The state of the diodes is therefore confirmed and our earlier analysis was correct. Al- though not 0 V as earlier defined for the 0 levei, the output voltage is sufficiently small to be considered a 0 level. For the AND gate, therefore, a single input will result in a O-level output. The remaining states of the diodes for the possibilities of two inputs and no inputs, will be examined in the problems at the end of the chapter. 2.6 SINUSOIDAL INPUTS; HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION The diode analysis will now be expanded to include time-varying functions such as the si nusoidal waveform and the square wave. There is no question that the degree of difficulty will increase, but once a few fundamental maneuvers are understood, the analysis will be fairly direct and follow a common thread. The simplest of networks to exaeaine with a time-varying signal appears in Fig. 2.44. For the moment we wil! use the ideal model (note the absence of the Si, Ge, or GaAs label) to ensure that the approach is not clouded by additional mathematical complexity. FIG. 2.44 Half.wave rectifier. Over one fall cycle, defined by the period T of Fig. 2.44, the average value (the algebraic sum of the areas above and below the axis) is zero. The circuit of Fig. 2.44, called a half-wave rectifier, will generate a waveform v, that will have an average value of particular use in the ac-to-de conversion process. When employed in the rectification process, a diode is typically referred to as a rectifier Its power and current ratings are typically much higher than those of diodes employed in other applications, such as computers and communication systems. During the interval r = 0 —> 7/2 in Fig. 2.44 the polarity of the applied voltage v; is such as to establish “pressure” in the direction indicated and turn on the diode with the polarity appearing above the diode. Substituting the short-circuit equivalence for the ideal diode will result ia the equivalent circuit of Fig. 2.45, where it is fairly obvious that the output signal is an exact replica of the applied signal, The two terminals defining the output voltage are connected directly to the applied signal via the short-circuit equivalence of the diode. For the period 1/2~> T, the polarity of the input v; is as shown in Fig. 2.46, and the re- sulting polarity across the ideal diode produces an “off” state with an open-circuit equiva- lent. The result is the absence of a path for charge to flow, and v, = i = (0)R = 0V for the period 7/2— T. The input v, and the output v, are sketched together in Fig. 2.47 for comparison purposes. The output signal v, now has a net positive area above the axis over SINUSOIDAL INPUTS; 77 HALE-WAVE RECTIFICATION FIG. 2.45 Conduction region (0 -> T/2). FIG. 2.46 FIG. 2.47 Half-wave rectified signal. a full period and an average value determined by 318 Via | atwave (2.7) ‘The process of removing one-half the input signal to establish a de level is called alf- wave rectification. ‘The effect of using a silicon diode with Vx = 0.7 V is demonstrated in Fig. 2.48 for the forward-bias region. The applied signal must now be at least 0.7 V before the diode can turn “on.” For levels of v; less than 0.7 V, the diode is still in an open-circuit state and v, = 0 V, as shown in the same figure. When conducting, the difference between v, and v; is a fixe +fe- oii->~—; ary nr ng Offi ue to Vie FIG. 2.48 Effect of Vx on half-wave rectified signal. 18 DIODE APPLICATIONS & —_ Multis PSpice 20V-07V=193V FIG. 2.51 Effect of Vx on output of Fig. 2.50. level of Vx = 0.7 V and v, = ¥; ~ Vj, as shown in the figure. The net effect is a reduction in area above the axis, which reduces the resulting dc voltage level. For situations where Vp >> Vj, the following equation can be applied to determine the average value with a rel atively high level of accuracy. 18(V, ) (2.8) In fact, if V, is sufficiently greater than Vj, Eq. (2.7) is often applied as a first approxi- mation for Vi. Voc EXAMPLE 2.16 4. Sketch the output y, and determine the dc level ofthe output for the network of Fig. 2.49. bb. Repeat part (a) if the ideal diode is replaced by a silicon diode, cc. Repeat parts (a) and (b) if Vj, is increased to 200 V, and compare solutions using Eqs. (2.7) and (2.8). 3 20 % RQ2KD 0 Th - FIG. 2.49 Network for Example 2.16. Solution: 4. Inthis situation the diode will conduct during the negative partof the input as shown in Fig. 2.50, and v, will appear as shown in the same figure. For the full period, the dc level is Va, = —0.318Vq = -0.318(20V) = -6.36V The negative sign indicates that the polarity of the output is opposite to the defined polarity of Fig. 2.49. ae a4 7° : FIG. 2.50 Resulting », for the cireuit of Example 2.16. b. Fora silicon diode, the output has the appearance of Fig. 2.51, and Vac = —0.318(Vq ~ 0.7 V) = -0.318(19.3 V) = — ‘The resulting drop in de level is 0.22 V, or about 3.5%. © EG.(27) Vue = -0.318 Vy = —0.318(200V) = -63.6V Eg.(2.8): Vee = —0.318(Vq ~ Vy) = -0.318(200 ¥ - 0.7) —(0.318)(199.3 V) = - 63.38 V which is a difference that can certainly he ignored for most applications. For part (¢) the offset and drop in amplicude due to Vi would not be discernible on a typical oscilloscope if the full pattern is displayed. dV PIV (PRV) ‘The peak inverse voltage (PIV) [or PRY (peak reverse voltage)] rating of the diode is of pri- mary importance in the design of rectification systems. Recall that it is the voltage rating that must not be exceeded in the reverse-bias region or the diode will enter the Zener ava- lanche region. The required PIV rating for the half-wave rectifier can be determined from Fig. 2.52, which displays the reverse-biased diode of Fig. 2.44 with maximum applied volt age. Applying Kirchhoff's voltage law, it is fairly obvious that the PIV rating of the diode must equal or exceed the peak value of the applied voltage. Therefore, [Pv rting © Va] sarsremite 29) ven) 4 + FIG. 2.52 Determining the required PIV rating for the half-wave rectifier 7 FULL-WAVE RECTII Bridge Network ‘The de level obtained from a sinusoidal input can be improved 100% using a process called ‘full-wave rectification, The most familiar network for performing such a function appears in Fig. 2.53 with its four diodes in a bridge configuration. During the period t = 0 to 7/2 the polarity of the input is as shown in Fig. 2.54. The resulting polarities across the ideal diodes are also shown in Fig. 2.54 to reveal that D, and D, are conducting, whereas D, and Dare in the “off” state. The net result is the configuration of Fig. 2.55, with its indicated current and polarity across R. Since the diodes are ideal, the load voltage is v, = v, as shown in the same figure. ATION, FIG. 2.53 Full-wave bridge rectifier +e FIG. 2.55 Conduction path for the pasitive region of ve FULLWAVE 79 RECTIFICATION FIG. 2.54 Network of Fig. 2.53 for the period 0 7/2 of the inpue voltage vy —E———_—— a0 DIODE APPLICATIONS For the negative region of the input the conducting diodes are D, and D,, resulting in the configuration of Fig. 2.56. The important result is that the polarity across the load resistor Ris the same as in Fig. 2.54, establishing a second positive pulse, as shown in Fig. 2.56. Over one full cycle the input and output voltages will appear as shown in Fig. 2.57, FIG. 2.56 Conduction path for the negative region of v, FIG. 2.57 Input and output waveforms for a full-wave rectifier Since the area above the axis for one full cycle is now twice that obtained for a half-wave system, the de level has also been doubled and Vac = 2{B4.(2.1)] 2(0.318V,,) or Vue = 9.636 Viv | tewave (2.10) If silicon rather than ideal diodes are employed as shown in Fig. 2.58, the application of Kirchhoff’s vottage iaw around the conduction path results in ¥,— Ve = Ve — Ve = 0 and ve Ve. FIG, 2.58 Determining Vp,, for silicon diodes inthe bridge configuration. “The peak value of the output voltage v, is therefore Vous = Van — 2V i For situations where ¥,, >> 2¥,, the following equation can be applied for the average value with a relatively high level of accuracy: Vas © 0.636(V ~ 2¥%) | (2.11) ‘Then again, if V, is sufficiently greater than 2V,, then Eq, (2.10) is often applied as a first approximation for V... IV The required PIV of each diode (ideal) can be determined from Fig. 2.59 obtained at FULLWAVE 81 the peak of the positive region of the input signal. For the indicated loop the maximum volt- RECTIFICATION age across R is V,, and the PIV rating is defined by PIV & Vay | tte tierce (2.12) \ Center-Tapped Transformer ‘A second popular full-wave rectifier appears in Fig. 2.60 with only «wo diodes but requir- ing a center-tapped (CT) transformer to establish the input signal across each section of the secondary of the transformer. During the positive portion of v, applied to the primary of the transformer, the network will appear as shown in Fig. 2.61. D, assumes the short- FIG. 2.59 circuit equivalent and D, the open-circuit equivalent, as determined by the secondary volt- Determining the required PIV for ages and the resulting current directions. The output voltage appears as shown in Fig. 2.61. the bridge configuration. FIG. 2.60 -_ Center-tapped transformer full-wave rectifier. Multsim FIG. 2.61 Network conditions for the positive region of v». During the negative portion of the input the network appears as shown in Fig. 2.62, re- versing the roles of the diodes but maintaining the same polarity for the voltage across the load resistor R. The net effect is the same output as that appearing in Fig. 2.57 with the same de levels. FIG. 2.62 Network conditions for the negative region of v. 82 DIODE APPLICATIONS FIG. 2.63 Determining the PTY level for the diodes of the CT transformer full- wave rectifier. PIV. The network of Fig. 2.63 will help us determine the net PIV for each diode for this, full-wave rectifier. Inserting the maximum voltage for the secondary voltage and V,, as es- tablished by the adjoining loop results in PIV = Vyscondory + Ve = Vu + Vie and “PIV & 2% | create ite citer (2.13) EXAMPLE 2.17 Determine the output waveform for the network of Fig. 2.64 and calculate the output dc level and the required PIV of each diode, = FIG. 2.64 PSpice Bridge network for Example 2.17, tov sy axa — of rt CO 2 FIG. 2.65 FIG. 2.66 Neeworkof Fig. 2.64 fr the postive region of Redraw network of Fg. 2.5. FIG. 2.67 Resulting output for Example 2.17. Solution; The network appears as shown in Fig. 2.65 for the positive region of the input voltage. Redrawing the network results in the configuration of Fig. 2.66, where v, = }v; or yu = (10 V) = 5°V, as shown in Fig. 2.66. For the negative part of the input the Toles of the diodes are interchanged and », eppears as shown in Fig. 2.67. ‘The effect of removing two diodes from the bridge configuration is therefore to reduce the available de level to the following Voc = 0.636(5V) = 3.18V or that available from a half-wave rectifier with the same input. However, the PIV as deter~ smined from Fig. 2.59 is equal to the maximum voltage across , which is 5 V, or half of that requited for a half-wave rectifier with the same input. a 8 CLIPPERS @ The previous section on rectification gives clear evidence that diodes can be used to change the appearance of an applied waveform. This section on clippers and the next on clampers will expand on the wave-shaping abilities of diodes. Clippers are networks that employ diodes to “lip” away a portion of an input signal without distorting the remaining part of the applied waveform. ‘The half-wave rectifier of Section 2.6 is an example ofthe simplest form of diode clipper— cone resistor and a diode. Depending on the orientation of the diode, the positive or negative region of the applied signal is “clipped” off. There are two general categories of clippers: series and parallel. The series configura- tion is defined as one where the diode is in series with the load, whereas the parallel vari- ety has the diode in a branch parallel to the load. Series ‘The response of the series configuration of Fig. 2.68a to a variety of alternating waveforms is provided in Fig. 2.68b. Although first introduced as a half-wave rectifier (for sinusoidal waveforms), there are no boundaries on the type of signals that can be applied to a clipper. CLIPPERS y y vb © Fic. 2.68 Series clipper {Bs es asin It: rail : y Ty ky Fic. 2.69 Series clipper with a de supply: ‘The addition of a de supply to the network as shown in Fig. 2.69 can have a pronounced effect on the analysis ofthe series clipper configuration. The response is not as obvious be- cause the de supply can aid or work against the source voltage, and the de supply can be in the leg between the supply and output or in the branch parallel to the output, ‘There is no general procedure for analyzing networks such as the type in Fig. 2.69, but there are some things one can do to give the analysis some direction. First and most important: ike careful note of where the output voltage is defined. In Fig. 2.69 it is directly across the resistor R. In some cases it may be across a combi- nation of series elements Next: 2. ‘Try to develop an overall sense of the response by simply noting the “pressure” established by each supply and the effect it will have on the conventional current direction through the diode. In Fig. 2.69, for instance, any positive voltage of the supply will try to turn the diode on by establishing a conventional current through the diode that matches the arrow in the diode symbol. However, the added de supply V will oppose that applied voltage and try to keep the diode in the “off” state. The result is that any supply voltage greater than V volts will tum the diode on and conduction can be established through the load resistor. Keep in mind that we are dealing with an ideal diode for the moment, so the turn-on voltage is simply OV. In general, therefore, for the network of Fig. 2.69 we can conclude that the diode will be on L 84 DIODE APPLICATIONS FIG. 2.71 Using the transition voltage to define the “on” and “off” regions, v nie sik FIG. 2.72 Determining v, for the diode in the “on” state. V (diodes change state) FIG. 2.73 ‘Sketching the waveforn of v, using the results obtained for v, above ‘and below the transition level for any voltage v; that is greater than V volts and off for any lesser voltage. For the “off” condition, the output would be 0'V due to the lack of current, and for the “on” condition it would simply be v, = v, — V as determined by Kirchhoff's voltage faw. In total, therefore, ‘solution was determined without having to pick up a pencil, just by reviewing the elements, present and how they interact. Now, some networks will be more complex, S0 itis wise to consider applying the following steps. 3, Determine the applied voltage (transition voltage) that will result in a change of state for the diode from the “off” to the “on” state. ‘This step will help to define a region of the applied voltage when the diode is on and when itis off. On the characteristics of an ideal diode this will occur when Vp = 0 V and Ip = 0 mA. For the approximate equivalent this is determined by finding the applied volt- age when the diode has a drop of 0.7 V across it (for silicon) and Ip = 0 mA. This exercise was applied to the network of Fig, 2.69 as shown in Fig, 2.70. Note the substitution of the short-circuit equivalent for the diode and the fact that the voltage across the resistor is 0 V because the diode current is 0 mA. The result is v; — V = 0, and so (2.14) is the transition voltage, igR= 1k = (R=0V FIG. 2.70 Determining the transition level for the creuit of Fig, 2.69. This permits drawing a line on the sinusoidal supply voltage as shown in Fig. 2.71 to define the regions where the diode is on and off. For the “on” region, as shown in Fig. 2.72, the diode is replaced by a short-circuit equiv~ alent, and the output voltage is defined by (2.15) For the “off” region, the diode is an open circuit, Ip = 0 mA, and the output voltage is [e=0y] 4, Itis often helpful to draw the output waveform directly below the applied voltage using the same scales for the horizontal axis and the vertical axis. Using this last piece of information, we can establish the 0-V level on the plot of Fig. 2.73 for the region indicated, For the “on” condition, Eq. (2.15) can be used to find the out- put voltage when the applied voltage has its peak value: Vega = Vu = and this can be added to the plot of Fig. 2.73. It is then simple to fill in the missing section of the output curve. Determine the output waveform for the sinusoidal input of Fig, 2.74. Step 1: The output is again directly across the resistor R. Step 2: The positive region of v, and the de supply are both applying “pressure” to turn the diode on. The result is that we can safely assume the diode is in the “on” state for the entire range of positive voltages for v;, Once the supply goes negative, it would have to exceed the FIG. 2.74 Series clipper for Example 2.18. de supply voltage of 5 V before it could turn the diode off. A general feeling about the be havior of the network has therefore been established, Step 3: The transition model is substituted in Fig. 2.75, and we find that the transition from one state to the other will occur when y+5V=0V or y= -5V 5V ged. * . 3 te=ieh=igR=OR=0V FIG. 2.75 Determining the transition level for the clipper of Fig. 2.74, Step 4: In Fig. 2.76 a horizontal line is drawn through the applied voltage at the transition level. For voltages less than ~5 V the diode is in the open-circuit state and the output is 0 V, as shown in the sketch of v,. Using Fig. 2.76, we find that for conditions when the diode is on and the diode current is established the output voltage will be the following, as deter- mined using Kirchhoff’s voltage law: v= +5V Vv ‘Transition voltage SV+5V=0¥ FIG. 2.76 Sketching v, for Example 2.18, ‘The analysis of clipper networks with square-wave inputs is actually easier than with si- rnusoidal inputs because only two levels have to be considered. In other words, the network % ‘can be analyzed as if it had two de level inputs with the resulting v, plotted in the proper CLIPPERS 85, time frame. The next example demonstrates the procedure. 20 EXAMPLE 2.19 Find the output voltage for the network examined in Example 2.18 if the applied signal is the square wave of Fig. 2.77. Solution: For v; = 20V (0-7/2) the network of Fig. 2.78 results. The diode is in the =10 FIG. 2.77 short-circuit state, and v, = 20 V + 5V = 25 V. For, = —10V the network of Fig. 2.79 Applied signal for Example 2.19. 86 DIODE APPLICATIONS results, placing the diode in the “off” state, and v, = ig = (0)R = 0 V. The resulting out- put voltage appears in Fig. 2.80. = We Palit, Fe +1 5 vt fe 20 vd J "ye R =O sv a ° FIG. 2.78 FIG.2.79 Fi. 2.80 vat y, = +20¥. Yeatv; = ~10¥. Sketching v, for Example 2.19. Note in Example 2.19 that the clipper not only clipped off 5 V from the total swing, but also raised the dc level of the signal by 5 V. Parallel ‘The network of Fig. 2.81 is the simplest of parallel diode configurations with the output for the same inputs of Fig. 2.68. The analysis of parallel configurations is very similar to that applied to series configurations, as demonstrated in the next example. Muldsin y > > - 0 7 0 7 7 0 7 ~vb---: V FIG. 2.81 Response to a parallel clipper EXAMPLE 2.20 Determine y, for the network of Fig. 2.82. Solution: Step 1: In this example the output is defined across the series combination of the 4-V sup- ply and the diode, not across the resistor R. FIG, 2.82 Example 2.20. Step 2: The polarity of the de supply and the direction of the diode strongly suggest that the diode will be in the “on” state for a good portion of the negative region of the input sig- nal. In fact, itis interesting to note that since the output is directly across the series combi- nation, when the diode is in its short-circuit state the output voltage will be directly across the 4-V de supply, requiring that the output be fixed at 4 V. In other words, when the diode is on the output will be 4 V. Other than that, when the diode is an open circuit, the current through the series network will be 0 mA and the voltage drop across the resistor will be 0 V. ‘That will result in vy, = v; whenever the diode is off. Step 3: ‘The transition level of the input voltage can be found from Fig, 2.83 by substitut- ing the short-circuit equivalent and remembering the diode current is 0 mA at the instant of transition. The result is a change in state when y=4v Step 4: In Fig. 2.84 the transition level is drawn along with v, = 4V when the diode is on. For v, = 4V,v, = 4V, and the waveform is simply repeated on the output plot. 4.V transition level 16V av XS or T a | 2 FIG. 2.84 Sketching v, for Example 2.20. ‘To examine the effects of the knee voltage V; of a silicon diode on the output response, the next example will specify a silicon diode rather than the ideal diode equivalent. EXAMPLE 2.21 Repeat Example 2.20 using a silicon diode with Vi = 0.7 V. Solution: ‘The transition voltage can first be determined by applying the condition i, = 0A at vy = Vp = 0.7 V and obtaining the network of Fig. 2.85. Applying Kirchhoff's voltage Jaw around the output loop in the clockwise direction, we find that wtV_e-V=0 and WaV— Vp =4V-07V=33V For input voltages greater than 3.3 V, the diode will be an open circuit and v, = v,. For input voltages less than 3.3 V, the diode will be in the “on” state and the network of Fig. 2.86 results, where y= 4V-07V =33V ‘The resulting output waveform appears in Fig. 2.87. Note that the only effect of Vi. was to drop the transition level to 3.3 from 4 V. ‘There is no question that including the effects of Vj will complicate the analysis some- ‘what, but once the analysis is understood with the ideal diode, the procedure, including the effects of Vj, will not be that difficult. CLIPPERS 87. a) + + =0V FIG. 2.83 Determining the transition level ‘for Example 2,20. apsigh = ik =)R=0V z oe ¥Fye0K + veto EY a Determining the transition level for the network of Fig, 2.82. FIG. 2.86 Determining v, for the diode of Fig. 2.82 in the “on” state. FIG. 2.87 Sketching v, for Example 2.21. ‘Simple Series Clippers (Ideal Diodes) POSITIVE Biased Series Clippers (Ideal Diodes) " Fal Necanve oe : 3 . Bs -_ FIG. 2.88, Clipping circuits. Summary A variety of series and parallel clippers with the resulting output for the sinusoidal input are provided in Fig. 2.88, In particular, note the response of the last configuration, with its ability to clip off a positive and a negative section as determined by the magnitude of the de supplies. CLAMPERS ®@ he previous section investigated a number of diode configurations that clipped off a portion of the applied signal without changing the remaining part of the waveform. This section will examine a variety of diode configurations that shift the applied signal to adif- ferent level. A clamper is a network constructed of a diode, a resistor, and a capacitor that shifts a waveform to a different de level without changing the appearance of the applied signal. ‘Additional shifts can also be obtained by introducing a dc supply to the basic structure. ‘The chosen resistor and capacitor of the network must be chosen such that the time constant determined by + = RC is sufficiently large to ensure that the voltage across the capacitor does not discharge significantly during the interval the diode is nonconducting. Throughout the analysis we assume that for all practical purposes the capacitor fully charges or dis- charges in five time constants ‘The simplest of clamper networks is provided in Fig. 2.89. It is important to note that the capacitor is connected directly between input and output signals and the resistor and the diode are connected in parallel with the output signal. Clamping networks have a capacitor connected directly from input to output with a resistive element in parallel with the output signal. The diode is also in parallel with the output signal but may or may not have a series dc supply as an added element. BN et v FIG. 2.89 Clamper There is a sequence of steps that can be applied to help make the analysis straightfor: ward. It is not the only approach to examining clampers, but it does offer an option if difficulties surface Step 1: Start the analysis by examining the response of the portion of the input signal that will forward bias the diode, Step 2: During the period that the diode is in the “on” state, assume that the capaci- tor will charge up instantaneously to a voltage level determined by the surrounding network. For the network of Fig. 2.89 the diode will be forward biased for the positive portion of the applied signal. For the interval 0 to 7/2 the network will appear as shown in Fig. 2.90. ‘The short-circuit equivalent for the diode will result in v, = 0 V for this time interval, as shown in the sketch of v, in Fig. 2.92. During this same interval of time, the time constant determined by + = RC is very small because the resistor R has been effectively “shorted ‘out” by the conducting diode and the only resistance present is the inherent (contact, wire) resistance of the network. The result is that the capacitor wil! quickly charge to the peak value of V volts as shown in Fig. 2.90 with the polarity indicated. Step 3: Assume that during the period when the diode is in the “off™ state the capac- itor holds on to its established voltage level. CLAMPERS 89 4 1 +8 FIG. 2.90 Diode “on” and the capacitor charging to V volts. 90 DIODE APPLICATIONS FIG. 2.91 Determining vg with the diode “off.” o| 7 Tt 2 ybe. 0) 7 Tt 2 av FIG. 2.92 Sketching v, for the network of 91. FIG. 2.94 Determining v,and Ve with the diode in the “on” state 25 V. KVL FIG, 2.95 Determining v, with the diode in the “off” state Step 4: Throughout the analysis, maintain a continual awareness of the location and defined polarity for v, to ensure that the proper levels are obtained. ‘When the input switches to the —V state, the network will appear as shown in Fig. 2.91, with the open-circuit equivalent for the diode determined by the applied signal and stored voltage across the capacitor—both “pressuring” current through the diode from cathode to anode. Now that R is back in the network the time constant determined by the RC product is sufficiently large to establish a discharge period 57, much greater than the period 1/2 T, and it can be assumed on an approximate basis that the capacitor holds onto all its charge and, therefore, voltage (since V = Q/C) during this period. Since v, isin parallel with the diode and resistor, it can also be drawn in the alternative po- sition shown in Fig. 2.91. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the input loop results in -v-V-¥,=0 and v= -2¥ ‘The negative sign results from the fact that the polarity of 2V is opposite to the polarity de- fined for v,, The resulting output waveform appears in Fig. 2.92 with the input signal. The output signal is clamped to 0 V for the interval 0 to 7/2 but maintains the same total swing (2V)as the input. Step 5: Check that the total swing of the output matches that of the input. This is « property that applies for all clamping networks, giving an excellent check on the results obtained. EXAMPLE 2.22 Determine v, for the network of Fig. 2.93 for the input indicated, % f= 1000 10 20}, --- FIG. 2.93 Applied signal and network for Example 2.22. Mltisim PSpice Solution: Note that the frequency is 1000 Hz, resulting in a period of 1 ms and an inter- val of 0.5 ms between levels. The analysis will begin with the period t, —* fof the input sig nal since the diode is in its short-circuit state. For this interval the network will appear as shown in Fig. 2.94. The output is across R, but itis also directly across the 5-V battery if one follows the direct connection between the defined terminals for v, and the battery ter- minals. The result is v, = 5 V for this interval. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the input loop results in -20V + Ve-5V=0 and Ve=25V The capacitor will therefore charge up to 25 V. In this case the resistor R is not shorted out by the diode, but 2 Thévenin equivalent circuit of that portion of the network that includes the battery and the resistor will result in Rr, = 0. with En, = V = 5 V. For the period f) — fs the network will appear as shown in Fig. 2.95. ‘The open-circuit equivalent for the diode removes the 5-V battery from having any effect on v,, and applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law arouné the outside loop of the network results in +10V + 25V — and vy =35V ‘The time constant of the discharging network of Fig. 2.95 is determined by the product RC and has the magnitude 7 = RC = (100k) (0.1 xF) = 0.01 = 10ms ‘The total discharge time is therefore Sr = 5(10ms) = 50 ms. Since the interval t, — f, will only last for 0.5 ms, itis certainly a good approximation that the capacitor will hold its voltage during the discharge period between pulses of the input signal. The resulting output appears in Fig. 2.96 with the input signal, Note that the output swing of 30 V matches the input swing as noted in step 5. 10 _t FIG. 2.96 and v, or the clamper of Fig. 2.93. EXAMPLE 2.23 Repeat Example 2.22 using a silicon diode with Vx = 0.7 V. Solution: For the short-circuit state the network now takes on the appearance of Fig. 2.97, and v, can be determined by Kirchhoff’s voltage law in the output section: +5V ~0.7V-,=0 and = 5V-07V=43V For the input section Kirchhoff’s voltage law results in -20V + Ve + 0.7V-—5V=0 and Vo=25V -0.7V = 243V For the period fy — fs the network will now appear as in Fig. 2.98, with the only change being the voltage across the capacitor. Applying Kirchhoff’ voltage law yields +10V + 24,3V —v,=0 and v= 343V The resulting output appears in Fig. .99, verifying the statement thatthe input and output swings are the same, 343 7 30v FIG. 2.99 ‘Sketching v, for the clanyer of Fig. 2.93 with a siticon diode. CLAMPERS 91 FIG. 2.97 Determining v, and Ve with the ode in the “on” state. FIG. 2.98 Determining v, with the diode in the open state. Clamping Networks y| oa 4 20 ° ~t -20v at 7 Lt a + a w i i | Sp Ses Clamping circuits with ideal diodes (Sr = SRC >> T/2). A number of clamping circuits and their effect on the input signal are shown in Fig. 2.100. Although all the waveforms appearing in Fig. 2.100 are square waves, clamping networks work equally well for sinusoidal signals. In fact, one approach to the analysis of clamping networks with sinusoidal inputs is to replace the sinusoidal signal by a square Wave of the ‘same peak values. The resulting output will then form an envelope forthe sinusoidal response as shown in Fig. 2.101 for a network appearing in the bottom right of Fig. 2.100. 4 +30 FIG. 2.101 Clamping network with a sinusoidal input, ZENER DIODES ‘The analysis of networks employing Zener diodes is quite similar to the analysis of semicon- ductor diodes in previous sections. First the state of the diode must be determined, followed by ‘ substitution of the appropriate model and a determination of the other unknown quantities of the network. Figure 2,102 reviews the approximate equivalent circuits for each region of a Zener diode assuming the straight-tine approximations at each break point. Note that the forward-bias region is included because occasionally an application will skip into this region also. Ve opts ori] | FIG, 2.102 Approximate equivalent circuits for the Zener diode in the three possible regions of application. ‘The first two examples will demonstrate how a Zener diode can be used to establish ref- erence voltage levels and act as a protection device. The use of a Zener diode as a regulator will hen be described in detail because itis one of its major areas of application. A regula- tor is a combination of elements designed to ensure that the output voltage of a supply re- ‘mains fairly constant, EXAMPLE 2.24 Determine the reference voltages provided by the network of Fig. 2.103, which uses a white LED to indicate that the power is on. What is the level of current through the LED and the power delivered by the supply? How does the power absorbed by the LED compare to that of the 6-V Zener diode? Solution: First we have to check that there is sufficient applied voltage to turn on all the series diode elements. The white LED will have a drop of about 4 ¥ across it, the 6-V and 3.3-V Zener diodes have a total of 9.3 V, and the forward-biased silicon diode has 0.7 V, for a total of 14 V. The applied 40 V is then sufficient to ture on all the elements and, one hopes, establish a proper operating current. Note that the silicon diode was used to create a reference voltage of 4 V because Vy, = Vo, + Ve = 3.3V + 0.7 = 400 Combining the voltage of the 6-V Zener diode with the 4 V results in Vo, = Vo, + Vz, =4V +6V=10V Finally, the 4 V across the white LED will leave a voltage of 40 V - 14 V = 26 V across the resistor, and Ve _ 40V-V.~Vieon_ 40V-10V—-4V_ 26V eR 13k0 ~ 13k0 13k0 that will establish the proper brightness for the LED, ‘The power delivered by the supply is simply the product of the supply voltage and cur- rent drain as follows: P, = El, = Ely The power absorbed by the LED is Puzo = Vievlien = (4V)(20mA) = 80 mW ‘and the power absorbed by the 6-V Zener diode is P, = Velz = (6V)(20mA) = 120mW ‘The power absorbed by the Zener diode exceeds that of the LED by 40 mW. = 20mA, Te (40 V)(20mA) = 800 mW ZENER DIODES 95 FIG, 2.103 Reference setting circuit for Example 2.24. 4 DIODE APPLICATIONS EXAMPLE 2.25 ‘The network of Fig. 2.104 is designed to limit the voltage to 20 V during the positive portion of the applied voltage and to OV for a negative excursion of the applied voltage. Check its operation and plot the waveform of the voltage across the system for the applied signal. Assume the systerm fas a very high input resistance so it will not affect the behavior of the network. wv — /\ * | hoon ve Kv [Besa - 8 cov a FIG. 2.104 Controlling network for Example 2.25. Solution: For positive applied voltages less than the Zener potential of 20 V the Zener diode will be in its approximate open-circuit state, and the input signal will simply distrib- ute itself across the elements, with the majority going to the system because it has such a high resistance level. Once the voltage across the Zener diode reaches 20 V the Zener diode will turn on as shown in Fig. 2,105a and the voltage across the system will lock in at 20 V. Further increases in the applied voltage will simply appear across the series resistor with the voltage across the system and the forward-biased diode remaining fixed at 20 V and 0.7 V, respectively. The voltage across the system is fixed at 20 V, as shown in Fig, 2.105a, because the 0.7 V of the diode is not between the defined output terminals. The system is therefore safe from any further increases in applied voltage. For the negative region of the applied signal the silicon diode is reverse biased and presents an open circuit to the series combination of elements. The result is that the full + + © FIG, 2.105 Response of the network of Fig. 2.104 to the application of a 60-V sinusoidal signal. negatively applied signal will appear across the open-circuited diode and the negative volt- age across the system locked in at 0 V, as shown in Fig. 2.104b. “The voltage across the system will therefore appear as shown in 2.105e. The use of the Zener diode as a regulator is so common that three conditions surround- ing the analysis of the basic Zener regulator are considered. The analysis provides an excellent opportunity to become better acquainted with the response of the Zener diode to different operating conditions. The basic configuration appears in Fig. 2.106. The analysis is first for fixed quantities, followed by a fixed supply voltage and a variable load, and fi- nally a fixed load and a variable supply. Vand R Fixed ‘The simplest of Zener diode regulator networks appears in Fig. 2.106. The applied de volt- ‘age is fixed, as is the load resistor. The analysis can fundamentally be broken down into ¢wo steps. 1. Determine the state of the Zener diode by removing it from the network and cal- culating the voltage across the resuiting open circuit. Applying step 1 to the network of Fig. 2.106 results in the network of Fig. 2.107, where an application of the voltage divider rule results in R, Yawn aeR (2.16) If V = Va, the Zener diode is on, and the appropriate equivalent model can be substituted. IF V < Vz, the diode is off, and the open-circuit equivalence is substituted. 2, Substitute the appropriate equivalent circuit and solve for the desired unknowns. Forthe network of Fig. 2.106, the “on” state will result in the equivalent network of Fig. 2.108. Since voltages across parallel elements must be the same, we find that [way (2.17) FIG. 2.108 Substituting the Zener equivalent for the “on” situation, ‘The Zener diode current must be determined by an application of Kirchhoff’s current law. ‘That is, In= tet he and p= ta- he (2.18) where ,-% and [p= ZENER DIODES 95 DF 7 - [J + Basic Zener regulator. FIG. 2.107 Determining the state of the Zener diode, 96 DIODE APPLICATIONS The power dissipated by the Zener diode is determined by (2.19) that must be less than the Pzy, specified for the device. Before continuing, itis particularly important to realize that the first step was employed only to determine the state of the Zener diode. If the Zener diode is in the “on” state, the voltage across the diode is not V volts. When the system is turned on, the Zener diode will tum on as soon as the voltage across the Zener diode is V, volts. It will then “lock in” at this, level and never reach the higher level of V volts. es EXAMPLE 2.26 a. For the Zener diode network of Fig. 2.109, determine V;, Ve, Jz, and Pz. b. Repeat part (a) with R, = 3k0. + Mm = FIG. 2.109 Zener diode regulator for Example 2.26. Solution: a. Following the suggested procedure, we redraw the network as shown in Fig. 2.110. 12k2 Vy, FIG. 2.110 Determining V for the regulator of Fig. 2.109. Applying Eq. (2.16) gives Ry 1.2kQ(16V) RR, 1k + 12k0 Since V = 8.73 Vis less than Vz = 10 V, the diode is in the “off” state, as shown on the characteristics of Fig. 2.111. Substituting the open-circuit equivalent results in the same network as in Fig. 2.110, where we find that ve 8.73V V=8.73 V,— V, = 16V - 8.73V = 727 =0A and Pz = Velz = V{0A) = OW m b. Applying Eq. (2.16) results in 3k(16V) 1kO + 3k2 Resulting operating point for the network of Fig. 2.109. =Ry Since V = 12 V is greater than Vz = 10 V, the diode is in the “on” state and the net- ‘work of Fig. 2.112 results, Applying Eq. (2.17) yields v= v,=10v and Va=V,- V, = 16V -10V =6V 10v with fe =333mA " R, 3kQ Ve_ 6V d Ip= “B= SY = ma a Rk 1K0 so that = Ip Ie [E9. (2.18)] = 6mA ~ 3.33mA = 2.67mA ty - R rf fe : + ev vv R342 y, Fig, 2.112 Network of Fig. 2.109 in the “on” state. Pz = Vel = (10V)(2.6TmA) = 26.7 mW ‘which is less than the specified Pay, = 30 mW. Fixed V;, Variable R, Due to the offset voltage Vz, there is a specific range of resistor values (and therefore load current) that will ensure that the Zener is in the “on” state. Too small a load resistance Ry will result in a voltage V; across the load resistor less than V;, and the Zener device will be in the “off” state, ‘To determine the minimum load resistance of Fig. 2.106 that will turn the Zener diode ‘on, simply calculate the value of Rz that will result in a load voltage V, = Vz. That is, Ri Solving for R,, we have (2.20) Any load resistance value greater than the R, obtained from Eq. (2.20) will ensure that the Zener diode is in the “on” state and the diode can be replaced by its Vz source equivalent. ‘The condition defined by Eq. (2.20) establishes the minimum R,, but in turn specific the maximum I, as lig = (2.21) ZENER DIODES 7 DIODE APPLICATIONS Once the diode is inthe “on” state, the voltage acrass R remains fixed at (2.22) and Ip remains fixed at Ik * (2.23) The Zener current (2.24) resulting in a minimum f, when J, is a maximum and 2 maximum J, when I, isa minimum vaiue, since Ip is constant. Since Jz is limited to Iny as provided on the data sheet, it does affect the range of R, and therefore J, Substituting Izy for Iz establishes the minimum [, as Toy, = Ie — To (2.25) and the maximum load resistance as (2.26) EXAMPLE 2.27 a. For the network of Fig. 2.113, determine the range of R, and J; that will result in Vig being maintained at 10 V. 'b, Determine the maximum wattage rating of the diode. FIG. 2.113 Voltage regulator for Example 2.27. Solution: a. To determine the value of R, that will tun the Zener diode on, apply: Eq. (2.20): RV, (1kQ)(10V) _ 10K Vin Vv, SOV-10V 40 ‘The voltage across the resistor 2 is then determined by Eq. (2.22): Va = Vi — Vz = 50V - 10V = 40 and Eq. (2.23) provides the magnitude of Ig: Vp _ 40V R 1K The minimum level of 1, is then determined by Eq. (2.25): a, = Te — Loy = 40mA — 32mA = 8mA Ri, = 2500, Tk with Eq. (2.26) determining the maximum value of Ry: Ve _ 10V R= AOY = 25k tom T,, 8mA A plot of V, versus R; appears in Fig. 2.1 14a and for V;, versus /, in Fig. 2.114b. % Me ov- ——————— ov- —— t 1 t 1 { 1 t 1 It 1 t 1 i 1 t 1 Eee | ee 0| 2500 125K, 0] ma dma @ © FIG. 2.114 V, versus Ry and I, for the regulator of Fig. 2.113. Prax = Velo (10.V)(32mA) = 320mW Fixed R,, Variable V; For fixed values of 2%, in Fig. 2.106, the voltage V; must be sufficiently large to turn the Zener diode on. The minimum turn-on voltage V; = V,,, is determined by and (2.27) ‘The maximum value of V; is limited by the maximum Zener current Iay. Since Inyy = Te ~ his Te = ton + (2.28) Since J, is fixed at Vz/R, and Jyy is the maximum value of Jz, the maximum V; is defined by Vin = Van. + Ve ek + Ye (2.29) EXAMPLE 2.28 Determine the range of values of V; that will maintain the Zener Fig. 2.115 in the “on” state. FIG.2.115 Regulator for Example 2.28. ZENER DIODES 100 DIODE APPLICATIONS Solution: Ry, + R)V2 _ (1200.0 + 220.0)(20V: (B+ RVs _ ( 09)20V) _ as gry RK ia00 a VY _ Vz_ 20 I, ai x Taxa 7 16:57mA Eq. (2.28): Tp, = fay + 1, = 6OmA + 16.67 mA = 76.67 mA Fq.(229): Vi = Ie R + Ve = (76.67 mA)(0.22k0) + 20V = 16.87V + 20V = 3687V A plot of V; versus V;is provided in Fig. 2.116, Eq, (2.27 View = ta FIG. 2.116 versus V,for the regulator of Fig. 2.115. ‘The results of Example 2.28 reveal that for the network of Fig. 2.115 with a fixed R,, the output voltage will remain fixed at20 V for arange of input voltage that extends from 23.67 V t0 36.87 V. Tn fact, the input could appear as shown in Fig. 2.117 and the output would remain con stant at 20 V, as shown in Fig. 2.116, The waveform appearing in Fig, 2.117 is obtained by filtering a half-wave or full-wave-rectified output—a process described in detail in a later chapter. The net effect, however, is to establish a steady de voltage (for a defined range of V;) such as that shown in Fig. 2.116 from a sinusoidal source with O average value. 40 3687 30 2367 Fig. 2.117 Waveform generated by a filtered rectified signal. 2.11 VOLTAGE-MULTIPLIER CIRCUITS Voltage-multiplier circuits are employed to maintain a relatively low transformer peak volt- age while stepping up the peak output voltage to two, three, four, or more times the peak rectified voltage, Voltage Doubler ‘The network of Fig, 2.118 is « ialf-wave voltage doubler. During the positive voltage half- cycle across the zransformer, secondary diode D, conducts (and diode D, is cut off), charg- ing capacitor C, up to the peak rectified voltage (V,). Diode Dy is ideally a short during this half-cycle, and the input voltage charges capacitor C, to V,, with the polarity shown in Fig. 2.119a. During the negative half-cycle of the secondary voltage, diode D, is cut off and diode D, conducts charging capacitor C>, Since diode D, acts as a short during the neg- ative half-cycle (and diode D, is open), we can sum the voltages around the outside loop (see Fig. 2.119b): from which we obtain FIG. 2.118 Half-wave voltage doubler Diode Dy +t / nonconducting Da 3 \ oT 3 Diode D, Diode D conducting oncondicting © o FIG. 2.119 Double operation, showing each half-cycle of operation: (a) positive half-cycle; (b) negative halfcycle On the next positive half-cycle, diode D, is nonconducting and capacitor C, will discharge through the load. Ifno load is connected across capacitor C,, both capacitors stay charged— C; to Vp, and C, to 2V,, If, s would be expected, there is a load connected to the output of the voltage doubler, the voltage across capacitor C2 drops during the positive half-cycle (at the input) and the capacitor is recharged up to 2V,, during the negative half-cycle. The out- ut waveform across capacitor C, is that of a half-wave signal filtered by a capacitor filter, ‘The peak inverse voltage across each diode is 2V, Another doubler circuit is the full-wave doubler of Fig, 2.120, During the positive half cycle of transformer secondary voltage (see Fig. 2.121a) diode D, conducts, charging ca- pacitor C, to a peak voltage V,,, Diode D, is nonconducting at this time. During the negative half-cycle (see Fig. 2.121b) diode D, conducts, charging capacitor Cz, while diode D, is nonconducting. If no load current is drawn from the circuit, the voltage across capacitors C, and C; is 2V,,. If load current is drawn from the circuit, the Voltage across capacitors C and C> is the same as that across a capacitor fed by a full-wave rectifier circuit One difference is that the effective capacitance is that of C, and C, in series, which is less than the capacitance of either C; or C; alone. The lower capacitor value will provide poorer filtering action than the single-capacitor filter circuit. VOLTAGE-MULTIPLIER 101 ciRCUITS 102 DIODE APPLICATIONS FIG. 2.120 Full-wave voltage deablen Contin Nonconuting Ve Z. DN, ‘Nonconducting ® © FIG. 2.121 Alternate haif-cycles af eperation for full-wave voltage doubler Conducting The peak inverse voltage across each diode is 2V, as itis for the filter capacitor circuit. In summary, the half-wave or full-wave voltage-coubler circuits provide twice the peak voltage of the transformer secondary while requiring no center-tapped transformer and only 2V,, PIV rating for the diodes. Voltage Tripler and Quadrupler Figure 2.122 shows an extension of the half-wave voltage doubler, which develops three and four times the peak input voltage. It should be obvious from the pattern of the circuit “ipl 30) ———— | De basietyy——| Quadeopler(4¥q) FIG, 2.122 Voltage tripler and quadrupler connection how additional diodes and capacitors may be connected so that the output volt age may also be five, six, seven, and so on, times the basic peak voltage (V,). In operation, capacitor C, charges through diode D, to a peak voltage V, during the pos- itive half-cycle ofthe transformer secondary voltage. Capacitor C charges to twice the peak voltage, 2V,, developed by the sum of the voltages across capacitor C, and the transformer during the negative half-cycle of the transformer secondary voltage. During the positive half-cycle, diode D, conducts and the voltage across capacitor C, charges capacitor C3 to the same 2V,, peak voltage. On the negative half-cycle, diodes D and D, conduct with capacitor C,, charging C, to 2V, The voltage across capacitor Cis 2V,, across C’, and Cy it is 3V,, and across C, and Cy it is 4V,,. If additional sections of diode and capacitor are used, each capacitor will be charged to 2V,,.. Measuring from the top of the transformer winding (Fig. 2.122) will pro- vide odd multiples of V,, at the output, whereas measuring the output voltage from the bot- tom of the transformer will provide even multiples of the peak voltage V,. ‘The transformer rating is only V,,, maximum, and each diode in the circuit must be rated at 2V,, PIV. Ifthe load is small and the capacitors have little leakage, extremely high de volt- ages miay be developed by this type of circuit, using many sections to step up the ic voltage. 2.12__ PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS ‘The range of practical applications for diodes is so broad that it would be virtually impos- sible to consider all the options in one section. However, to develop some feeling for the use of the device in everyday networks, a number of the more common areas of application are introduced below. In particular, note that the use of diodes extends well beyond the im- portant switching characteristic that was introduced earlier in this chapter. Rectification Battery chargers are a common houschold piece of equipment used to charge everything from small flashlight batteries to heavy-duty, marine, lead-acid batteries. Since all are plugged into 2 120-V ac outlet such as found in the home, the basic construction of each is quite similar. In every charging system a transformer must be included to cut the ac volt- age to a level appropriate for the de level to be established. A diade (also called rectifier) arrangement must be included to convert the ac voltage, which varies with time, to a fixed dc level such as described in this chapter. Some de chargers also include a regulator to pro- e an improved dc Jevet (one that varies less with time or load). Since the car battery charger is one of the most common, it will be described in the next few paragraphs. ‘The outside appearance and the internal construction of a Sears 6/2 AMP Manual Bat- tery Charger are provided in Fig. 2.123. Note in Fig, 2.123b that the transformer (as in most chargers) takes up most of the internal space. The additional air space and the holes in the cas- ing ate there to ensure an outlet for the heat that develops due to the resulting current levels. ‘The schematic of Fig. 2.124 includes all the basic components of the charger. Note first that the 120 V from the outlet are applied directly across the primary of the transformer. The charging rate of 6 A or2 A is determined by the switch, which simply controls how many windings of the primary will be in the circuit for the chosen charging rate. Ifthe battery is charging at the 2-A level, the full primary will be in the circuit, and the ratio of the turns in the primary to the tums in the secondary will be a maximum, If it is charging a the 6-A level, fewer turns of the primary are in the circuit, and the ratio drops. When you study trans- formers, you will find that the voltage at the primary and secondary is directly related to the ‘turns ratio. Ifthe ratio from primary te secondary drops, then the voltage drops also. The reverse effect occurs if the turns on the secondary exceed those on the primary. ‘The generai appearance of the waveforms appears in Fig. 2.124 for the 6-A charging Jevel. Note that so far, the ac voltage has the same wave shape across the primary and the secondary. The only difference is in the peak value of the waveforms. Now the diodes take over and convert the ac waveform, which has zero average value (the waveform above equals the waveform below), to one that has an average value (all above the axis) as shown in the same figure. For the moment simply recognize that diodes are semiconductor elec- tronic devices that permit only conventional current to flow through them in the direction indicated by the arrow in the symbol. Even though the waveform resulting from the diode PRACTICAL 103 APPLICATIONS, 104 DIODE APPLICATIONS Rectifier (diode) configuration ‘Transformer Control switch tochassis, ® FIG. 2.125 Battery charger: (a) external appearance; (b) intemal construction. action has a pulsing appearance with a peak value of about 18 V, it will charge the 12-V bat- tery Whenever its voltage is greater than that of the battery, as shown by the shaded area. Below the 12-V level the battery cannot discharge back into the charging network because the diodes permit current flow in only one direction, Im particular, note in Fig. 2.123b the large plate that carries the current from the rectifier (diode) configuration to the positive terminal of the battery. Its primary purpose is to pro- vide a heat sink (a place for the heat to be distributed to the surrounding air) for the diode configuration. Otherwise the diodes would eventually melt down and self-destruct due to the resulting current levels. Each component of Fig. 2.124 has been carefully labeled in Fig. 2.123 for reference. ‘When current is first applied to a battery at the 6-A charge rate, the current demand, as. indicated by the meter on the face of the instrument, may rise to 7 A or almost 8 A. However, (rectifiers) 4! ‘Transformer Gott |, a Circuit Current, a Dreaker meter fegative clamp aes " ‘of charger FIG. 2.124 Electricel schematic for the battery charger of Fig. 2.123, the level of current will decrease as the battery charges until it drops to a level of 2 A or3 A. For units such as this that do not have an automatic shutoff, itis important to disconnect ‘he charger when the current drops to the fully charged level; otherwise, the battery will be~ ‘come overcharged and may be damaged. A battery that is at its 50% level can take as long .as 10 hours to charge, so one should not expect it to be a 10-minute operation. In addition, iffa battery is in very bad shape, with a lower than normal voltage, the initial charging cur- rent may be too high for the design. To protect against such situations, the circuit breaker will open and stop the charging process. Because of the high current levels, itis important that the directions provided with the charger be carefully read and applied. In an effort to compare the theoretical world with the real world, a load (in the form of 2 ineadlight) was applied to the charger to permit a viewing of the actual output waveform. It is important to note and remember that a diode with zero current through it will not display its rectifying capabilities. In other words, the output from the charger of Fig. 2.123 will not be a rectified signal unless a load is applied to the system to draw current through the diode. Recall from the diode characteristics that when [5 = 0A, Vp = OV. ‘By applying the headlamp as a load, however, sufficient current is drawn through the diode for it to behave like a switch and convert the ac waveform to a pulsating one as shown in Fig. 2.125 for the 6-A setting. First note that the waveform is slightly distorted by the nonlinear characteristics of the transformer and the nonlinear characteristics of the diode at ow currents. The waveform, however, is certainly close to what is expected when we com pare it to the theoretical pattems of Fig. 2.123. The peak value is determined from the ver- tical sensitivity as Vous = (3.3 divisions) (5 Vidivision) = 16.5 V 5 Viaiv aa 2mdiv FIG. 2.125 Palsating response of the charger of Fig. 2.124 10 the application of a headlamp as a load. Positive clamp Diodes of charger
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