Laurent Series

Laurent Theorem

Mbigili L.J

Mzumbe University

February 1, 2018
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Laurent Series
Mbigili L.J

In the previous section we saw that any

function which is analytic in some
neighbourhood of a point z0 can be
approximated by a power series (its Taylor
series) about that point.

How about a function which has a

mildsingularity at z0 ?
For example, how about a function of the
form g (z)/(z − z0 )?
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Laurent Series
Mbigili L.J

In the previous section we saw that any

function which is analytic in some
neighbourhood of a point z0 can be
approximated by a power series (its Taylor
series) about that point.

How about a function which has a

mildsingularity at z0 ?
For example, how about a function of the
form g (z)/(z − z0 )?
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Laurent Series
Mbigili L.J

In the previous section we saw that any

function which is analytic in some
neighbourhood of a point z0 can be
approximated by a power series (its Taylor
series) about that point.

How about a function which has a

mildsingularity at z0 ?
For example, how about a function of the
form g (z)/(z − z0 )?
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Laurent Series
Mbigili L.J

Might we not expect to be able to

approximate it by some sort of power
series?

It certainly could not be a power series of

the type we have been discussing because
these series are analytic at z0 .
There is, however, a simple yet useful
generalization of the notion of power
series which can handle these cases.
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Laurent Series
Mbigili L.J

Might we not expect to be able to

approximate it by some sort of power
series?

It certainly could not be a power series of

the type we have been discussing because
these series are analytic at z0 .
There is, however, a simple yet useful
generalization of the notion of power
series which can handle these cases.
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Laurent Series
Mbigili L.J

Might we not expect to be able to

approximate it by some sort of power
series?

It certainly could not be a power series of

the type we have been discussing because
these series are analytic at z0 .
There is, however, a simple yet useful
generalization of the notion of power
series which can handle these cases.
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Laurent Series
Mbigili L.J

These series are known as Laurent

series and consist of a sum of two power
series.

Laurent series generalize Taylor

series.
If, in an application, we want to develop a
function f (z) in powers of (z − z0 ) when
f (z) is singular at z0 , we cannot use a
Taylor series.
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Laurent Series
Mbigili L.J

These series are known as Laurent

series and consist of a sum of two power
series.

Laurent series generalize Taylor

series.
If, in an application, we want to develop a
function f (z) in powers of (z − z0 ) when
f (z) is singular at z0 , we cannot use a
Taylor series.
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Laurent Series
Mbigili L.J

These series are known as Laurent

series and consist of a sum of two power
series.

Laurent series generalize Taylor

series.
If, in an application, we want to develop a
function f (z) in powers of (z − z0 ) when
f (z) is singular at z0 , we cannot use a
Taylor series.
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Laurent Series
Mbigili L.J

Instead we can use a new kind of series,

called Laurent series, consisting of
positive integer powers of (z − z0 ) (and a
constant) as well as negative integer
powers of (z − z0 ); this is the new feature.

Laurent series are also used for

classifying singularities and in a
powerful integration method called
Residue integration.
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Laurent Series
Mbigili L.J

Instead we can use a new kind of series,

called Laurent series, consisting of
positive integer powers of (z − z0 ) (and a
constant) as well as negative integer
powers of (z − z0 ); this is the new feature.

Laurent series are also used for

classifying singularities and in a
powerful integration method called
Residue integration.
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J

Laurent Series

A Laurent series of f (z) converges in an

annulus (in the  holeof which f (z)
may have singularities), as follows.
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Theorem (Laurent's Theorem)

Mbigili L.J

Let f (z) be analytic in a domain containing

two concentric circles Γ1 and Γ2 with center z0
and the annulus between them (see gure
below). Then f (z) can be represented by the
Laurent series
∞
X ∞
X
f (z) = n
an (z − z0 ) + bn (z − z0 )−n (1)
n=0 n=1

consisting of nonnegative and negative powers.

 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Theorem (Laurent's Theorem: continuation)

Mbigili L.J

The coecients of this Laurent series are given

by the integrals
I
1 f (ζ)
an = dζ, and
2πi Γ (ζ − z0 )n+1
I (2)
1 n−1
bn = (ζ − z0 ) f (ζ)dζ
2πi Γ

taken counterclockwise around any simple

closed path Γ that lies in the annulus and
encircles the inner circle, as in gure below.
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Laurent's Theorem
Mbigili L.J

Figure: Laurent Theorem: Contours Γ, Γ1 and Γ2

 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J Laurent's Theorem

Note that, we can rewrite equation (1)

by denoting bn by a−n and then have

∞
X
f (z) = an (z − z0 )n (3)
n=−∞

where all the coecients are now given by

a single integral formula, namely,
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Laurent's Theorem
Mbigili L.J

Continuation...
I
1 f (ζ)
an = dζ, (n = 0, ±1, ±2,
2πi Γ (ζ − z0 )n+1
(4)

The variable of integration is denoted by ζ

since z is used in (1)

A Laurent series is said to converge if each

of the power series converges.
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Laurent's Theorem
Mbigili L.J

Continuation...
I
1 f (ζ)
an = dζ, (n = 0, ±1, ±2,
2πi Γ (ζ − z0 )n+1
(4)

The variable of integration is denoted by ζ

since z is used in (1)

A Laurent series is said to converge if each

of the power series converges.
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Laurent's Theorem
Mbigili L.J

Continuation...
I
1 f (ζ)
an = dζ, (n = 0, ±1, ±2,
2πi Γ (ζ − z0 )n+1
(4)

The variable of integration is denoted by ζ

since z is used in (1)

A Laurent series is said to converge if each

of the power series converges.
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J

Laurent's Theorem

The rst series, being a power series in

z − z0 converges inside some circle of
convergence |z − z0 | = R , for some
0 ≤ R ≤ ∞.
The second series, however, is a power
series in w = 1/(z − z0 ).
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J

Laurent's Theorem

The rst series, being a power series in

z − z0 converges inside some circle of
convergence |z − z0 | = R , for some
0 ≤ R ≤ ∞.
The second series, however, is a power
series in w = 1/(z − z0 ).
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Laurent's Theorem
Mbigili L.J

Hence it will converge inside a circle of

convergence |w | = R 0 ; that is, for
0
|w | < R .

If we letR 0 = 1/r , then this condition

translates into |z − z0 | > r .

In other words, such a Laurent series will

converge in an annulus:

r < |z − z0 | < R.
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Laurent's Theorem
Mbigili L.J

Hence it will converge inside a circle of

convergence |w | = R 0 ; that is, for
0
|w | < R .

If we letR 0 = 1/r , then this condition

translates into |z − z0 | > r .

In other words, such a Laurent series will

converge in an annulus:

r < |z − z0 | < R.
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Laurent's Theorem
Mbigili L.J

Hence it will converge inside a circle of

convergence |w | = R 0 ; that is, for
0
|w | < R .

If we letR 0 = 1/r , then this condition

translates into |z − z0 | > r .

In other words, such a Laurent series will

converge in an annulus:

r < |z − z0 | < R.
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J
Laurent's Theorem

Of course for this to make sense, we need

r < R.
If this is not the case, then the Laurent
series does not converge anywhere.

In the important special case that z0 is the

only singular point of f (z) inside Γ1 , this
circle can be shrunk to the point z0 giving
convergence in a disk except at the center.
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J
Laurent's Theorem

Of course for this to make sense, we need

r < R.
If this is not the case, then the Laurent
series does not converge anywhere.

In the important special case that z0 is the

only singular point of f (z) inside Γ1 , this
circle can be shrunk to the point z0 giving
convergence in a disk except at the center.
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J
Laurent's Theorem

Of course for this to make sense, we need

r < R.
If this is not the case, then the Laurent
series does not converge anywhere.

In the important special case that z0 is the

only singular point of f (z) inside Γ1 , this
circle can be shrunk to the point z0 giving
convergence in a disk except at the center.
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J

Laurent's Theorem

In this case the series (or nite sum) of

the negative powers of (1) is called the
principal part of f (z) at z0 [or of that
Laurent series (1)].
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J
Laurent's Theorem

The rst main result that we will prove is

that any function analytic in an open
annulus r < |z − z0 | < R centred at z0
has a Laurent series around z0 which
converges to it everywhere inside the
annulus and uniformly on closed
sub-annuli r < R1 ≤ |z − z0 | ≤ R2 < R .
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J Laurent's Theorem

In order to follow the logic of the proof, it

will be convenient to keep Figure above in
mind.

The left-hand picture shows the annuli

r < R1 ≤ |z − z0 | ≤ R2 < R

and the contour Γ.

 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J Laurent's Theorem

In order to follow the logic of the proof, it

will be convenient to keep Figure above in
mind.

The left-hand picture shows the annuli

r < R1 ≤ |z − z0 | ≤ R2 < R

and the contour Γ.

 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J

Laurent's Theorem

The right-hand picture shows the

equivalent contours Γ1 and Γ2 , circles with
radii ρ1 and ρ2 satisfying the inequalities

r < ρ1 < R1 and R2 < ρ2 < R.

 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Laurent's Theorem
Mbigili L.J

Consider the closed contour C, starting

and ending at the point P in the Figure
above, and dened as follows:

Follow Γ2 all the way around until P again,

then go to Q via the bridgebetween the
two circles, then all the way along Γ1 until
Q, then back to P along the bridge.
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Laurent's Theorem
Mbigili L.J

Consider the closed contour C, starting

and ending at the point P in the Figure
above, and dened as follows:

Follow Γ2 all the way around until P again,

then go to Q via the bridgebetween the
two circles, then all the way along Γ1 until
Q, then back to P along the bridge.
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J
Laurent's Theorem

This contour encircles the point z once in

the positive sense, hence by the Cauchy
Integral Formula we have that

I
1 f (ζ)
f (z) = dζ
2πi C ζ −z
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Laurent's Theorem
Mbigili L.J

On the other hand, because the bridgeis

traversed twice in opposite directions,
their contribution to the integral cancels
and we are left with
I
1 f (ζ)
f (z) = dζ
2πi Γ1 ζ − z
I
1 f (ζ)
+ dζ
2πi Γ2 ζ − z
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J

Laurent's Theorem

We now treat each integral at a time.

The integral along Γ2 can be treated

mutatis mutandis as we did the similar
integral in the proof of the Taylor series
theorem.
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J

Laurent's Theorem

We now treat each integral at a time.

The integral along Γ2 can be treated

mutatis mutandis as we did the similar
integral in the proof of the Taylor series
theorem.
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Laurent's Theorem
Mbigili L.J

We simply quote the result:

I ∞
1 f (ζ)
dζ =
X
an (z − z0 )n , where
2πi Γ2 ζ − z
n=0
I
1 f (ζ)
an = dζ
2πi Γ2 (ζ − z)n+1
(5)
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Laurent's Theorem
Mbigili L.J

Moreover the series converges uniformly in

the closed disk |z − z0 | ≤ R2 .
The integral along Γ1 can be treated along
similar lines, except that because
|z − z0 | > |ζ − z0 |, we must expand the
integrand dierently.

We will be brief, since the idea is very

much the same as what was done for the
Taylor series.
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Laurent's Theorem
Mbigili L.J

Moreover the series converges uniformly in

the closed disk |z − z0 | ≤ R2 .
The integral along Γ1 can be treated along
similar lines, except that because
|z − z0 | > |ζ − z0 |, we must expand the
integrand dierently.

We will be brief, since the idea is very

much the same as what was done for the
Taylor series.
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Laurent's Theorem
Mbigili L.J

Moreover the series converges uniformly in

the closed disk |z − z0 | ≤ R2 .
The integral along Γ1 can be treated along
similar lines, except that because
|z − z0 | > |ζ − z0 |, we must expand the
integrand dierently.

We will be brief, since the idea is very

much the same as what was done for the
Taylor series.
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J Laurent's Theorem

We start by rewriting 1/(ζ − z)

appropriately:

1 1
=
ζ −z (ζ − z0 ) − (z − z0 )
1 1
=− ζ−z0
z − z0 1 − z−z0
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Laurent's Theorem
Mbigili L.J

We write this now as a geometric series:

n  k
1 1 X ζ − z0
=−
ζ −z z − z0 z − z0
k=0
 n+1
ζ−z0
1
z−z0
− ζ−z0
z − z0 1 − z−z0
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J

Laurent's Theorem

Continuation....

n+1
X (z − z0 )−k (ζ − z0 )n+1
= +
(ζ − z0 )−k+1 (ζ − z)(z − z0 )n+1
k=1
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Laurent's Theorem
Mbigili L.J

Thus, if we plug in the integral we obtain

I
1 f (ζ)
dζ
2πi Γ1 ζ − z
n+1
(z − z0 )−k
I X
1
=−
2πi Γ1 (ζ − z0 )−k+1
k=1
f (ζ)(ζ − z0 )n+1
I
1
+
2πi Γ1 (ζ − z)(z − z0 )n+1
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Laurent's Theorem
Mbigili L.J

Eventually, we obtain

I n+1
1 f (ζ)
dζ =
X
a−k (z − z0 )−k + Sn (z
2πi Γ1 ζ − z
k=1
I
1 f (ζ)
a−k = − , and
2πi Γ1 (ζ − z0 )−k+1
 n+1
f (ζ) ζ − z0
I
1
Sn (z) = dζ
2πi Γ1 ζ − z z − z0
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Laurent's Theorem
Mbigili L.J

Now, for ζ in Γ1 we have that

|ζ − z0 | = ρ1 and from the triangle
inequality |z1 + z2 | ≥ |z1 | − |z2 |, then
|ζ − z| = |z − ζ| ≥ |z − z0 | − |ζ − z0 | =
R1 − ρ 1 .
Its also noted that |z − z0 | ≥ R1 .

Furthermore, f (ζ), being continuous, is

bounded so that |f (ζ)| ≤ M for some M
and all ζ on Γ1 .
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Laurent's Theorem
Mbigili L.J

Now, for ζ in Γ1 we have that

|ζ − z0 | = ρ1 and from the triangle
inequality |z1 + z2 | ≥ |z1 | − |z2 |, then
|ζ − z| = |z − ζ| ≥ |z − z0 | − |ζ − z0 | =
R1 − ρ 1 .
Its also noted that |z − z0 | ≥ R1 .

Furthermore, f (ζ), being continuous, is

bounded so that |f (ζ)| ≤ M for some M
and all ζ on Γ1 .
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Laurent's Theorem
Mbigili L.J

Now, for ζ in Γ1 we have that

|ζ − z0 | = ρ1 and from the triangle
inequality |z1 + z2 | ≥ |z1 | − |z2 |, then
|ζ − z| = |z − ζ| ≥ |z − z0 | − |ζ − z0 | =
R1 − ρ 1 .
Its also noted that |z − z0 | ≥ R1 .

Furthermore, f (ζ), being continuous, is

bounded so that |f (ζ)| ≤ M for some M
and all ζ on Γ1 .
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Laurent's Theorem
Mbigili L.J

Therefore, from the big ML − inequality

and the above inequalities,

 n+1
Mρ1 ρ1
|Sn (z)| ≤
R1 − ρ 1 R1

which is independent of z and, because

ρ 1 < R1 , can be made arbitrarily small by
choosing n large.
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J Laurent's Theorem

Hence Sn (z) → 0 as n → ∞ uniformly in

|z − z0 | ≥ R1 , and
I ∞
1 f (ζ)
dζ =
X
a−k (z − z0 )−k
2πi Γ1 ζ −z
k=1

where a−k is given by the same equation

in (6).
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J
Laurent's Theorem

In other words

I ∞
1 f (ζ)
dζ =
X
a−k (z − z0 )−k
2πi Γ1 ζ −z
k=1

and the series converges uniformly to the

integral for |z − z0 | ≤ R1 .
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Laurent's Theorem
Mbigili L.J

In summary, we have proven that f (z) is

approximated by the Laurent series

∞
X
f (z) = an (z − z0 )n
n=−∞

everywhere on r < |z − z0 | < R and

uniformly on any closed sub-annulus,
where the coecients an are given by
equations (5) for n≥0 and (6) for n < 0.
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J Laurent's Theorem

In the statement of the theorem the

coecients an are given by contour
integrals along Γ and what we have shown
is that they are given by contour integrals
along Γ1 or Γ2 .
But notice that the integrand in (5) is
analytic in the domain bounded by the
contours Γ and Γ2 .
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J Laurent's Theorem

In the statement of the theorem the

coecients an are given by contour
integrals along Γ and what we have shown
is that they are given by contour integrals
along Γ1 or Γ2 .
But notice that the integrand in (5) is
analytic in the domain bounded by the
contours Γ and Γ2 .
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J

Laurent's Theorem

Similarly for the integrand in (6) in the

region bounded by the contours Γ and Γ1 .
Therefore we can deform the contours Γ1
and Γ2 to −Γ and Γ respectively, in the
integrals
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J

Laurent's Theorem

Similarly for the integrand in (6) in the

region bounded by the contours Γ and Γ1 .
Therefore we can deform the contours Γ1
and Γ2 to −Γ and Γ respectively, in the
integrals
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Laurent's Theorem
Mbigili L.J

I
1 f (ζ)
a−n = − dζ
2πi Γ1 (ζ − z0 )−n+1
I
1 f (ζ)
= dζ
2πi Γ (ζ − z0 )−n+1
I
1 f (ζ)
an = dζ
2πi Γ2 (ζ − z0 )n+1
I
1 f (ζ)
= dζ
2πi Γ (ζ − z0 )n+1
 Laurent series are unique

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J
Laurent series are unique

We saw in the previous Section that any

power series is the Taylor series of the
analytic function it converges to.

In other words, the power series

representation of an analytic function is
unique (in the domain of convergence of
the series, of course).
 Laurent series are unique

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J
Laurent series are unique

We saw in the previous Section that any

power series is the Taylor series of the
analytic function it converges to.

In other words, the power series

representation of an analytic function is
unique (in the domain of convergence of
the series, of course).
 Laurent series are unique

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J
Laurent series are unique

Since Laurent series are generalizations of

the Taylor series and agree with them
when the function is analytic not just in
the annulus but in fact in the whole disk,
we might expect that the same is true and
that the Laurent series representation of a
function analytic in an annulus should also
be unique and this turns out to be true.
 Laurent series are unique

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J Laurent series are unique

More precisely, let us consider

∞
X ∞
X
n
an (z − z0 ) and a−n (z − z0 )−n
n=0 n=1

as any two power series converging in

|z − z0 | < R and |z − z0 | > r ,
respectively, with R > r.
 Laurent series are unique

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J
Laurent series are unique

Then there is a function f (z) analytic in

the annulus r < |z − z0 | < R , such that
∞
X ∞
X
n
an (z − z0 ) + a−n (z − z0 )−n
n=0 n=1

is a Laurent series.
 Laurent series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J

Laurent series: Examples

Example 1: Let us compute the Laurent

series of the rational function

z 2 − 2z + 3
f (z) =
z −2
in the region |z − 1| > 1.
 Laurent series

Laurent Series

Laurent series: Example 1

Mbigili L.J

Let us rst decompose it into partial

fraction and rewrite it as a power series in
(z − 1):

z 2 − 2z + 3 3
f (z) = =z+
z −2 z −2
 Laurent series

Laurent Series

Laurent series: Example 1

Mbigili L.J

For the denominator we rewrite as

1 1 1 1
= = 1
z −2 (z − 1) − 1 z − 11 − z−1

where we have already left it in a form

which suggests that we try a geometric
series in 1/(z − 1), which converges in the
specied region |z − 1| > 1.
 Laurent series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J Laurent series: Example 1

Indeed, we have that in this region,

∞
1 1 1 X 1
1 =
z − 11 − z−1
z −1 n=0
(z − 1)n
∞
X 1
=
n=0
(z − 1)n+1
 Laurent series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J Laurent series: Examples

The combination gives

∞
3 X 3
z+ =z+
z −2 n=0
(z − 1)n+1
∞
X 3
= (z − 1) + 1 +
n=0
(z − 1)n+1
 Laurent series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J
Laurent series: Examples

By the uniqueness of the Laurent series,

this is the Laurent series for the function
in the specied region.

Example 2: Consider the function

1
f (z) = .
(z − 1)(z − 2)
 Laurent series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J
Laurent series: Examples

By the uniqueness of the Laurent series,

this is the Laurent series for the function
in the specied region.

Example 2: Consider the function

1
f (z) = .
(z − 1)(z − 2)
 Laurent series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J

Laurent series: Examples

Required to nd its Laurent expansions in

the regions: |z| < 1, < |z| < 2 and
1
|z| > 2, which we have labelled I , II and
III in the gure below.
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J
Laurent's Theorem

Figure: Laurent Series Example 2:Convergence region

 Laurent series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J

Laurent series: Examples

We start by decomposing the function into

partial fractions:

1 1 1
= −
(z − 2)(z − 1) z −2 z −1
 Laurent series

Laurent Series

Laurent series: Examples

Mbigili L.J

In region I, we have the following

geometric series:

∞
1 1 X
− = = z n , |z| < 1
z −1 1 −z n=0
∞  n
1 1 1 1 X z
=− z =−
z −2 21 − 2 2
n=0
2
 Laurent series

Laurent Series

Laurent series: Examples

Mbigili L.J

In region I, we have the following

geometric series:

∞
1 1 X
− = = z n , |z| < 1
z −1 1 −z n=0
∞  n
1 1 1 1 X z
=− z =−
z −2 21 − 2 2
n=0
2
 Laurent series

Laurent Series

Laurent series: Examples

Mbigili L.J

In region I, we have the following

geometric series:

∞
1 1 X
− = = z n , |z| < 1
z −1 1 −z n=0
∞  n
1 1 1 1 X z
=− z =−
z −2 21 − 2 2
n=0
2
 Laurent series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J

Laurent series: Examples

Continuation............nally;

∞
1 X −1
= z n , |z| < 2
z −2 2n+1
n=0
 Laurent series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J
Laurent series: Examples

Therefore in their common region of

convergence, namely region I, we have
that

∞  
1 X 1
= 1− z n , |z| < 1
(z − 2)(z − 1) 2n+1
n=0
 Laurent series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J

Laurent series: Examples

In region II , the rst of the geometric

series above is not valid, but the second
one is.

Because in region II , |z| > 1, this means

that |1/z| < 1, whence we should try and
use a geometric series in 1/z .
 Laurent series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J

Laurent series: Examples

In region II , the rst of the geometric

series above is not valid, but the second
one is.

Because in region II , |z| > 1, this means

that |1/z| < 1, whence we should try and
use a geometric series in 1/z .
 Laurent series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J Laurent series: Examples

This is easy:

∞
1 1 1 1 X 1
− =− 1 =−
z −1 z1− z
z n=0
zn
∞
X −1
= n+1
, |z| > 1
n=0
z
 Laurent series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J Laurent series: Examples

This is easy:

∞
1 1 1 1 X 1
− =− 1 =−
z −1 z1− z
z n=0
zn
∞
X −1
= n+1
, |z| > 1
n=0
z
 Laurent series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J Laurent series: Examples

This is easy:

∞
1 1 1 1 X 1
− =− 1 =−
z −1 z1− z
z n=0
zn
∞
X −1
= n+1
, |z| > 1
n=0
z
 Laurent series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J Laurent series: Examples

Therefore in region II we have that

∞
1 X −1
=
(z − 1)(z − 2) n=0 z n+1
∞
X −1
+ z n, 1 < |z| < 2.
2n+1
n=0
 Laurent series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J Laurent series: Examples

Therefore in region II we have that

∞
1 X −1
=
(z − 1)(z − 2) n=0 z n+1
∞
X −1
+ z n, 1 < |z| < 2.
2n+1
n=0
 Laurent series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J Laurent series: Examples

Therefore in region II we have that

∞
1 X −1
=
(z − 1)(z − 2) n=0 z n+1
∞
X −1
+ z n, 1 < |z| < 2.
2n+1
n=0
 Laurent series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J

Laurent series: Examples

Finally in region III , we have that |z| > 2,

so that we will have to nd another series
converging to 1/(z − 2) in this region.
Again, since now |2/z| < 1 we should try
to use a geometric series in 2/z .
 Laurent series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J

Laurent series: Examples

Finally in region III , we have that |z| > 2,

so that we will have to nd another series
converging to 1/(z − 2) in this region.
Again, since now |2/z| < 1 we should try
to use a geometric series in 2/z .
 Laurent series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J Laurent series: Examples

This is once again easy:

∞  n
1 1 1 1 X 2
= 2 =
z −2 z1− z
z n=0
z
∞ n
X 2
= , |z| > 2
n=0
z n+1
 Laurent series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J Laurent series: Examples

This is once again easy:

∞  n
1 1 1 1 X 2
= 2 =
z −2 z1− z
z n=0
z
∞ n
X 2
= , |z| > 2
n=0
z n+1
 Laurent series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J Laurent series: Examples

This is once again easy:

∞  n
1 1 1 1 X 2
= 2 =
z −2 z1− z
z n=0
z
∞ n
X 2
= , |z| > 2
n=0
z n+1
 Laurent series

Laurent Series

Laurent series: Examples

Mbigili L.J

Therefore in region III we have that

∞
1 X 1
= (−1+2n ) , |z| > 2
(z − 1)(z − 2) n=0
z n+1

Again by the uniqueness of the Laurent

series, we know that these are the Laurent
series for the function in the specied
regions.
 Laurent series

Laurent Series

Laurent series: Examples

Mbigili L.J

Therefore in region III we have that

∞
1 X 1
= (−1+2n ) , |z| > 2
(z − 1)(z − 2) n=0
z n+1

Again by the uniqueness of the Laurent

series, we know that these are the Laurent
series for the function in the specied
regions.
 Laurent series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J
Laurent series: Examples

Question 1: Find the Laurent series of

−5
z sin z with center 0.

Question 2: Find the Laurent series of

2 1/z
z e with center 0.

Question 3: Develop 1/(1 − z) (a) in

nonnegative powers of z , (b) in negative
powers of z.
 Laurent series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J
Laurent series: Examples

Question 1: Find the Laurent series of

−5
z sin z with center 0.

Question 2: Find the Laurent series of

2 1/z
z e with center 0.

Question 3: Develop 1/(1 − z) (a) in

nonnegative powers of z , (b) in negative
powers of z.
 Laurent series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J
Laurent series: Examples

Question 1: Find the Laurent series of

−5
z sin z with center 0.

Question 2: Find the Laurent series of

2 1/z
z e with center 0.

Question 3: Develop 1/(1 − z) (a) in

nonnegative powers of z , (b) in negative
powers of z.
 Laurent series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J

Laurent series: Examples

Question 4: Find all Laurent series of

1/(z
3 4
−z ) as in question 3 above.
Question 5: Find all Taylor and Laurent
−2z+3
series of f (z) = z 2 −3z+3 with center 0 in
dierent region as indicated in the gure
below.
 Laurent series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J

Laurent series: Examples

Question 4: Find all Laurent series of

1/(z
3 4
−z ) as in question 3 above.
Question 5: Find all Taylor and Laurent
−2z+3
series of f (z) = z 2 −3z+3 with center 0 in
dierent region as indicated in the gure
below.
 Laurent Series

Laurent Series

Mbigili L.J
Laurent's Theorem

Figure: Laurent Series: Convergence region