Hydraulic
Hydraulic
Hydraulic
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Replace
Human Resources
Approval Manager SMA
Effective Date 18 July 2002
HYDRAULICS AH007
DESTINATION GROUP
HYDRAULICS
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Designed by Compiled by
Revised by Date
Sources consulted
Copyright ©
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INDEX
No Topics Page
Objective 3
Preface 4
1 Principles of hydraulics 5
2 Flow rate or volume of fluid 14
3 Directional control 17
4 Basic control functions in a hydraulic system 18
5 Flow paths 18
6 Hydraulic fluids 23
7 Hydraulic seals and pipes 27
8 Basic symbols 36
9 Reservoirs 42
10 Fluid contamination (Hygiene) 46
11 Filters and strainers 47
12 Pumps 52
13 Hydraulic motors 62
14 Hydraulic cylinders 67
15 Check valves 76
16 Directional control valves 83
17 Pressure control valves 95
18 Volume control valves 104
19 Servo valves 109
20 Accumulators 113
21 Accumulator systems 119
22 Hydraulic systems 124
23 Safety procedure for shutting down systems 138
24 Trouble shooting 139
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OBJECTIVE
To become familiar with the contents of this module and to obtain the necessary
knowledge and insight of this module.
After the completion of the module, you must be able to pass a criterion test without
any reference of assistance.
Given
CRITERION
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PREFACE
It is important to know how these systems operate, which components are used and
how to do fault finding on the system.
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HYDRAULICS
1. PRINCIPLES OF HYDRAULICS
Fluid power systems are power transmitting assembles employing pressurized liquid to
transmit energy from an energy generating source to an energy use area.
All hydraulic systems depend on Pascal's law, named after Blaise Pascal who discovered
the law. The law states that pressurized fluid within a closed container - such as a cylinder
or pipe, exerts equal force on all the surfaces of the container.
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The size of the load will determine the pressure in this system. In the International Standard
System (ISO), pressure is measured in Pascal (Pa), but pascal is a very small unit. The
pressure gauges are therefore in kPa or Mpa.
The figure above the weight of 9 000 kg resists the flow of oil under the piston and creates
pressure in the oil. The piston area is one square meter and the weight of 9 000 kg create a
pressure of 9 000 Pa. If the size of a load and the area of the piston is know one can determine
the pressure required to lift the load.
Basic formula is :
P =F/A
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Example
In the figure above the piston with an area of 1 square meter must lift a load of 15 000 kg.
15 000 x 10 = 150 000 Newton
.'. P = F
A
= 150 000 N
1
= 150 000 Pa
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If the piston area stays constant and the weight increases so does the pressure.
Therefore one can say that basically the pressure gives us the force to lift a load.
Question 1
2
Piston Area = 0,5 m
Load = 7 500 kg
Formula
P= F
A
P= 7 500 kg
2
0,5 m
P= 75 000 N
2
0,5 m
P= 150 000 Pa
= 150 kPa
= 0,15 MPa
Question 2
2
Piston Area = 0.25 m
Load = 9.125 ton
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Formula
P= F
A
P= 9.125 ton
2
0.25 m
P= 91250 N
2
0.25 m
P= 365 000 Pa
= 365 kPa
= 0.365 MPa
Question 3
Formula
A= d2
4
A= (0.2 m)
2
A= 0.0314 m2
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P= F
A
P= 4000 kg
2
0.0314 m
P= 40000 N
2
0.0314 m
P= 1273885.3 Pa
P= 1273.8 kPa
P= 1.2 MPa
Question 4
Formula
A= F
A= 15000 Kg
300 000 Pa
2
A= 0.05 m
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When the gate valve is wide open, all the flow from the pump passes through unrestricted.
There is no pressure in the system (ignoring friction losses).
If we start closing gate Valve A the flow is restricted and pressure builds up.
The pump delivers 10 liter/min and gate Valve A is set to allow 2 liter/min through. 8 Liter/min
have to pass over the relief valve back to the reservoir.
If there were no relief valve in the system, the pump or a pipe would burst.
The spring force of the relief valve determines the pressure in the system. A pressure of 5 Mpa
is needed to open the relief valve; therefore the reading on the pressure gauge will be 5 MPa.
The maximum pressure in a system is determined by the setting of the relief valve.
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2.1
The pump delivery is 10 liter / min and the cylinder volume is also 10 liter. Therefore it will take
the pump 60 seconds to fill the cylinder and piston takes 60 seconds to travel from A to B.
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2.2
We have a cylinder with the same volume as the previous one. That is 10 liter. The pump
delivers 20 liter/ minute and will fill the cylinder faster than in. It will only take the piston 30
seconds to move from A to B.
The speed of the piston or actuator is determined by the flow rate of the fluid.
Therefore the volume or the flow rate generates speed.
Question 1
If the delivery is 20 liter / min, determine the time it will take the piston to move from A to B.
t= V
= 5L
20 l/min
= 0.25 min
= 15 sec
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Question 2
t= V
Q
= 30 L
5l / min
= 6 min
= 360 sec
If the pump delivers 5 liter / min, determine the time it will take to move the piston from A to B.
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3 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL
Cylinders are the most commonly used actuators in a hydraulic system. We use a
directional control valve for reversing the stroke of a cylinder.
The pump delivers the fluid to move the piston from A to B. At the end of the stroke
the piston cannot move any further and the pump delivery passes over the relief valve
back to reservoir. To bring the piston back again from B to A, the position of the
directional control valve is changed to direct the pump delivery to the rod end of the
cylinder. This will move the piston back from B to A.
When the piston reaches Point A the relief valve again protects the system.
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Fluid Pressure
This gives us the force to do the work and we must control it to protect our system components.
The spring force of a relief valve will determine the maximum pressure in the system.
Direction
In most hydraulic systems we will find all of the above mentioned control functions.
5 FLOW PATHS
5.1 PARALLEL FLOW PATH
The two pressure control valves function parallel with each other and are set at 4Mpa. The only
pressure required to open both valves is 4 MPa
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From these two flow paths i.e. parallel or series, we can see that when designing a hydraulic
system, it is very important that there is enough pressure available to open the valves.
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Laminar Flow
Laminar flow is the ideal flow in a pipeline. It will flow in a straight, parallel path. This
condition occurs at low velocity in straight piping. With laminar flow, friction is minimized.
Turbulent flow
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A turbulent flow is caused by abrupt changes in direction or cross section, or where the flow
velocity is too high. Turbulence is the condition where the particles do not move smoothly
parallel to the flow direction. The result is greatly increased friction, which generates heat,
increases operating pressure and wastes power.
According to Bernoulli's principle the sum of the pressure and kinetic energy at
various points in a system must be constant if the flow rate is constant. When the
pipe diameter changes, the velocity changes. If the velocity changes, the pressure
increases or decreases (since energy cannot be destroyed).
The pressure and velocity at A and C are equal because the pipe diameters are the same. At B
the velocity decreases in the larger diameter pipe and the pressure increases.
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6 HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
a. To Transmit Power
The fluid should not compressible in order to obtain instantaneous action when valve
is moved.
b. Lubrication
c. Sealing
In many instances, the fluid is the only seal against pressure inside a hydraulic component.
In the drawing above of a valve spool, there is no seal ring between the valve spool
and body to minimize leakage from the high-pressure passage to the low-pressure
passages. The fluid forms a seal between these two passages.
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d. Cooling
Circulation of the fluid through pipelines and around the walls of the reservoir gives up
heat that is generated in the system.
a) Mineral oil
b) Water
c) Oil in water
d) Compressed air
e) Synthetic Oil
Mineral oil
Mineral based oil is perhaps the most widely used hydraulic fluid. It does not cause rust,
dissipates heat rapidly and can be cleaned easily by mechanical filtration and gravity
separation. It will also form a seal and lubricate the components.
Oil in water emulsions contain tiny droplets of specially refined oil dispersed in water. The
fluid characteristics are more like water than oil. It is highly fire resistant, is low in viscosity
and has excellent cooling characteristics. Additives can be incorporated to improve the
relatively poor lubricity and to project against rust.
Compressed Air
Compressed air or gas is used in many fluid power systems. Cleanliness is not too much of
a problem with compressed air and the lubrication is usually easy to arrange. Compressed
air systems may be noisy.
Synthetic Oil
Synthetic oil is a substantially non-inflammable oil. The main disadvantage of synthetic oil is
its very high cost.
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If there is a fire danger area where hydraulics must be used, the high cost for the synthetic
oil would be worth while.
NB: If a hydraulic system is designed for mineral based oil we cannot change to synthetic oil
unless we change all the seals in the system, or we are sure the seals are also suitable for
synthetic oil.
a) Speed of operation.
b) Surrounding atmospheric conditions.
c) Heat.
d) Economic conditions.
e) Required pressure level.
f) Temperature range.
g) Safety for operators.
A satisfactory fluid for a given hydraulic system must have enough body to give a
good seal at pumps, valves and pistons, but must not be so thick that it offers
excessive resistance to flow. On the other hand, fluid that is too thin cannot
lubricate properly and will also lead to wear.
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Seals
Seals and packing play a very important role in fluid power systems. It was not until
effective packing were developed for hydraulic pistons in cylinders that the power
application to industry was made possible.
Positive (Static)
a) Temperature.
b) Type of motion (rotary or slide movement).
c) Pressure.
d) The fluid medium used.
7.3 THE FOLLOWING ARE GENERAL TYPES OF PACKING AND SEALS MOST
OFTEN USED IN HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS TODAY.
a) O-ring.
b) Quad - ring.
c) V- packing.
d) Cup - packing
e) U - packing.
f) Common oil seal.
g) Metallic seal
h) Bonded seal (Dowty seal).
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a. O - ring
This is one of the most commonly used seals in hydraulic systems today. It is used
where there is either rotary motion or static sealing. On rotary shafts the seals are
limited to low pressure but on static sealing the pressure can be high.
b. Quad - ring
Static application
The quad - ring is similar to the O - ring. It may be applied over a wide range of
pressures. It is especially useful where lubrication is difficult.
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c. V - packing
V- packing seals are commonly found on hydraulic cylinders and are generally finished in sets.
d. Cup - packing
Cup - packing are used in many areas of high-pressure service. They are generally
used on pistons. They form part of the piston
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e. U - packing
U - packing seals are used as single unit seals, whereas V-packing seals are used in sets.
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g. Metallic seal
The most common example of a metallic seal is the piston rings in an internal
combustion gasoline engine. The metallic seal is useful where the seal is subjected to
extreme heat that would cause even the most exotic rubber or thermoplastic
compounds to fail.
This seal is only used as a static seal. When a hydraulic component is equipped with
straight thread parts and we use a straight thread connector, we can use this seal
between the two surface areas. It becomes tighter as pressure increases.
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7.4 PIPES
Pipes that are used in a hydraulic system consist mainly of two types:
a. Steel pipe
Steel pipes that are used do not have a seam like a water pipe has. For this reason it
can withstand a very high pressure. It can also be bent to any angle and be used
over and over without suffering any leaks
b. RUBBER PIPE
Rubber pipes are used where movement exists on cylinders or other parts. This type
of pipe consists of layers of rubber reinforced by layers of wire mesh. The more
layers of wire, the more pressure it can withstand.
Symbol
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Under the term 'piping', connections are also dealt with. The next sketch shows how
the screw thread on the ends of piping and inside components are cut to give strength
and good sealing. The thread tapers to the front and a space can be left between the
crown and base of the thread or it can be made so that the crown of the male thread
cuts in on the base of the female thread to give excellent sealing.
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Next we look at some connections used to link pipes and components in a hydraulic system.
We also make use of components and connections that do not use thread for sealing,
as shown in the next sketch.
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When a system uses pipes thicker than 90 mm we join them by means of flanges, as
shown in the following sketch.
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8 BASIC SYMBOLS
Although we are only going to discuss the operation of equipment, it includes basic
hydraulics and all types of pumps, motors and controls.
Hydraulic pipes, tubes and fluid passages are drawn as single lines. There are three
basic classifications.
a) A working line (solid) carries the main stream of flow in the system.
b) A pilot line (long dashes) carries fluid that is used to control the operation of a
valve or other component.
c) A drain line (short dashes) carries leakage oil back to the reservoir.
d) Rubber pipe.
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Crossings Connections
A circle is the basic symbol for rotating components. Energy triangles in the circle
indicate whether it is a pump or a motor. When the energy triangle points to the
outside, it indicates a pump. That displaces fluid. When it points to the inside, it
indicates a hydraulic motor that receives fluid.
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Hydraulic pumps
Hydraulic motors
8.5 CYLINDERS
A cylinder is drawn as a rectangle with indications of a piston, piston rod and port
connection. A single acting cylinder is shown open at the rod end with a cap end port
connection. A double acting cylinder appears closed with two ports.
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8.6 VALVES
The basic symbol for a valve is square. Arrows are added to the squares to show
paths and direction of flow.
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The reservoir is drawn as a rectangle. It is open at the top for a vented reservoir and
closed for a pressurized reservoir.
Connecting lines are drawn to the bottom when the lines terminate below the fluid
level in the tank. If a line terminates above the fluid level, it is drawn to the top of the
symbol.
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9 RESERVOIRS
9.1 Reservoir
The filler hole is provided with a fine mesh screen to keep out dirt. A vented breather
cap is used on most reservoirs and should also contain an air filter screen. The filter in
the filler hole must be able to filtrate the same size particles as the filters in the
system.
A baffle plate extends length ways through the center of the tank. It is usually about
2/3 the height of the oil level and is used to separate inlet line from the return line so
that the same fluid cannot re-circulate continuously but must take a route through the
tank.
Pump inlet and return lines must be well below the fluid level, otherwise the oil may
become aerated and foam.
Lines that terminate near the tank bottom and are not equipped with strainers should
be cut at a 45 degree angle.
This prevents the line opening from resting on the bottom of the tank and cutting off
the flow.
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9.3 RESERVOIR
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With a pressurized type of sealed reservoir, direct pressurization of air above the fluid
in a simple tank can lead to super-saturation of the fluid with dissolved air, which is
subsequently released in some other part of the system.
The reason for pressurized reservoirs is to exercise a higher pressure on the fluid at
the pump inlet.
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Fluid samples can be withdrawn from the system to check the amount of
contamination. These samples must be taken while the system is working. In case of
doubt, separate samples can be withdrawn from different parts of the system.
Fluid samples may be submitted to a laboratory for testing. The laboratory must know
the original specification of the oil in order to interpret the test data.
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Introduction
Here are some of the methods currently used in selecting the size, location and rating
of a filter in a hydraulic system. Experience has shown that many of these filtration
systems do not achieve the desired results and increasing demands for systems with
higher efficiently and longer component life that are demanded.
When a system is designed there must be decided on the location of the filter and the
choice may well be influenced by a filter supplier who claims that their particular line
filter, bent inlet pressure or return will provide the best solution. This is indeed
unfortunate as most of the manufactures data is extracted from test data which bears
little resemblance to the operating conditions found in actual practice.
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The filter must keep the hydraulic fluid in the system clean, but must have no
influence on the flow rate of the fluid.
Filters, which could be made of many materials other than wire screen, are rated by
micron size (one micron 0,001 mm).
For comparison, a grain of salt is about 70 micron across. The smallest particle a
sharp eye can see is about 40 microns.
Inlet line filtration protects the circuit from all contamination returned from the system,
present in the tank, or added to the tank with make-up fluid but it does not protect
valves from pump generated contaminants.
Cavitation damage and excessive noise can result from an inadequate pressure at the
pump inlet. Some types of pumps are more sensitive to inlet conditions than others
but all pumps become more critical as the speed increases.
It is important that any filter and it's associated pipe work in the Suction Line is large
enough to pass the full pump demand within the inlet depression permitted for that
pump and this pressure drop must not be exceeded when the filter is partially blocked
and bye-passing.
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Some inlet filters can be easily serviced. However, incorrect reassembly of the
access cover can sometimes result in air ingress which often goes undetected and
which can be harmful to the pump and cause erratic system operation.
In the case of the filter shown in the sketch, readings can only be taken while system
is in operation.
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Because Pressure Line filters have to withstand the full system pressure with an
adequate margin of safety, there is a tendency to make these small, thus reducing
their contaminant holding capacity. Unless bye-passing arrangements have been
made, cleaning them involves stopping the system and this operation often allows free
air into the system, which must be cleared out before the system can be put back into
operation. The use of Pressure Line filters should normally be confined to giving
special protection to a single unit where failure of such a unit, for example a servo
valve, may be extremely expensive. In this case it is essential to provide the filter with
an indicator that will give adequate warning of a partially blocked filter element as a
bye pass cannot be tolerated.
One often overlooked factor is that a filter fitted in the inlet line to a servo valve does
not protect the unit from contaminants engrossed by a controlled cylinder and the
protection of a valve from this contaminant source involves the use of complex bi-
directional filters.
In many applications, Pressure Line filters are subject to mechanical vibration and to
abrupt changes of flow rate which reduces their performance.
For practical reasons, a low, pressure return filter is often the most economic
arrangement that can provide a satisfactory solution but it must be noted that a Return
Line filter does not protect the system from environmental dirt which enters the
reservoir via breathers or during topping up. Installing filters in return lines where high
surges are anticipated should be avoided.
The flow capacity of Return Line filters must take into account flows in excess of pump
output such as the exhaust from the head end of differential cylinders.
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The term full flow applied to a filter means that all the flow into the filter inlet port
passes through the filtering element. In most full flow filters however, there is bypass
valves present to open at a given pressure drop and divert flow past the filter element.
This prevents a dirty element from restricting flow.
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A proportional flow filter may utilize the Ventury effect to filter a portion of the fluid
flow. The oil can flow in either direction. As it passes through the filter body, a venturi
throat causes an increase in velocity and a decrease in pressure. The pressure
difference forces some of the oil through the element to rejoin the main stream at the
venturi.
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12. PUMPS
The pump is the heart of the hydraulic system. It converts work applied to its drive
shaft into energy in the fluid. This energy is converted back into useful work on an
object or load when transmitted to the working element of the system. Pumps are
either of the positive displacement or the non-positive displacement type.
The volume of a hydrodynamic pump does not change during the pumping cycle.
They rely on other means of imparting energy to the fluid. Most common of these are
centrifugal pumps.
This type of pump cannot generate the high pressure needed in hydraulic systems. A
seal cannot be formed between the housing and the impeller in the pump. As soon as
pressure starts to build up at the outlet of the pump, the fluid will just mill around in the
housing.
12.2 Cavitation
When any type of pump starts to rotate, a "vacuum" is created at the inlet side. Liquid
vaporizes in a "vacuum". This puts "gas bubbles" in the fluid. The bubbles are
carried through the pump. When exposed to load pressure at the outlet, the bubbles
collapse with considerable force causing damage to the pump.
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A partial vacuum is created at the inlet of the pump. A partial vacuum means any
pressure lower than atmospheric pressure.
A positive displacement - or hydrostatic pump displaces the full (95%) volume of fluid
in the pump with every stroke, revolution or cycle and can maintain a constant
pressure.
In this type of pump the gears, valves or pistons fit tightly against the case or cylinder
block. This will help the oil to form a seal and we get a positive displacement.
Nearly all pumps used in fluid power units are positive displacement pumps.
a. Gear pumps.
b. Vane pumps.
c. Piston pumps.
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The basic gear pump consists of two meshed gears, a case or housing surrounding
the gears and two covering plates that enclose the ends of the gears. Each gear is
mounted on a shaft, which is supported on bearings in the covers. One of these
shafts, the drive shaft, extends out through one of the covers and is coupled to a
driver like an electrical motor.
The pumping action occurs as follows: The space between the teeth of two of the gear
teeth of one gear is filled by a tooth of the other gear. As the meshed gears rotate,
one tooth space after another is left open. Atmospheric pressure forces oil through
the port located at that point into the tooth space. This tooth space full of oil is carried
around the periphery of the gear until the teeth again mesh. At this time the oil is
forced out of the space by the meshing tooth and flows out of the port located at that
side of the mesh points. The elimination of the space prevents oil from crossing over
to the intake side and thus the pump dispels one toothful of oil per tooth per
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revolution. Without a downstream restriction it can be seen that the pump would
merely transfer fluid from one side to the other at zero pressure.
Positive pressure is created only when a restriction is encountered
Of all hydraulic pumps, gear pumps are by far the most common. This is probably
because they are simple to design and the least sensitive to dirt and are also the
easiest to manufacture.
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The main parts of a vane pump are the rotor, the vanes and the cam ring. These
pieces are surrounded by a front and rear cover casting, which contains the inlet and
discharge parts.
The rotor as its names implies, is the rotating element. A short cylindrical piece with
radial slots cut in it; the rotor is usually driven by driver shaft. The radial slots vary
according to the size of the rotor. The most common number of slots seems to be 10
and 12.
The vane is a flat rectangular piece as long as the rotor is wide. It is thick enough to
fit closely in the slot provided, yet is able to slide freely. Each radial slot carries a
vane.
The cam ring is the surrounding housing for the rotor and vanes. The word 'cam' is
derived for the action of the interior surface of the piece, which performs a camming
function on the vanes. Broadly described the cam surface is an oval-shaped hole in
the center of the rotor.
With the rotor set on the drive shaft, the vanes in the slots of the rotor and the cam
ring surrounding the shaft is rotated. Rotation imparts centrifugal force to the vanes,
moving them radially outward in their slots until their tips (or edges) contact the cam
surface. As the rotor turns the vane tips will traverse the curve of the cam surface.
As each vane makes this traverse it slides partially out of the slot in the rotor and back
in again.
It will be noted that like the vanes, following the cam surface, the volume enclosed by
the cam surface, the two vanes and the rotor starts essentially on zero and grows
larger. Atmospheric pressure forces oil into the vacated area as the cam surface
recedes from the rotor.
The pressure also acts at the bottom of the vane and helps the vane and oil to from a
seal against the cam ring.
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In axial piston pumps, the cylinder block and drive shaft are on the same center line
and the pistons reciprocate parallel to the drive shaft.
The cylinder block in this pump is turned by the drive shaft. Pistons fitted to bores in
the cylinder are connected through piston shoes and a retracting ring, so that the
shoes bear against an angled swash plate.
As the block turns the piston shoes follow the swash plate causing the pistons to
reciprocate. The ports are arranged in the valve plate so that the pistons pas the inlet
as they are pulled out and pas the outlet as they are forced in.
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Displacement
In these pumps the displacement is determined by the size and the number of pistons
X length of the stroke RPM
In the variable displacement inline piston pump, the swash plate is installed in a
movable yoke. The yoke on pintles changes the swash plate angle to increase or
decrease the piston stroke. The yoke can be operated:
a. Manually;
b. With a compensator control; or
c. By several other means.
Compensator control
Symbol
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The control consists of a compensator valve balanced between load pressure and the
force of a spring, a piston controlled by a valve to move the yoke and a yoke return
spring. With no outlet pressure, the yoke return spring moves the yoke to the full
delivery position. As pressure builds up it acts against the end of the valve spool.
When the pressure is high enough to overcome the valve spring, the spool is
displaced and oil enters the yoke piston. The oil under pressure forces the piston to
decrease the pump displacement. If the pressure decreases, the spool moves back,
oil is discharged from the inside of the pump case and the spring returns to the yoke
to a greater angle.
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The compensator this adjusts the pump outlet to whatever is required to develop and
maintain present pressure. This prevents power loss by avoiding relief valve
operation at full pump volume during holding or clamping.
In a radial pump the cylinder block rotates on a stationary pintle in which the inlet and
outlet ports are. The piston fits in the cylinder block and can slide or and move in and
out. The top part of the piston is connected to a reaction ring and slides in the
reaction ring.
The cylinder block is offset from the case. As the cylinder block rotates the pistons will
move in and out (because the block is offset from the case). As the pistons
reciprocate in their bores, porting in the pintle permits them to take in fluid as they
move outward and discharge it as they move in.
The size, number of pistons and the length of their stroke X RPM also determine
displacement.
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13 HYDRAULIC MOTORS
The pressure of the fluid will determine the torque of the motor and the volume supply
(liters/minute) will determine the speed (RPM).
If the pressure remains constant and the volume changes, the speed of the motor will
change but the torque will remain constant.
NB. The energy triangle points inwards, which means the motor is receiving energy to rotate.
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Motors and pumps provide the torque force in fluid power. Hydraulic cylinders
produce the linear force. These are the two principle methods used to produce useful
work.
Cylinders are constructed in a wide variety to meet the needs of various fluid power
systems. Special sizes and designs are manufactured to meet specific requirements
of a machine or a circuit.
TYPES
Basic cylinder design consists of a piston and rod, which are forced by fluid to travel in
the cylinder. Five basic types are available.
1. Single acting.
2. Double acting.
4. Telescopic.
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In single acting cylinders the load moves the cylinder piston in one direction while the
fluid from the pump is used to actuate movement in the other direction. These
cylinders may by operated horizontally if a spring is installed either in the rod end of
the cylinder or externally.
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They are the type most commonly used. The piston and rod are moved by the fluid,
which is either directed to the cover or to the rod end. During one direction of travel
the fluid from the opposite end is returned to the tank.
They are used when work must be performed at both ends of the cylinder. The
cylinder is the same as the double acting cylinder except that two rod ends are used.
These cylinders have the same speed of piston travel in both directions as well as
similar maximum force capacity in both directions.
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They are used where initial length is limited and long rod travel is required.
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Cylinder cushions are often attached to a piston rod to decrease the speed near the
end of the stroke and prevent the piston from hammering against the end cap.
Deceleration begins when the tapered cushion plunger enters the cap and begins to
restrict exhaust flow from the barrel port. During the final fraction of the stroke, the
exhaust oil must discharge through and adjustable orifice. The cushion feature also
includes a check value to bypass the orifice on the return stroke.
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Single acting
Double acting
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14.8 COOLER
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15 CHECK VALVES
Valves of this kind permit flow in only one direction. They close against reverse flow
ceases. The force of the liquid in motion opens the valve, and it is closed by back
flow. It may be closed by the action of a spring or by gravity. If no spring is installed,
this valve should be installed so that gravity assists closure.
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Pilot operated check valves are designed to permit free flow in one direction and to
block return flow, until opened by a pilot pressure signal.
They can be used to support vertical pistons which otherwise might drift downward
(due to leakage) past the directional valve spool.
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Symbol
2/2 way cartridge valves, often called 'logic elements' comprise a cartridge assembly
with a cover (1) and the control bores. the cartridge assembly is made up of a bush
(2) with a poppet surface and an opening or closing port (3) (called hereafter 'valve
poppet' )'which is generally held on its seat by a spring.
Oil can flow through the valve from port A (on bottom) to port B (on the side) or from B
to A. According to the control, the cartridge valve is either open or blocked for the flow
direction, ie the switching position is dependent only on the pressure conditions at this
element.
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The valve poppet is graded, so that there are three important surfaces for the function.
The connection can be clearly explained using the sectional diagram.
Surface A/1(at the seat) is regarded as 100%. The annulus area A/2 occurring due to
the grading, is 7% or 50% of the surface A/1, depending on the model.
Volume control
Directional control
Pressure control
Check valve
Symbol
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Directional valves, as the name implies, are used to control the direction of flow.
Though sharing this common function, directional valves vary considerably in
construction and operation. They are classified according to their principle
characteristics, such as:
The rotary spool can be turned clock or anti-clock wise (rotary motion) to
change the flow path.
b. Methods of operation
i.e. what methods do we use to move the spool.
A Manual.
B Mechanical.
C Electric solenoid
D Hydraulic pressure (Pilot operated).
d. Size
Size of pipe connections to valve or its mounting place and/or rate 6 liter/min
or g/pm.
e. Number or ports
Some manufacturers classify their valves according to the number of ports
and not according to the number of flow paths.
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Each square block indicates a position; there are two squares which indicate
positions.
4/2, way
The pump inlet port "P" can be directed to either outlet port "A" or "B".
In the four-way valve the alternate port is open to the tank port permitting return flow
to the reservoir. In two-way valves the alternate port is blocked and the tank port
serves only to drain leakage from within the valve.
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Most of these valves are the sliding port type, although there are rotary valves used
principally for pilot control.
From this outside view we cannot say if this valve is a two way or four valve.
The two-way version permits selection of two flow paths. In one position, flow is
permitted from the "P" port to the "A" port, in the other position from "P" to "B". The
spool lands block all other ports and passages.
The number of arrows inside the square block show is the number of flow paths inside
the valve.
NB: Some manufacturer will say that this is a two position, four port valve.
e. TWO POSITION FOUR WAY 4/2 WAY
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The spool type four way valve as shown is identical to the two-way valve, except for
the machining of the spool lands. The land width is reduced to uncover the "T" port
(tank) in the extreme position and allow return flow to tank.
In a hydraulic diagram one never draws the outside view of a valve because from that
view we cannot say how many flow paths there are. It is much easier to draw the
graphical symbol.
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This valve is also known as two position, four port directional Control valve.
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In the one position flow is from P to A and form B to T. In the other position flow will be from P
and B and A to T.
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The spool is shifted by hand to both positions and it held in position by spring-loaded
detents.
Most three-position valves are available with a variety of interchangeable spools. All of
the four way spools provide identical flow patterns in the shifted positions, with
different centered conditions as illustrated.
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The open center type interconnects all ports and the pump delivery can flow to tank at
low pressure.
The closed circuit has all ports blocked, so that the pump delivery may be used for
other operations within the circuit, otherwise it is forced over the relief valve.
Other center conditions permit blocking of selected ports with others open. The
tandem type has both cylinder ports blocked in neutral, but the pressure port is open
to tank.
We can use the same valve body to obtain another center condition by merely
changing the sliding spool.
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For large fluid volumes we need large valves and valve spools. These large valve
spools are too big to be shifted by solenoid though they could be shifted hydraulically.
We then need a pilot spool to direct pilot pressure to shift the large spool. This pilot
spool is small and can be shifted by solenoid.
The pilot spool gets its pressure through an internal passage from the 'P' port of the
main valve. Normally we only draw the symbol for a pilot operated, solenoid control
valve as follows.
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b. Pilot choke
A pilot choke may be incorporated to slow the spool travel for smoother reversals or
provide a brief time delay or dwell period before the actuator is reversed. The pilot
choke in effect functions as a meter out restriction valve.
c. Symbol
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Pressure control valves perform functions such as limiting maximum system pressure
or regulating reduced pressure in certain portions of a circuit.
Their operation is based on a balance between pressure and spring force. Most are
infinite positioning, that is, the valves can assume various positions between closed
and fully open.
Pressure controls are usually names for their primary function, such as relief valve,
brake valve, etc. They are classified according to type of connections. Size and
pressure operation range.
The relief valve is found in virtually every hydraulic system. They are normally closed
valves connected between the pressure line (pump outlet) and the reservoir tank. Its
purpose is to limit pressure in the system to a pre-set maximum by diverting some or
all of the pumps output to tank when the pressure setting is reached.
A simple or direct acting relief valve as shown, may consist of nothing but a ball or
poppet held seated in the valve body by a heavy spring. When pressure at the inlet is
insufficient to overcome the force of the spring, the valve remains closed. When the
preset pressure is reached, the ball or poppet is forced off its seat and allows flow
through the outlet to tank for as long as pressure is maintained.
In most of these valves, an adjusting screw is provided to vary the spring force. Thus
the valve can be set to open at any pressure within the specified range.
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A compound relief valve as shown operates in two stages. The pilot stage in the
upper valve body contains the pressure-limiting valve, a poppet held against a seat by
an adjustable spring. The port connections are made to the lower body and the
balanced piston in the lower body accomplishes diversion of the full flow volume.
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When pressure reaches the setting of the adjustable spring, the poppet is forced off its
seat, limiting pressure in the upper chamber.
The restricted flow through the orifice into the upper chamber results in an increase in
pressure in the lower chamber. This unbalances the hydraulic forces and tends to
raise the piston off its seat. Increased flow through the valve causes the piston to lift
further off it seat but since this compresses only the light spring very little over ride is
encountered.
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Compound relief valves may be remotely controlled by means of an outlet port from
the chamber above the piston. When this chamber is 'vented' to tank, the only force
holding the piston its seat is that of the light spring and the valve will open fully on a
very low pressure (unloading).
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A counter balance valve is used to maintain control over a vertical cylinder so that it
will not fall freely because of gravity. The primary port of the valve is connected to the
lower cylinder port and the secondary port to the directional control valve.
The pressure setting is slightly higher than is required to hold the load from falling.
When the pump delivery is directed to the top of the cylinder, the cylinder piston is
forced down causing pressure at the primary port to increase and raise the spool,
opening a flow path for discharge through the secondary port to the direction valve
and subsequently to the tank.
When the cylinder is raised the integral check valve opens to permit free flow for
returning the cylinder.
The first phase (primary line) always requires a lower pressure to operate than the
secondary line.
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Construction differs from the relief valve, in the sense that the drain passage from the
pilot stage is external rather than through the stem of the balanced piston. In
operation the primary system passage is connected to the bottom port. Sequencing
occurs when the primary system pressure is about 20 psi higher than the pilot valve
cracking pressure.
Pressure reducing valves are normally- open pressure controls used to maintain
reduced pressures in certain parts of the system.
They are activated by pressure sensed in the branch circuit and tend to close as it
reaches the valve setting, thus preventing further pressure buildup.
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This valve can be used to load (charging) an accumulator. When the pressure
reaches the maximum setting of the valve, the pilot pressure will lift the spool and the
pump delivery will go back to tank.
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A brake valve is used in the exhaust line of a hydraulic motor to prevent over
speeding when an overrunning load is applied to the motor shaft and to
prevent pressure buildup when decelerating or stopping a load.
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Volume or flow control valves are used to regulate the speed of a piston or a motor. It
is possible to regulate flow with a variable displacement pump, but in many circuits it
is more practical to use a fixed displacement pump and regulate flow with a volume
control valve.
By making the orifice smaller the flow becomes less and the speed will be slower.
By making the orifice bigger the flow increases and the speed will be faster.
There are three basic methods of applying volume control valves to control actuator
speeds.
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a. METER-IN CIRCUIT
In meter-in operation, the flow control valve is placed between the pump and cylinder.
In this way, it controls the amount of fluid entering the cylinder.
Pump delivery in excess of the metered amount is diverted to tank over the relief
valve. With the flow control valve installed in the cylinder line, flow is controlled in one
direction. A check valve must be included in the flow control or placed parallel with it
for return flow.
If it is desired to control speed in both directions, the flow control can be installed in
the pump outlet line before the directional valve.
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b. METER-OUT CIRCUIT
Meter-out control valve is used where the load might tend to run away. The flow
control is located where it will resist exhaust flow from the cylinder.
To regulate speed in both directions, the valve is installed in the tank line from the
directional valve. More frequent control is needed in only one direction and it is
placed in the line between the cylinder and directional valve.
Here too a by-pass check- valve is required for a rapid return stroke.
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c. BLEED-OFF CIRCUIT.
In a bleed-off arrangement the flow control is teed off the supply line from the pump
and determines the piston speed by metering a portion of the pump delivery back to
the tank.
The advantage is that the pump operates to the tank through the flow control instead
of through the relief valve.
Bleed-off circuits should not be used where there is a possibility of the load running
away.
Flow through a pressure compensated flow control valve is subject to change with
variations in oil temperature.
Although oil flows more freely when it is hot, constant flow can be maintained by
decreasing the size of the throttle opening as the temperature rises. This is
accomplished through a compensating rod, which lengthens with heat and contracts
when cold. The throttle is a simple plunger that is moved in and out of the control
port.
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These valves can also be equipped with a restrictor, which maintains a constant flow
across the valve. In this valve the balanced piston is normally opened and tends to
close off, blocking all flow in excess of the throttle setting. In this unit, the workload
pressure acts with a light spring above the balanced piston to hold it open.
Pressure at the throttle inlet and under the balanced piston tends to close it, permitting
only oil to tender the valve for the required force through the throttle.
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A servo valve is a valve, which can be shifted to an infinite number of positions. This
valve can, not only regulate the direction of oil flow but can also control the flow rate.
The control lever is fastened onto the spool of the valve, while the valve itself is
fastened to the load that must be moved. Therefore the valve body moves with the
load.
When the lever is actuated, oil is sent to a cylinder, which moves the load in the same
direction in which the spool was moved. The valve now follows the load. Flow will
continue to the cylinder until such time when the valve body catches up on the spool.
The effect of this is that the load will move according to the distance the spool has
been moved. A common use for this valve is in power steering on motor vehicles.
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The torque motor will, therefore react according to the signal supplied, and
will shift the spool of the valve.
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This valve uses a flapper actuated by an electrical coil. This flapper increases or
decrease the opening above the orifice in the valve, according to the intensity of the
electric impulse supplied to the coil.
This changes in the size of the opening can alter the amount of flow or pressure
leaving the valve.
This valve, however can only be used to handle small quantities of fluid.
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This servo valve uses a spool that is shifted hydraulically. It also includes return
springs to keep the spool centered.
The distance the spool will move depends on the force applied to the ends. Inside the
valve is a jet pipe with an orifice on the end. This pipe sends a constant flow of oil
under pressure into a receiver. The receiver has two outlet ports, connected to both
ends of the spool.
The pressure on both sides of the spool is the same as long as the jet pipe is in the
center of the receiver. An electric coil receiving an electric signal can however pull the
jet pipe to one side or the other. The movement of the jet pipe then allows more
pressure on one side of the spool than on the other and so the spool moves over.
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20 ACCUMULATORS
Accumulators are used when a large volume of fluid is required at certain stages of
the working cycle, when the accumulator helps the pump to deliver the required
volume.
Secondly it can be used to hold pressure in the system or part of the system when the
pump is used to do work in others parts of the system. Thirdly, it acts as a cushion to
absorb shocks coming from the cylinders.
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In this case the fluid lifts up a piston onto which a series of weights are stacked.
Weights can be added or taken away to suit the required pressures. Pressure in these
types stays the same from top to bottom.
Disadvantages:
The only disadvantage is that they are big and take up a lot of area.
Here the fluid compresses a spring when entering the accumulator. When required,
the spring on it's turn exercises pressure on the fluid.
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In this case the fluid compresses a gas. The accumulator is pre-charged with dry nitrogen.
In spring and gas type accumulators, the pressure drops as the accumulator becomes
empty.
It is important to select a pressure volume relationship such that no more than 2/3 of
the oil is ever used in the operation of the no-separator type. This is to avoid
accidental discharge of gas into the system.
As a word of caution the accumulator must be clocked out of the circuit or completely
discharged before attempting to disconnect any hydraulic lines. Never try to
disassemble an accumulator without releasing the pre charge gas, weights or springs.
The gas pre-charge pressure is invariable much lower than the fluid pressure and
compression ratios of up to 5 : 1 may be achieved according to the particular
requirements of the installation. Nominal maximum working pressure with this type of
bag accumulator is commonly 3 000 PSI or 217 Pa.
For long service life for the bladder the minimum pre-charge pressure must be ± 75%
or more of the system pressure.
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20.2 HOW TO FILL THE GAS BAG OF THE GAS TYPE ACCUMULATOR
1. Switch off power supply and do lock out according to the correct procedure.
2. Put danger card on
3. Close valve no 1
4. Open valve no 2 slowly
5. Do inspection
6. Connect nitrogen pipe to valve no 3
7. Open valve no 3 and fill the gas bag 2/3 of system pressure with nitrogen
8. Close valve no 3
9. Clean system
10. Do inspection
11. Close valve no 2
12. Open valve no 1 slowly
13. Remove danger card
14. Remove lock- out device
An accumulator, connected directly to a fluid line and intended only to absorb shock
waves can normally be charged to some value near the expected working pressure.
This means that the magnitude of the shock will be near or above the normal working
pressure. The shock absorbing action of the accumulator should be such that it will
not absorb needed energy during the working cycle. A high charge in the gas
chamber will prevent loss of energy at critical periods in the work cycle. The waves to
be absorbed should be in the highest pressure range in most circuits.
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A check valve with an integral orifice in the poppet may be used to permit a shock to
pass virtually unrestrained into the accumulator. The energy trapped in the
accumulator is returned to the circuit through the orifice in the poppet at a controlled
rate. This in effect, is similar to the shock absorber used on mobile equipment.
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21 Accumulator systems
a To hold pressure
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b To absorb shocks
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e Accumulator unloading
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22 HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
a Meter in system
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i Hydraulic press
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j Braking system
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l Regenerated system
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(Mechanical)
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LOWER OR MECHANICALLY
SECURE ALL SUSPENDED LOADS
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24 TROUBLE SHOOTING
If a mechanical fault is suspected in a pump, it can simply be checked by switching off the
electric motor and then turning the pump by hand. Any excessive tightness or non smooth rotation is
a certain indication of an internal mechanical fault or damage to the pump or it's bearings. If the pump
motion is smooth, but when connected and run, the pump is noisy, it will be most likely due to
cavitation. Cavitation can be caused by starvation of fluid on the pump inlet side.
Check
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d Airation of fluid
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Basically the most straight forward method is usually to 'read back' from the actuator involved
to establish the point at which the lack of behaviour or control is initiated, ignoring those components
not directly concerned with the function which is at fault.
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e Mechanical vibration
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