HiT Hydraulic and water recourses Engineering

Hydropower plants convert the potential energy of water (water falling over a distance or head) into
mechanical energy (rotation of the turbine shaft). This shaft in turn is connected to the shaft of an electric
generator to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.
If the quantity of water available for the production of power is designated as Q and the vertical distance
available is measured as H, the theoretical water power due to a quantity of water (Q) falling H,
 P = QρgH, where P-water power, Q–discharge and H–Head.

Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region generating 32 percent of global
hydropower in 2010. China is the largest hydroelectricity producer, with 721 terawatt-hours of production
in 2010, representing around 17 percent of domestic electricity use. There are now three hydroelectricity
plants larger than 10 GW: the Three Gorges Dam in China, Itaipu Dam in Brazil, and Guri Dam in Venezuela.

Hydropower
How Hydropower Works
Hydropower plants capture the energy of falling water
to generate electricity. A dam impounds water to form a
reservoir and raises the water level to create head.
Reservoir Turbine Power

Water from the Turbine is Power

reservoir flows connected to generated is
due to gravity to a generator. transmitted over
drive the turbine.
power lines.

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO HYDROPOWER

1.1. Introduction
Power is a very important infrastructure of the overall development of nation. A higher level of economic
development can only be obtained with the development of power resources. Electrical power finds
numeral use in homes industries, agriculture and etc. the process of modernization increases in
productivity in industry and agriculture & improvement increases in the quality of file of people all
depend so much on the supply of power.

1.2. Sources of Energy

We use many different energy sources to do work for us. The main sources of energy include the sun,
wind, geothermal, biogas, ocean tides, water, fuels and radio- active substances. The last three sources,
i.e. Water, Fuels and Radio- active substances are the most commonly used sources for generation of
energy and are usually called Conventional Sources of energy contribute about 30, 64, and 5 percent
respectively of the present electrical energy generation in the world. The other sources are also valuable
but in comparisons with the quantum of energy produced by the three main sources, their contribution is
negligible and they are often called Unconventional Sources.

Energy sources can also be classified into two groups nonrenewable and renewable. Coal, petroleum,
natural gas, propane, and uranium are nonrenewable energy sources. They are used to make electricity, to
heat homes, to move cars, and to manufacture all kinds of products. These energy sources are called
nonrenewable because their supplies are limited. Petroleum, for example, was formed millions of years
ago from the remains of ancient sea plants and animals. We cannot make more petroleum in a short time.
Renewable energy sources include biomass, geothermal energy, hydropower, solar energy, and wind
energy. They are called renewable energy sources because they are replenished in a short time. Day after
day the sun shines, the wind blows, and the rivers flow. We use renewable energy sources mainly to make
electricity.

In 2006, about 18% of global total energy consumption came from renewable, with 13% coming from
traditional biomass, such as wood-burning and 3% from hydroelectricity. For example in USA, according
to the energy consumption by source (2009), 91.9% is from nonrenewable, 8.1% is from renewable,
36.5% is from petroleum, 24.7% is from natural gas, 20.9% is from coal, 8.8% is from uranium, 4.1% is
from biomass and 2.8% is from hydropower.

1.3. Conventional sources of Energy and its Importance

A conventional source includes Thermal power, Hydropower and nuclear power.
1.3.1. Introduction to Conventional sources of Energy

a. WATER (HYDROPOWER)
Water at high pressure or flowing with a high velocity can be used to run turbines or water wheels
coupled to generators, and therefore, for generation of electric power. This method of generating electric

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power is well established as one of the principal energy producing technologies around the world. It is
widely acclaimed as the cleanest and cheapest of all energy forms.

b. Fuels (Thermal power)

Fuels such as coal, Oil, and natural gases the most commonly used sources of energy. Coal is available in
huge quantities in many steam so produced is utilized in steam turbines coupled to generators and
therefore, for generation of electric power, oil, acing costly, is used for power production only where
small power is required, for instance, as stand- by power stations. Natural gases available in large
quantities can be used to run gas engines or turbines or can be burnt to produce steam and steam turbines
can thereafter to produce power.
1. Coal
Coal is a major conventional energy sources. It was formed from the remains of the trees and ferns grew
in swamps around 500 million year ago. The bacterial and chemical decomposition of such plant debris
(which remained buried under water or clay) produced an intermediate product known as peat which is
mainly cellulose (C6H10O5)n. Due to progressive decomposition by heat and pressure, the cellulose lost
moisture H2 and Oz and got converted in to coal as per the given equation

The average formula of coal is (C3/H4/)n. Out of the 6000 billion tons coal stocks under earth crust, 200
tons have been exploited the present society.
2. Petroleum and natural gases
Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons, mostly alkanes and cycloalkanes. It occurs below the
earth crust entrapped under rocky strata. In its crude form, the viscous black liquid is known as petroleum
and a gas in contact with petroleum layer which flows naturally from oil wells is termed as natural gases.
The composition of natural gas is a mixture of mainly methane, (95.0%), small amounts of ethane,
propane and butane (3.6%) and traces of CO2 (0.48%) and N2 (1.92%).
A liquid mixture of propane and butane can be obtained from natural gas or refinery gases at room
temperature under a pressure of 3-5 atmosphere. This is stored and distributed in 40-100 litre capacity
steel cylinders.
The crude petroleum after being refined and purified, are available as petrol, diesel, kerosene, lubricating
oil, plastic etc. for commercial and domestic use.
On the world basis, petroleum deposits are found at Saudi Arab, Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, USA, Mexico, Russia
etc. As per the current survey, it is found that world petroleum deposits are diminishing at a very faster
rate. If preventive steps are not taken, the existing petroleum will be available maximum up to 40 years.

c. Nuclear power - Radio – Active Substances

Tremendous amount of heat energy can be by fission of nuclear disintegration of uranium and other
similar fissionable materials. the heat energy so liberated in atomic reactors is extracted by pumping
fluid or molten metal like liquid sodium or gas through the pile The heated exchanger by circulation On
the heat exchanger the gas is heated or steam is generated which is utilized to derive gas or steam
turbines coupled with generators there by generating electrical energy.

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1.3.2. The Importance of Conventional sources of Energy: Advantage & Disadvantage

1. Thermal power
Thermal Power Plant Consist of following Parts: Boiler, Turbine, Deaerator, Heat Exchangers, Super
Heater, Economizers, Condenser, Feed water heater, Electrical generator.
 ADVANTAGES OF THERMAL POWER PLANT:
 Fuel used is cheaper.
 Less space required in setup in comparison to hydroelectric power plant.
 They can be located conveniently near the load Centre.
 A portion of steam generated can be used as a process steam in different industries.
 As these plants can be set up near industries, therefore the transmission costs are reduced.

 DISADVANTAGES OF THERMAL POWER PLANT:

Maintenance & operating costs are high.

Cost of plant increases with increase in temperature & pressure.
Long time required for erection & putting into action.
Greatly difficulty experienced in cool handling.
Presence of troubles due to smoke & heat in the plant.
Smoke & gaseous emission cause pollution in the environment.

2. Nuclear Power Plant

The Nuclear power plant converts nuclear energy into electrical energy. Nuclear power reactors or
nuclear power plants create electricity by combining chemical reactions and heat. Nuclear fission: The
fuel most widely used by nuclear power plants for nuclear fission is uranium. In nuclear fission, a small
particle called a neutron hits the uranium atom and it splits, releasing a great amount of energy as heat and
radiation. As more neutrons are released they bombard other uranium atoms, and the process of nuclear
fission repeats itself over and over again. This is called a chain reaction. Nuclear plants use the heat given
off during fission as fuel. Fission takes place inside the reactor of a nuclear power plant.

 Components of nuclear power plant: Nuclear Reactor, Control rods, Steam turbine, Steam
Generator, Coolant pump, feed pump, Condenser, Cooling tower
 Advantages of nuclear power plant:
 It avoids the wide variety of environmental problems arising from burning fossil fuels - coal, oil, and gas.
 It is possible to generate a high amount of electrical energy in one single plant using small
amount of fuel.
 Nuclear power is reliable. This technology is readily a available.
 Produces small amounts of waste.
 Nuclear power is also not as expensive as compare to power from coal.

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 DISADVANTAGES OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT:

 The problem of radioactive waste is still an unsolved one.

 High risks: It is technically impossible to build a plant with 100% security.
 The energy source for nuclear energy is Uranium. Uranium is a scarce resource; its supply is
estimated to last only for the next 30 to 60 years depending on the actual demand.

3. THE HYDROPOWER

Hydropower generation is much better suited to meet demands for peak load. The ability to start quickly and adjust
to rapid changes in load adjustments makes hydroelectric plants particularly suitable for responding to peak loads. If
operating at less than full load, hydroelectric power plants can often respond very rapidly to sudden demands for
increased power.

Operating hydropower plants emit minimal amounts of airborne pollutants. As countries grapple with
reducing emissions of greenhouse gases, hydropower can provide a significant energy alternative and
displace other, more polluting forms of electricity generation. Other positive influences of hydropower
generation include flood control; navigational improvements on waterways; and vast recreational
opportunities for boating, swimming, fishing, and wildlife enthusiasts.

Hydropower has several advantages over most other sources of electrical power, including a high level of
reliability, very low operating costs, and the ability to easily adjust to load changes. In addition,
hydropower does not contribute to air pollution, and reservoirs can be used for recreation, water supply,
and flood control. However, like all electricity options, hydropower involves trade-offs. Hydropower
dams can cause environmental problems, such as modification of fish habitat through altering of stream
and lake levels. While careful planning and operation of hydropower facilities can minimize environmental
damage, environmental costs may prohibit the development of hydropower in some areas. Hence, it is
possible to summarize the merits and demerits of hydropower scheme:

 MERITS OF HYDROPOWER
Renewable source of energy thereby saves scarce fuel reserves, Economical source of power, Non-polluting
and hence environment friendly, Reliable energy source with approximately 90 percent availability, Low
generation cost compared with other energy sources and cheapest in the long run due to zero fuel component
and as such free from inflationary effects, Indigenous, inexhaustible, perpetual and renewable energy resource.

Hydropower plants make use of water but do not consume it, Helps in management and regulation of
water resources, storage based plants are often of multipurpose concept with incidental benefits of flood
control, irrigation, public water supply, navigation, fishing, tourism etc., Provide employment
opportunities being labour intensive, Lead to development of remote areas where these are generally
located, Afford a degree of independence from costly and at times unreliable supply of imported fuel,
Technically more reliable than many thermal plants. Plant equipment is simple and less complicated than
thermal, nuclear or even diesel power generating equipment, Low operation and maintenance cost,
Better service operation flexibility, the operation of the plant can be matched with load requirements

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 DEMERITS OF HYDROPOWER
Limitations:
 Susceptible to vagaries of nature such as drought,
 Longer construction period which means a disadvantageously freezing of the capital invested,
Breakdown in hydropower equipment may result not only in proportionate reduction in power generation
but also, particularly in case of run -of-river plants, in letting the precious water run waste,
 High initial cost,
 Long term flow data is essential for proper assessment of irrigation and power benefits,
 Loss of large land due to submergence in the reservoir so created, and displacement of large
population from reservoir
 Non-availability of suitable sites for the construction of dam,
 Environmental aspect; reservoir vs. river ecology, and
 High cost of transmission system for remote sites.

1.4. Worldwide Historical Perspectives of Hydropower plants

The Egyptians and Greeks harnessed the power of river currents to turn wheels, grind grain into flour
before 2000 B.C. Romans constructed paddle wheels that turned with the river flow, and lifted water to
troughs built above used a millrace to shoot water over the built for milling grain. James B. Francis, who
built an enclosed waterwheel with adjustable blade or vanes, developed the first modern turbine design in
1849. The first hydroelectric generator built at Niagara Falls, New York, in 1895 produced alternating
current. The installation at Niagara Falls set the standard for other hydroelectric power installations
worldwide.
The development of hydropower accelerated economic growth and contributed to high level of prosperity.
Asia's development of hydropower, particularly in China, eventually exceeded that of North America and
Europe in terms of total installed capacity. Asia, South America and Africa still have vast, untapped
reserves of potential hydropower. As the following table indicates, Europe and North America have
already developed more than 60% of their hydropower potential. In contrast, emerging economies in
Asia, South America, and Africa currently utilize only a small portion of their potential hydropower.
Table 1. Percentage of Hydropower Development in the World (1990) (TWh/year)

S/N Continents Technical Generated in Developed Capacity

Potential 1990 (%)
1 Africa 1344 50 3.7%
2 Asia 4212 387 9.2%
3 Australia 203 38 18.7%
4 Europe 836 483 57.8%
5 North America 969 573 59.1%
6 South America 3486 380 10.9%
7 USSR 2950 223 7.6%
8 World 14000 2134 15.2%

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Table 2. List of largest Hydropower plants

No. Name Country Total Capacity Max annual electricity Area flooded
(MW) production (TW-hour) (km²)
1 Three Gorges Dam China 22,500 80.8 632
2 Itaipu Brazil and 14,000 94.7 1,350
Paraguay
3 Guri Venezuela 10,200 53.41 4,250
4 Tucuruí Brazil 8,370 41.43 3,014
5 Grand Coulee United States 6,809 20
6 Grand Millennium Dam Ethiopia 5,250 Under construction
7 SayanoShushenskaya Russia 6,400 26.8 621
8 Krasnoyarskaya Russia 6,000 20.4 2,000
9 Robert-Bourassa Canada 5,616
10 Churchill Falls Canada 5,429 35 6,988
11 Longtan Dam China 4,900 18.7
12 Bratskaya Russia 4,500 22.6
13 UstIlimskaya Russia 4,320 21.7

Table 3. Ten of the largest hydroelectric producers as at 2009

Country Annual hydroelectric Installed Capacity factor % of total capacity

production (TWh) capacity (GW)
China 652.05 196.79 0.37 22.25
Canada 369.5 88.974 0.59 61.12
Brazil 363.8 69.08 0.56 85.56
USA 250.6 79.511 0.42 5.74
Russia 167 45 0.42 17.64
Norway 140.5 27.528 0.49 98.25
India 115.6 33.6 0.43 15.8
Venezuela 85.96 14.622 0.67 69.2
Japan 69.2 27.229 0.37 7.21
Sweden 65.5 16.209 0.46 44.34

1.5. Hydropower and its development in Ethiopia

The first hydropower plant commissioned in 1939 was Aba Samuel hydropower plant in the AWASH BASIN. The
power plant was storage type with generating capacity of 6.6MW. Presently in Ethiopia, there are two different
power supply systems; Interconnected System (ICS) which is mainly supplied from hydropower plants and Self-
Contained System (SCS), which consists of mini-hydropower plants and a number of isolated diesel generating units
that are widely spread over the country.

The ICS consists of 8 hydro, 10 diesels and 1 geothermal power plant with total installed capacity of 635.35MW,
22.2MW and 7.3MW respectively. However due to ageing of plants the dependable total capacity is only 456.4MW
excluding the newly commissioned Gilgel Gibe hydropower plant and the peak demand is 450MW. Over 98% of the
total generation in the country comes from ICS and the total (ICS &SCS) supply system 99% is from Hydropower.
The SCS consists of three small hydro and several diesel power plants. Generation in this system is mainly by diesel
power plants having an aggregate capacity of 13.86MW. The contribution from the small hydropower plants is only
6.15MW. Two diesel generating stations in the ICS at Alemaya and Dire Dawa with a total installed capacity of 6.5
MW are still operational.

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Table 4. Major Hydro electrical projects in Ethiopia

Name Potential (MW) Name Potential (MW)

Gilgel Gibe I 180 Awash II HPP 32

Gilgel Gibe II 420 Awash III HPP 32
Gilgel Gibe III 1,870 Finchaa HPP 134
TanaBeless 460 Koka HPP 43
Tekeze 300 MelkaWakena HPP 153
Grand M. Dam 6,000 Tis Abay II 74

Table 5. Hydropower plants operated in isolated schemes, Ethiopia

Plant Capacity
Yadot 0.35
Sor 5.0
Dembi 0.8

1.6. Hydropower potential, Status and its development in Ethiopia

As a result of the country topography suitability and abundant river flows, hydropower has been the cheapest and
the main energy source in Ethiopia for supplying energy for domestic, industrial and other energy
consumptions.

Ethiopia has a vast hydropower potential, which is estimated to be about 15,000 - 30,000 MW. So far very little
percentage of the vast potential has been harnessed. In order to develop this vast potential of power, several projects
have been initiated to generate more and more hydroelectric power. As shown below table, some 300 hydropower
plant sites in the whole eight river basins of the country with a total technical power potential of 159,300 Gwh/year
have been identified. Out of these potential sites, 102 are large scale (more than 60 MW) and the rest are small (less
than 40 MW) and medium scale (40-60 MW) hydropower plant sites.
The average annual potential, exploitable with small slope plants without reservoir is estimated to be about
20TWh/year. The electric energy generated from small slope plants being smaller in capacity and geographically
dispersed is of great importance for rural electrification and merits further consideration.
The electrical energy demand grew at an average annual rate of 2.7% between 1996 and 1999. The per capita
consumption of electricity is only 22KWh in 2001 and this is estimated to reach 84KWh as a targeted scenario in
2005 (Acress, 2002)
Table 6.Hydropower Potential of Ethiopia

Name of River Number of potential site Technical Percentage

Basin Small scale Medium scale Large Scale Total Hydropower share of the
40 MW 40-60MW >60MW Potential (GWh/year) Total %
Abbay 74 11 44 129 78,800 48.9
Rift Valley Lakes 7 -- 1 8 800 0.5
Awash 33 2 -- 35 4,500 2.8
Omo-Gibe 4 -- 16 20 35,000 22.7
Genale-Dawa 18 4 9 31 9,300 5.8
Wabi Shebelle 9 4 3 16 5,400 3.4
Baro-Akobo 17 3 21 41 18,900 11.7
Tekeze- Angereb 11 1 8 20 6,000 4.2
Total 173 25 102 300 158,700

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