GLOBAL KNOWLEDGE NETWORK CERTIFICATION PRESS

Cisco Certified Network Associate Exam

Router and Switching Study Guide

Chapter 1
Introduction to
Internetworking
Certification Objectives
 The Internetworking Model
 Physical and Data Link Layers
 Network Layer and Path Determination
 Transport Layer
 Upper Layer Protocols
 Cisco Routers, Switches, and Hubs
 Configuring a Cisco Switch and Hub

Cisco Certified Internetworking Engineers, or CCIEs, are recognized as some of the

premiere internetworking professionals in the information systems industry. Their
understanding of the intricacies of internetwork design and architecture stems from
both dedicated study and experience. The following skills are required to attain the
highest level of certification, the CCIE.

 design new internetworks

 document existing internetworks
 locate the cause of internetwork problems
 resolve bottlenecks
 redesign existing internetworks
 understand and be able to connect internetworks to the Internet
 configure new Cisco routers, switches and hubs
 reconfigure existing Cisco routers, switches and hubs
 understand Cisco Internetworking Operating System software
 upgrade and repair Cisco routers, switches and hubs.

To start you on your certification path, this book provides you with the information
needed to become a Certified Cisco Network Associate (CCNA). A potential CCNA
must have the knowledge to install, configure, and operate simple-routed LAN,
routed WAN, and switched LAN and LANE networks.

This is the beginning of an adventure in knowledge. What this book can offer as both
a reference and a learning tool can take an engineer to the heights of an
internetworking career.

The Internetworking Model

There is a distinction made between networking and internetworking. Networking is

the process and methodology applied to connecting multiple computers so that they
are able to exchange information. Internetworking is the process and methodology
applied to connecting multiple networks, regardless of their physical topologies and
distance. Internetworking has evolved with the rapid growth and change in
networking. Because of this, the basic building blocks and reference models for
networking are also used and applied to internetworking.

Network Evolution

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Internetworks evolved from necessity. In the early days of computing (the 1950s and
1960s), internetworks did not exist. Computers were autonomous and proprietary. In
the late 1960s, however, the United States Department of Defense (DOD), became
interested in academic research being done on a packet-switched wide area network
design. "Packet" referred to a small bundle of data. "Switched" referred to the use of
a routing system similar to the switch-based telephone system. And "wide area
network" (WAN) meant that the network would extend over sites that were physically
distant from each other.

DOD wanted to use this technology for national defense, as a means to share radar
data, and distribute control and commands in the case of a nuclear war. The agency
within DOD that handled the network research was the Advanced Research Projects
Agency (ARPA), which later prefixed "Defense" to the beginning of their name and
became known as DARPA. {Answer to Self Test Question #1}The DARPA project
included scientists and engineers from universities and the Bolt, Baranek and
Newman company of Massachusetts, who faced the two challenges in this project:
interconnectivity and interoperability.

 Interconnectivity the means of transporting information between the

computers, inclusive of the physical media, the data packaging mechanism,
and the routing between multiple network equipment pieces from the starting
node until reaching the destination node.
 Interoperability the methodology applied to make data understandable to
computers that use proprietary or simply different computer operating systems
and languages. {Answer to Self Test Question #21}

{Answer to Self Test Question #2}The result of the DARPA project was ARPANET,
which eventually became the Internet, and the evolution of the IP protocol suite,
which was then included as part of Berkeley's version of UNIX. ARPANET grew into
the Internet by including networks in other government and university campuses. And
that grew even further with the inclusion of commercial enterprise networks.

Networks did not become prevalent in corporations until the 1980s when the personal
computer (PC) became popular. After companies realized that sharing hard disk
space on some of the earliest file servers enabled employees to share data easily
and further boosted productivity, they implemented networks on a large scale. They
created LANs (Local Area Networks) and then connected them into WANs (Wide
Area Networks). After the Internet went commercial in the early 1990's, corporations
began to connect to it as well.

The OSI Model

There are two standards to consider in internetworking: de jure, and de facto. De jure
means by right or legal establishment. De facto means established by actual fact,
though not officially or legally recognized. The evolution of TCP/IP created a de facto
standard for that protocol, because it grew and became accepted, although it was not
proposed as a standard until after its wide acceptance. {Answer to Self Test Question
#3}{Answer to Self Test Question #22}The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)
reference model is a de jure standard.

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The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) created the OSI model and
released it in 1984 in order to provide a network model for vendors such that their
products would interoperate on networks. The OSI reference model provides a
hierarchical tool for understanding networking technology, as well as a basis for
current and future network developments.

This model also takes into account the interconnectivity and interoperability
challenges faced by the DARPA project engineers. The way that the OSI model
answered these challenges was through a seven-layer protocol suite model,
illustrated in Figure 1-1. By dividing the model into layers, the capability to
interoperate and interconnect became manageable, since each layer was self-
contained, not relying on the operating system or other factors.{Answer to Self Test
Question #23} The layered approach benefited vendors, too, since they only needed
to concentrate development efforts on the layers that their own product used, and
could rely on the existing protocols at other layers. Not only are development costs
kept to a minimum, but marketability is increased, since the product works with other
vendors' products.

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Figure 1 OSI reference model

The model describes how each layer communicates with a corresponding layer on
the other node. Figure 1-2 illustrates how data works its way through a network. At
the first node, the end user creates some data to be sent to the other node, such as
an e-mail. {Answer to Self Test Question #4}{Answer to Self Test Question #24}At the
application layer, an application header is added to the data. The presentation layer
adds its own header to the data received from the application layer. Each layer adds
its own header to the data received from the layer above. However, at lower layers,
the data is broken up into smaller units and headers added to each of the units. For
instance, the transport layer will have smaller datagrams, the network layer will have
packets, and the data link layer will have frames. The physical layer handles the data
in a raw bitstream. When this bitstream is received at the destination, the data is

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reassembled at each layer, and the headers of each layer discarded, until the e-mail
is readable by the end user.

Figure 2 How the OSI model transports data

A common mnemonic device for remembering the layers (application, presentation,

session, transport, network, data link, physical) in the right order is All People Seem
To Need Data Processing.

Encapsulation
{Answer to Self Test Question #5}Encapsulation is the process of adding a header to
the data, or wrapping the data. In order to send data out on a Token Ring network,
the data must be wrapped with the Token Ring header before it is transmitted.
{Answer to Self Test Question #25} The terms wrapping and encapsulation refer to
both the header and the ending bits that are added to each bundle of data. Header
bits are used to signify the beginning of a data bundle, and frequently include
addressing and other features, depending on the protocol and layer. The ending bits
are typically used for error checking. Header bits receive more attention, since they
include most of the protocol feature implementation.

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Encapsulation may occur at each layer in the OSI reference model. The entire packet
from each layer is inserted into the data field of the next layer, and another header is
added. Occasionally a layer splits the data unit (including previous layer header) into
multiple, smaller data units, and each one of the smaller units is wrapped with a new
header from the lower protocol layer. This process helps control data flow and
addresses packet size limitations on the network. As the data moves down the
model, it becomes smaller and more uniform in size and content.

When data is received, the corresponding layer at the receiving node reassembles
the data field before passing it to the next layer. As the data moves back up the
model at the destination, it is pieced back together like a puzzle.

Physical and Data Link Layers

{Answer to Self Test Question #6}The physical layer, or layer 1, defines the actual
mechanical specifications and electrical data bitstream. This includes the voltage
level, the voltage changes, and the definition of which voltage level is a "1" and which
is a "0." The data rate of transmission, the maximum distances and even physical
connectors are all included in this level.

The data link layer, or layer 2, is also known as the link layer. It consists of two
sublayers, the upper level being the Logical Link Control (LLC), and the lower level
being the Media Access Control (MAC). Hardware addresses are actually MAC
addresses in the data link layer. The physical address is placed here, since the
physical layer handles only raw bitstream functions.{Answer to Self Test Question
#27} The data is broken into small "frames" at this layer.

Standard Description

802.2 Defines LLC protocol that other 802 standards can use

802.3 Ethernet (CSMA/CD)

802.3u Fast Ethernet 100BaseT

802.4 Token Bus (rarely used)

802.5 Token Ring

802.6 MANs (Metropolitan Area Network) using two fiber-optic buses in opposing directions

802.9 Isochronous Ethernet - channel sharing between one async channel and 96dedicated
channels providing 16 Mbps

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 802.11 Wireless LANs using CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance)

802.12 100VG-AnyLAN

The physical and data link layers are usually implemented together in
hardware/software combination solutions. Examples include hubs, switches and
network adapters, and their applicable software drivers, as well as the media or
cables used to connect the network nodes.{Answer to Self Test Question #26}

The remaining layers are usually implemented in software only.

{Answer to Self Test Question #7}The IEEE (Institute for Electrical and Electronics
Engineers) created several standards under the 802 series. Table 1-1 describes the
802 series of standards that are currently in existence or are still being developed.

Table 1 IEEE 802 Standards Series

DIX and 802.3 Ethernet

{Answer to Self Test Question #8}Digital, Intel and Xerox (collectively known as DIX)
created Ethernet in the 1970s. This was used as the basis for the IEEE 802.3
standard released in 1980. DIX then updated their standard to match the IEEE 802.3
version. The term Ethernet is commonly used to refer to either one of these network
standards.

However, Ethernet and IEEE 802.3 do have some differences. One difference is that
802.3 specifies the physical layer and the MAC portion of the data link layer, while
DIX Ethernet specifies the entire physical and data link layers. 802.3 specifies
different physical layers, but DIX Ethernet only specifies one. Table 1-2 compares the
two standards.

DIX IEEE 802.3 Physical Standards

Ethernet 10BaseF 1Base5 10Broad36 10Base2 10Base5 10BaseT

Rate Mbps 10 10 1 10 10 10 10

Topology Bus Star Star Bus Bus Bus Star

Media 50-ohm Fiber-optic Unshielded 75-ohm 50-ohm 50-ohm Unshielded

thick cable twisted-pair coaxial thin thick twisted-pair
coaxial coaxial coaxial

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Table 2 Physical Layer Specifications for IEEE 802.3 and DIX Ethernet

{Answer to Self Test Question #9}Ethernet uses a carrier sense multiple

access/collision detection (CSMA/CD) method. In the CSMA/CD network, nodes can
access the network any time they have data to send. Before a node transmits data, it
"listens" to see if the network is busy. If not, the node transmits data. If the network is
in use, the node waits.{Answer to Self Test Question #28} Collisions occur if two
nodes listen, hear nothing and then access the wire simultaneously. This ruins both
transmissions, and both stations have to try a second time. {Answer to Self Test
Question #10}There is a backoff algorithm that creates a random wait time for
retransmissions so that a second collision will not occur. Figure 1-3 illustrates this
process.

Figure 3 Collisions on CSMA/CD network

Ethernet, including 802.3, is a broadcast system.{Answer to Self Test Question #29}

That means that all nodes see all data frames, whether or not that data is meant to
be received by that node. Each node examines the frame header addresses as the
frames are received to determine if they are destined for that node. If not, the frames
are forwarded on the network. If they are destined for the node, it passes them to the
upper-level protocols for processing.

{Answer to Self Test Question #30}The IEEE 802.3 frame, shown in Figure 1-4,
begins with a preamble of alternating ones and zeroes that tells the receiving station
that this is a new frame. The next byte is a start-of-frame delimiter (SOF) that ends
with two consecutive one bits. The next part of the frame header is the destination
and source address fields. An address consists of three bytes identifying the vendor,
and a second three bytes that are specified by the vendor. After the source address,
in IEEE 802.3 frames, there is a two-byte field that discloses the number of bytes of
data contained within the frame. The data itself is next, at a minimum of 64 bytes
(padded with extra bytes if it is too short), and finally the four-byte FCS field (Frame
Check Sequence) ends the frame.{Answer to Self Test Question #31}The FCS field
includes a cyclic redundancy check (CRC) value that is used to check for damage
that may have happened to the data during transmission.

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Figure 4 IEEE 802.3 frame format

802.5 Token Ring

{Answer to Self Test Question #11}Token Ring networks were originally a proprietary
network specification created by IBM in the 1970s. Token Ring networks are nearly
identical and compatible with the IEEE 802.5 specification developed later, which
was based on IBM's Token Ring. The differences include:

 IEEE 802.5 does not specify a physical topology, but IBM's Token Ring
specifies a star topology using a multi-station access unit.
 IEEE 802.5 does not specify a medium, but IBM's Token Ring specifies
twisted-pair wiring

The main concepts of Token Ring are described in its name. It is a token-passing
network that connects nodes in a logical ring topology. Token passing (illustrated in
Figure 1-5) uses a small, specially formatted frame, called a token, which is passed
from node to node on the ring.{Answer to Self Test Question #32} When a node
possesses the token, it is granted transmission rights. If there is nothing to transmit,
the node sends the token on to the next node.{Answer to Self Test Question #33}
When a node does have information to transmit, it flips one bit of the token and turns
it into a start-of-frame field, then appends the data and forwards it on. Unless "early
token release" is used, the node retains the token until the data frame travels around
the ring back to the sender. The data follows the ring until it reaches the destination
node, which copies the data. The data frame goes back to the sending station, where
the originator can check whether the data transmission was successful.

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Figure 5 Token passing

There is also a method for token-seizing, (or access priority) in Token Ring, whereby
priority can be assigned to stations so that they can use the network more frequently.
A station with equal or higher priority than the priority value contained in a token can
seize it for its use. In doing so, it raises the token's priority, and returns it to the
original priority on the next pass.

{Answer to Self Test Question #12}Beaconing is a Token Ring mechanism that

detects network faults. If a station detects a failure in the network, it sends a beacon
frame, which specifies the reporting station, its nearest active upstream neighbor
(NAUN), and the failure area. Beaconing triggers autoreconfiguration, in which the
network nodes attempt to reconfigure the network around the failed areas. A
multistation access unit (MSAU) may "wrap" a port so that it is not part of the ring,
bypassing all inactive or nonfunctional ports, but including all active, functioning
ones.

{Answer to Self Test Question #13}There are two types of frames, a token and a data
frame. A token (shown in Figure 1-6) is three bytes long. A data frame (shown in
Figure 1-7) consists of the data sent by upper-layer protocols and the Token Ring
header. There is a special data frame called a MAC frame, for commands that consist
of Token Ring control information and header.

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Figure 6 Token Ring token format

Figure 7 Token Ring data frame format

ANSI FDDI
In the mid 1980s, ANSI (American National Standards Institute) X3T9.5 standards
committee created FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface), which was developed to
address the growing bandwidth needs in network systems. ANSI submitted FDDI to
the International Organization for Standardization, which then created a compatible
FDDI standard. {Answer to Self Test Question #14}The FDDI standard specifies the
physical and MAC portion of the data link layers for a token-passing, dual-ring
topology using fiber-optic media at 100 Mbps. Fiber has some advantages over
copper wire.

 Immunity to electrical interference

 Higher throughput
 Immunity to traditional wiretap methods
 Capacity to be used for longer distances

The MAC layer specification defines the media access method, frame format, token
passing method, MAC addressing, CRC (cyclic redundancy check), and error
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recovery. The physical layer specification defines the data framing, clocking
requirements, and transmission media (bit error rates, optical components, fiber-optic
connector, power levels). Also, FDDI provides for the station configuration, insertion,
removal, fault recovery, ring configuration and control.

In the dual ring configuration, traffic travels in one direction on one ring, and the other
direction on the other ring. One ring is primary, and used for data transmission. The
other is secondary, and used for backup. Class B stations attach to a single ring
through a concentrator so that rebooting a station will not bring down the ring. Class
B stations are known as SAS (single-attached stations). Class A stations attach to
both rings, and are known as DAS (dual-attached stations).{Answer to Self Test
Question #34} The dual ring provides fault tolerance, as shown in Figure 1-8. If a
Class A station on the dual ring fails, it creates a ring failure. During that failure,
stations on either side of the fault wrap their ports, restoring service through the
backup ring. If there is more than one break in the ring, multiple separate rings can
be the result.

Figure 8 Dual Ring fault tolerance

FDDI supports both asynchronous and synchronous traffic. Synchronous is allocated

a portion of the bandwidth for stations requiring continuous transmission;
asynchronous is allocated the remainder. Stations using the asynchronous portion
are assigned priority from a priority scheme of 8 levels, which are shown in Figure 1-
9.

Figure 9 FDDI frame format

MAC Addresses
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The data link layer consists of two sublayers: Logical Link Control (LLC) and Media
Access Control (MAC). The MAC sublayer determines the address for the hardware
at that layer.{Answer to Self Test Question #35} This address is network independent,
such that wherever the hardware is "plugged in" to the internetwork, it would have the
same MAC address, regardless of the network address. The vendor usually assigns
the MAC address. In the Ethernet scheme, a series of Ethernet MAC addresses are
assigned to a vendor, who then assigns a different address to each interface
produced. An Ethernet MAC address consists of 12 digits. The first six digits (the
Organizationally Unique Identifier, or OUI) are the unique number assigned to the
vendor by the IEEE, and the remaining six digits are the series. As a result, each
network interface card will have a different MAC address on any given LAN or WAN.

Interfaces
The physical layer encompasses several different types of interfaces. These are
either dictated by the protocol used on the segment, or by the proprietary
specification of the vendor. Interfaces are used to connect data terminal equipment
(DTE) and data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE) devices. DTEs are network
nodes such as routers and servers. DCEs are internetworking devices, such as
packet switches, generally owned by the carrier, which provide clocking and
switching.

RS-232

{Answer to Self Test Question #15}RS-232 is the EIA (Electronics Industries Alliance)
serial port interface standard. In the RS-232 serial port, one pin is used to transmit data,
another to receive data. The remaining pins are used to establish and maintain communication
between two serial devices. There is both a 25-pin (DB-25) and a 9-pin (DB-9) version. The
cable media must be configured so that each wire transmits or receives the type of data
expected. RS-232 cables, which are rated to 19.2 Kbps, must be configured to properly
connect DCE and DTE devices. Unique pinouts are required for cables that do not conform to
the standard. The pinouts are described in Table 1-3.

9 Pin 25 Pin Symbol Signal Sent on that pin Input/Output data

- 1 Protective Ground

3 2 TX Transmit data Output

2 3 RX Receive data Input

7 4 RTS Request to send Output

8 5 CTS Clear to send Input

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6 6 DSR Data set ready Input

5 7 Signal Ground

1 8 DCD Data Carrier Detect Input

- 9 Transmit Current Loop + Output

- 11 Transmit Current Loop - Output

- 18 Receive Current Loop + Input

4 20 DTR Data Terminal Ready Output

9 22 RI Ring Indicator Input

- 23 Data Signal Rate Indicator Input and Output

- 25 Receive Current Loop - Input

Table 3 RS-232 Pinouts

V.35

ITU-T (International Telecommunication Union - Telecommunication Standardization

Sector) created an entire V.xx series of standards. The V.35 standard is a physical
layer protocol suitable for connections to a packet network at speeds up to 48 Kbps,
and beyond, even to 4 Mbps. This standard specifies synchronous communication.

HSSI

Both the ISO and the ITU-T are currently reviewing HSSI (High Speed Serial
Interface) for standardization. HSSI is a DTE/DCE interface that handles high-speed
communication over WAN links. {Answer to Self Test Question #16}This is a physical
layer specification of a point-to-point connection that runs at speeds up to 52 Mbps
using shielded twisted-pair copper wire.

BRI Interfaces

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{Answer to Self Test Question #36}BRI (Basic Rate Interface) is an ISDN (Integrated
Services Digital Network) term for an ISDN connection consisting of two B channels
at 64 Kbps and one D channel at 16 Kbps. A terminal adapter is a modem-like device
used to connect the DTE device to the ISDN circuit. The ITU-T's BRI standard
specification for the physical layer includes data transmission for the B channels and
signaling, framing control, and other overhead control information on the D channel.

Network Clock

{Answer to Self Test Question #37}Synchronizing network timing is handled at the

physical layer of the OSI reference model. This clocking of the network bitstream can
improve throughput, and is mandatory for WAN circuits. Specifications for clocking
are included in the framing format and control mechanisms defined in interface
standards.

From the Classroom

Setting Up a Lab Network

This is a long chapter, filled with dry information about abstract concepts. In the ICRC
classes, this material used to take the better part of the first day. The students were
always frustrated, because their primary motivation in coming to class in the first
place was to get their hands on some actual routers! One of the things we used to do
to help break up the tedium of non-stop lectures was to have the students help cable
up the classroom network. In contrast to the course's focus on layer 3, with a little
about layer 2, putting the equipment together into a network is purely a physical layer
activity. I'd like to walk you through some of the considerations for setting up a
classroom or a lab network, in case you need to set up one of your own someday.

The classroom network uses a combination of Ethernet and serial connections. The
Ethernet connections are simple to set up, but there are still a few items to pay
attention to. In the past, Cisco made no assumptions as to which Ethernet media the
customer would use, so the interface provided on the older products is AUI only. This
interface is useful for a 10Base5 network, but most customers use 10Base2 or
10Base-T, both of which require a transceiver to be attached to the AUI interface to
convert the signal and make the physical connection to the network cable.

Newer Cisco products provide a dual-media interface for Ethernet, which you can
recognize by the RJ-45 receptacle for a 10Base-T cable alongside an AUI interface.
Cisco is not giving you two Ethernets for the price of one here; you can use one or
the other, but not both simultaneously. The trick with this one is that the default media
type for this interface is AUI, which is probably not the one you want! You will need to
configure the router interface explicitly to use the RJ-45 connector. The command to
use is media-type 10baset.

In most production networks, the serial interfaces would connect the router to a
CSU/DSU, which would connect to a WAN service provider's network. The router
would be a DTE device and would take a clock signal for that line from the provider's
network clock. In the lab there's no provider to give us a clock signal, and there's no
CSU/DSU. You will need to do two things to accommodate these differences in order

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to make the serial connections work in the lab: use back-to-back cable pairs, and
configure a clock rate in the router.

Serial interfaces on most Cisco routers use a DB-60 high-density connector on the
router end. The cables are called transition cables because the non-router end
determines its electrical signaling. These might be EIA/TIA-232, V.35, X.21 or RS-
449. In a production network, the cable you would buy to connect to your CSU/DSU
would most likely be a male DTE V.35 cable. If we are making a connection between
two routers in the lab, however, there won't be a CSU/DSU, so the male cable will
need to connect to a female DCE cable of the same signaling type in a back-to-back
arrangement.

Now we have a connection made, but the router needs to get clocking for those
connections from somewhere, since we don't have a provider's network to take it
from. In the lab, you need to configure one end-the DCE end only-of each serial
connection with a clock rate, which will dictate the speed at which the connection will
transfer data. Use the clock rate command for this. The maximum clock rate you can
specify will depend on the cable you are using. The V.35 cable will allow a clock rate
up to 4 Mbps, while the EIA/TIA-232 will allow only 128 Kbps. You don't need to
configure a clock rate on the DTE end of the connection.

A last word about serial cables: Cisco cables list for $100 apiece, so if you are using
serial connections in your lab, you will need a $200 cable pair for each one. You
might think that you're getting a rugged product for that price, but you're not. There
are two pitfalls here: folded pins and upside-down cable attachments. The DB-60
high-density connectors are extremely delicate and the pins will fold up inside very
easily if you're careless, ruining the cable. Be sure to watch the orientation of your
cables with respect to the router interface before you attach them! The 60 pins are
arranged in a matrix with four identical rows of 15 pins each, and the metal sleeve of
the D-connector is thin and pliable, so you can physically attach the cable to the
router upside-down without noticing it. It won't work this way, of course, so you may
be in for hours of futile troubleshooting before you discover the problem.

-Pamela Forsyth, CCIE, CCSI, CNX

Wide Area Network Services

WAN services are networks in their own right, just without workstations connected to
the link between the two networks. Figure 1-10 shows a WAN link. The purpose of a
WAN connection is to be able to transmit data between two distant networks as
efficiently as possible. The more efficient the link, the more transparent the
connection to the end users. WAN links are typically slower than LAN links. For
example, a T-1 is 1.544 Mbps, while Ethernet 10BaseT is 10 Mbps.

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Figure 10 Two LANs connected by a WAN link

Point to Point

SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol) is a legacy UNIX physical layer protocol for
providing serial connections between two networks, or between a network and a
remote node. Because of the universal nature of serial connection devices and
interfaces, such as the RS-232 interface, SLIP was embraced.

PPP was designed to address the shortcomings of SLIP and the need for standard
Internet encapsulation protocol. PPP (Point to Point Protocol) is the next generation
of SLIP, but works at both the physical and the data link layers. PPP includes
enhancements such as encryption, error control, security, dynamic IP addressing,
multiple protocol support and automatic connection negotiation. PPP will work over
serial lines, ISDN, and high-speed WAN links. The PPP data frame is shown in
Figure 1-11.

Figure 11 PPP data frame

In addition to a frame with data, there are other frames that PPP uses. An LCP (Link
Control Protocol) frame is used to establish and configure the connection.{Answer to
Self Test Question #38} An NCP (Network Control Protocol) frame is used to select
and configure the network layer protocols. Explicit LCP frames are used to close the
link.

Frame Relay

Frame Relay is a widely used packet-switched WAN protocol standardized by the

ITU-T. Frame Relay relies on the physical and data link layer interface between DTE
and DCE devices. Frame Relay networks are either public, and provided by carriers,
or privately owned. Frame Relay is a widely used packet-switching WAN protocol
standardized by the ITU-T. The key benefit of Frame Relay is the capability to
connect with multiple WAN sites through a single link. This makes Frame Relay much
cheaper than point-to-point circuits for large WANs. Dedicated point-to-point circuits
connect the customer into a nearby Frame Relay switch at the carrier. From there,
the Frame Relay switches work like routers, forwarding packets through the carrier's
network, based on addressing in the packet header.
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Frame Relay is very similar to the X.25 protocol. It uses a virtual circuit-permanent
(PVC) or switched (SVC)-between the source and destination, and uses statistical
multiplexing for managing multiple data streams. Because of the reliability of the
media, error correction is handled at higher protocol layers. There is a CRC to detect
and discard corrupted data, but Frame Relay does not request retransmission.
Instead Frame Relay relies on higher-level protocols for error correction.

{Answer to Self Test Question #41}SVCs are temporary links best used in networks
with sporadic data transmission. An SVC session begins with a call setup that creates
the virtual circuit. Then comes the data transfer, then an idle phase for a defined
period, keeping the circuit open in case of more data. Finally, there is a call
termination.

PVCs are permanently established links and are the most common implementation of
Frame Relay. There are only two session operations, data transfer and idle. The
carrier service configures the PVC, since it is routed through the carrier's
internetwork. (See Figure 1-12.)

Figure 12: Carrier's Frame Relay Network

An important concept to know about Frame Relay is Data Link Connection Identifier
(DLCI). The DLCI is a number used locally by a DTE and assigned by the Frame
Relay provider.{Answer to Self Test Question #40} It refers to the connection between
two DTEs in the Frame Relay network. Because it is a local identifier, each DTE may
use a different number to identify the link.

19
 Begin Q&A

Shari is configuring the DLCI for a PVC between The provider should have specified that the DLCI
Portland and Phoenix. The provider gave her two for Portland was 14 and that the DLCI for
numbers: 12 and 14, and assigned them to the Phoenix was 12. The local identifier was wrong
link. Shari arbitrarily uses 12 for Portland and 14 and the link did not come up.
for Phoenix. When the link is completely
configured, it does not work. Why?

In order to maximize throughput, flow control uses a congestion notification method.

{Answer to Self Test Question #39} FECN (forward-explicit congestion notification) is
a bit in the frame that is set to a "1" when the frame experiences congestion between
source and destination. The DTE device sends this information to upper protocol
layers in order to begin controlling the flow. BECN (backward-explicit congestion
notification) is a bit that is set to "1" when an FECN frame has been received that
experienced congestion between source and destination. FECN and BECN are one-
bit fields may be set to "0" as well, which means there is no congestion or that the
congestion notification feature is not implemented by the switches in the network.
The bits exist in the header at all times, no matter what their value. (See Figure 1-13)

Figure 13 Frame Relay frame format

X.25

{Answer to Self Test Question #42}The ITU-T X.25 standard describes the physical,
and data link, and network layer protocols for a legacy packet-switching protocol. The
physical layer protocol is X.21, which is roughly equivalent to the RS-232 serial
interface. The data link layer protocol is LAPB (Link Access Protocol Balanced). The
network layer specifies PLP (Packet Level Protocol).

{Answer to Self Test Question #43}Like Frame Relay, X.25 uses PVCs and SVCs, but
its link speeds of 9.6 to 256 Kbps are slower. The data transfer rate is relatively slow
compared to newer protocols, because X.25 was defined when media transmission
quality was poor. As a result, the protocol specifies that each switching node must
fully receive each packet and verify that there are no errors before sending it on to
the next node. X.25 may utilize variable-sized packets. As a result of the hop-by-hop
error checking and retransmission, and the variable packet size, X.25 is very slow.
With the reliability of today's transmission lines, X.25 has a hard time competing with
higher-performance protocols, like Frame Relay, that do not offer guaranteed
delivery. Frame relay has no error recovery at all-errored packets are dropped
without notification. Error checking is only done when the frame-relay frame gets to
its final destination.

20
X.25 uses a point-to-point connection between DTE and DCE. Via a PAD (packet
assembler/disassembler), the DTE connects to a carrier-provided DCE, which in turn
connects to a packet-switching exchange (PSE or switch), and eventually reaches a
destination DTE.

ISDN

Integrated Services Digital Network was standardized by the ITU-T. It was developed
as a project to upgrade the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) to a digital
service. The physical specification for transmission medium is copper wire.

There are several components to ISDN, as illustrated in Figure 1-14. There is

terminal equipment, network termination, and adapters of the following types.

 TE1 - Terminal Equipment type 1ISDN terminals 

 TE2 - Terminal Equipment type 2pre-ISDN type terminals 
 NT1 - Network Termination type 1equipment that connects the 
subscription 4 wires to the 2 wire local loop
 NT2 - Network Termination type 2equipment that performs protocol 
functions of the data link and network layers.
 TA - Terminal Adapterused with a pre-ISDN terminal (TE2) to adapt it to  an
ISDN connection.

Figure 14 ISDN equipment connections

When ordering ISDN, consumers usually have the choice between BR (Basic Rate)
and PR (Primary Rate) and Hybrid. There are various digital channels that make up
these two configurations. The available digital channels are:

 Aanalog telephone, 4 KHz 

 Bdigital data, 64 Kbps 
 Cdigital out-of-band, 8 or 16 Kbps 
 Ddigital out-of-band, 16 or 64 Kbps with three sub-channels: s  (signaling), t
(telemetry), p (packet data)
 Edigital channel for internal ISDN signaling, 64 Kbps 
 Hdigital channel at 384 Kbps, 1536 Kbps or 1920 Kbps 

BR consists of two B channels and one D channel, and with control information has
an effective bit rate of 192 Kbps. PR consists of one D channel and 23 B channels,
with a bandwidth of 1.544 Mbps. In Europe, PR has one D channel and 30 B
channels. Hybrid is a single A channel and a single C channel.

Note that LAPD (link access procedure for the D channel) is the signalling protocol
used to set up ISDN calls for ISDN BRI at the data link layer.
21
ATM

{Answer to Self Test Question #44}ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) is a cell-

switching protocol that uses a fixed 53-byte cell length and a cell relay method that
reduces transmission delays. ATM can transmit voice, video, and data over variable-
speed LAN and WAN links from DS-1 (1.544 Mbps) to as high as 622 Mbps. The key
to ATM's high speed is within the fixed cell length. The fixed cell length enables
routers to relay cells at the hardware level, using less processing power and
increasing the data transmission.

The ITU-T developed ATM as the result of a broadband integrated services signal
network study. It evolved further from the work of the ATM Forum founded by Cisco,
Net/Adaptive, Northern Telecom and Sprint. The technology used is VLSI (very large-
scale integration), which segments data frames at high speeds into small, fixed units
known as cells.

VLSI technology made possible the development of ASICs (application-specific

integrated circuits) specifically to perform the segmentation and reassembly of data
in hardware rather than in software. Along with the fixed cell size, this is what makes
it possible to operate ATM circuits efficiently at such breathtaking speeds, now up to
OC-48 (2 Gbps).

The cells relay through ATM switch devices that analyze the cell header and switch it
to the correct output interface, in a switch-to-switch path until the cell reaches its final
destination. The asynchronous method uses time slots that are available upon
demand, rather than strict and wasteful time division multiplexing.

{Answer to Self Test Question #45}There are two header formats: UNI and NNI
(Network Node Interface). UNI is the communication between end nodes and ATM
switches. NNI is the communication between two ATM switches. The diagram in
Figure 1-15 displays the two different header formats.

Figure 15 UNI and NNI cell header formats

ATM uses its own reference model, parts of which are analogous to the OSI
reference model. The ATM layer and the ATM adaptation layer are roughly equivalent

22
to the data link layer, and the ATM physical layer is analogous to the OSI physical
layer.

The ATM physical layer is responsible for the bitstream transmission. The ATM
physical layer contains two sublayers: physical medium and transmission
convergence. The physical medium transmits the bitstream and timing
synchronization information. The physical media that are supported are
SONET/SDH, DS-1, DS-3/E3, OC-3, OC-12, 155 Mbps UTP, 100 Mbps FDDI, and
155 Mbps Fiber Channel. The transmission convergence manages cell delineation
and header error control data, and packages ATM cells into frames that work with the
physical media.

The ATM layer establishes connections and relays cells using the cell header
information. It is responsible for mapping network layer addresses to ATM addresses.
The ATM adaptation layer (AAL) translates the larger data packets into cells.

ATM is similar to Frame Relay in its switching mechanisms. Instead of switching

variable-length packets over PVCs and SVCs, ATM switches fixed-length cells
through the internetwork. ATM devices connect directly to an ATM switch.

In order to deliver voice, video, and data in an appropriate fashion, ATM has
implemented new features. One of these is called Quality of Service (QoS). Quality of
Service allows an ATM device to prioritize data based on the content. Thus, delivery
of a file transfer can take a backseat to a video transmission, since the bursty data
transfer of the file will not affect the quality of the service. On the other hand, a video
transmission that stopped in the middle of a screen would be considered problematic.

Network Layer and Path Determination

The main services provided at the network layer are logical addressing of the node
and network segments. As a result, the routing of data between the logical addresses
is handled at the network layer. IP of the IP protocol suite is considered a network
layer protocol. Data is broken into "packets" at this layer.

The network layer is where internetworking takes place. While the data link layer
protocols have features that enable data to be passed from one node to another
node on the same link, network layer protocols enable data to be passed from one
network to another. This means that the network layer protocols must always contain
addressing information that uniquely identifies networks within the internetwork.

Layer 3 Addresses
Networking itself is the capability to share data between two nodes. Being able to
simply locate the nodes on the network is one of the most basic and important
functions in networking. The network layer not only provides a unique node address,
but also a unique network address. This enables the routing of data between
networks.

Layer 3, or the network layer, is where addressing is most important. When applying
the OSI reference model to the IP protocol suite, IP (Internet Protocol) would be at
layer 3. The IP addressing scheme determines the network that a node is on and the
23
logical node address on the network. The logical node address is often the same as
the MAC address in other protocols, although it is not in IP. This is dealt with on the
lower data link layer (layer 2). Note that in Novell IPX, for instance, the MAC address
is used for the network-layer node address without modification.

A network layer address is also called a logical address or software address. {Answer
to Self Test Question #17}Network layer addresses are hierarchical, and provide both
the network and the node address. A router can easily separate the addresses to be
sent on a particular interface by simply looking at the initial network portion of the
address-the network address. When the packet reaches the destination network, the
node address portion is used to locate the specific station.

Routed Protocols vs. Routing Protocols

Routed protocols are used by end nodes to encapsulate data into packets along with
network-layer addressing information so it can be relayed through the internetwork.
AppleTalk, IP, and IPX are all routed protocols. When a protocol does not support a
network layer address, then it is a non-routed protocol.

Routers use routing protocols to build and maintain routing tables and to forward data
packets along the best path toward their destination networks. Routing protocols
enable routers to learn about the status of networks that are not directly connected to
them, and to communicate to other routers about the networks they are aware of.
This communication is carried out on a continuing basis so the information in the
routing table is updated as changes occur in the internetwork.

The characteristics that distinguish one routing protocol from another include:

 the routed protocol for which it maintains information

 the way the routers communicate among each other
 how often this communication takes place
 the algorithm and metrics used to determine the best path
 how long it takes for news of a change to be communicated throughout the
network"

Examples of routing protocols include RTMP, OSPF, and RIP.

Routing Algorithms and Metrics

A routing algorithm is the calculation that the routing protocol uses to determine the
best route to a destination network. The simpler the routing algorithm, the less
processing power the router will use. This, in turn, keeps the overhead low on the
router.

Metrics are values used to determine which route is preferable. Depending on the
routing protocol, different factors determine a route's metric, including the number of
hops, link speeds, delay, reliability, and load. The resulting metrics are stored with the
routes in a routing table or a link-state database.

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Transport Layer

The transport layer provides data transport services, effectively shielding the upper
layers from data transfer issues. Transport layer services are concerned with the
reliability of the connection, establishing virtual circuits, error detection and recovery,
and flow control. When the OSI model is applied to the IP protocol suite, TCP and
UDP are both transport layer protocols.

Reliability
{Answer to Self Test Question #18} Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is
considered a reliable, connection-oriented protocol. User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is
unreliable and connectionless. The difference between a reliable and unreliable
protocol is the acknowledgment to the sender that data has been received. There is
more overhead involved with a reliable protocol because of the acknowledgments.
On the other hand, unreliable protocols do not guarantee delivery of data, and can be
prone to more errors in delivery.

Connectionless, or unreliable, protocols are used quite often when reliability issues
such as sequencing and error recovery are addressed at the application layer. The
advantage is that because they have fewer features, the overhead is very low.

Windowing
When some transport protocols negotiate a reliable connection between two nodes
on an internetwork, they also negotiate a moving target of the amount of data that
can be transmitted at any one time. That moving target is called a sliding window.
This process is called Windowing.

Upper-Layer Protocols

The term upper-layer protocols refers to the session, presentation, and application
layer protocols. The application layer provides basic services such as file transfer and
network management to applications. It establishes the availability of destination
nodes, and identifies the application synchronization between the nodes.

{Answer to Self Test Question #19}Presentation layer is aptly named, for this layer
handles the formatting of data, or presentation of that data. Services in the
presentation layer include data encryption. The presentation layer protocol can also
negotiate the syntax of the data in order for translation to occur with the destination
node.

As the name implies, the session layer establishes the session between two network
nodes, maintains it, and terminates it as well. Services at this layer include class of
service, data prioritization, and reporting errors for the upper two layers.

25
Cisco Routers, Switches, and Hubs

{Answer to Self Test Question #46}Cisco IOS Software (Internetworking Operating

System) is the software that runs on the Cisco products. This platform is integral to
the interoperations of network devices in a Cisco internetwork. Cisco IOS includes
security, access control, authentication, firewall, encryption, management services,
and support for IBM connectivity, switching, voice and multimedia, and quality of
service. The main purpose of IOS is to boot the Cisco hardware and begin the
optimal transport of data across the internetwork.

Of the internetwork routers available from Cisco, the Gigabit Switched 12000 series
routers are built to handle the fastest backbone traffic. Gigabit switched traffic is
standard, where the backbones of these routers can handle up to 4, 8 or 12 cards
(depending on which router selected) that are OC-3 to OC-48 compliant. The target
network for a Gigabit Switched 12000 series router running Cisco IOS are Internet
service providers, enterprise WAN backbones, and other high-throughput
internetworks needing speeds of even 2.4Gbps and up. It supports SONET, ATM,
and DS-3/E-3 connections.

The platform for multiprotocol routers is the Cisco 7000 series routers, which run the
Cisco IOS. The 7500 high-end series features Cisco Extended Bus (Cybus) which is
connected to the external network through network interfaces connected to modular
interface processors. The 7500 series supports any combination of the following.

 ATM
 Channelized T3
 FDDI
 Multichannel T1/E1
 HSSI
 Packet OC-3
 Synchronous serial
 Token Ring
 Ethernet
 Fast Ethernet

In order to avoid network service interruption, the 7500 series supports online
software reconfiguration without rebooting, online insertion and removal of new
interface processors without rebooting, a fast boot process, self-diagnostics, and dual
power supply options for some of the versions.

Cisco offers several routers built to provide the price and performance needed in
smaller, workgroup-oriented LANs and WANs. These routers include the 2500 series,
the 3600 series and the 4000 series. They support the most widely used protocols
and physical media, from Ethernet and Token Ring to FDDI.

Switching services are becoming more popular due to the immediate speed
improvements they can bring to a LAN. Switches can be connected to hubs or
directly to workstations and servers. The algorithms used to determine the location of
a hardware device effectively give each port a full throughput of 10 Mbps on Ethernet
10BaseT LANs. The Catalyst series switches normally come with a 100BaseT port,
26
or ports, allowing the switch to be connected to a 100BaseT backbone or high-
performance server. The most common Catalyst switch is the 2820, or 1900 version.

Catalyst 1900/2820 switch is a flexible switch that can be integrated in anything from
a small LAN to an enterprise WAN.{Answer to Self Test Question #47} It includes
three switching modes: fastforward, fragmentfree, and store and forward. The
fastforward mode begins forwarding a frame as soon as the MAC address is learned.
Fragmentfree mode begins forwarding a frame as soon as it reaches 64 bytes, which
is determined to be the threshold for fragment size. And store and forward receives
the complete frame and checks it for errors before forwarding it. Fastforward is the
default, as well as fastest mode. Store and forward is automatically used for packets
travelling between 10 Mbps ports and 100 Mbps ports. The mode must be set for the
switch if fastforward is not desired. The spanning tree protocol (IEEE 802.1d
standard) is used for transparently reconfiguring the switch when the network
topology changes.

Hubs are also available from Cisco in the FastHub Series. FastHubs are Ethernet
hubs that can be used alone, stacked together in a LAN workgroup, or connected to
Catalyst Switches to form VLANs (Virtual Local Area Networks). Other Cisco
products available include: Frame Relay PAD/routers, access routers for remote
access users, ISDN routers, ATM switches, firewalls, and other network management
hardware solutions.

Configuring a Cisco Switch and Hub

For any type of switch or hub, the following instructions apply.

 Unpack the hardware and verify the contents matches the packing list
 Stack or rack-mount (with the correct rubber feet or rack hardware) the switch
in a location that is no more than 100 meters from any attached 10BaseT
device, where the temperature is correct for the product, and which has
sufficient airflow.
 When selecting cables, use straight-through cables for all ports not marked
with an X. The X stands for crossover cables. Category 5 cables will work for
all ports except for the 100BaseFX port, which requires fiber-optic media.
 Verify that the voltage of the power outlet is the same as the voltage indicated
on the label, and connect the power.

There is a method to setting up a Cisco Catalyst 2820 switch. {Answer to Self Test
Question #20}This method demonstrates out-of-band management. That is, it
manages the switch from a terminal that is directly connected to a serial port on the
switch. This method has the advantage of working regardless of whether network
connectivity is available from the switch. The steps to setting up a Cisco Catalyst
2820 switch are:

1. Turn on the switch and watch POST (Power on self-test) where all the port
LEDs should turn Green and then Off.
2. Connect the devices to the hub using the correct cables.
3. Connect a VT-100 terminal or emulator to the EIA/TIA-232 (RS-232) port,
using the settings for 9600bps, 8 data bits, 1 stop bit and no parity, and logon.

27
 4. Press S to access the System Configuration Menu, and change the Switching
Mode by selecting S again. Then select the number for the switching mode
desired. This step is unnecessary if fastforward switching is desired.
5. Press X to exit to the Main Menu and then press N to access the Network
Management menu, which is where the protocol configuration is.
6. Select I to access IP Configuration, then select I again to assign an IP
address. When assigning an IP address any time after the first assignment,
the switch must be reset for the address to take effect. Select S and G to
assign the appropriate subnet mask and Default Gateway, respectively.
7. Select X to exit to the Main Menu, select S again for the System, and select R
to reset the switch and retain the assigned parameters.

Installing a FastHub 316C or FastHub 316T begins with the same unpacking and
verification procedures as the switch installation. After unpacking and physically
installing the hub, it can be further configured.

1. After plugging in the hub, and verifying POST, connect the devices to the RJ45
ports.
2. Connect a node to the console port, and configure the terminal emulation
program for 9600 baud, 8 data bits, 1 stop bit and no parity.
3. At the management console, log on.
4. Select the IP Configuration Menu. Set the IP address, subnet mask, default
gateway, and DNS server. Disable RIP if another routing protocol is being
used.
5. Exit to the Main Menu and Exit the console.

Certification Summary

A model for internetworks had to answer the challenges of interoperability and

interconnectivity. These challenges prompted the development of a layered protocol
model, both as a standardized model and one that was accepted due to its popular
use. TCP/IP developed as a four-layer popular model. The seven-layer OSI reference
model was developed and standardized by the ISO. The seven layers of the OSI
model are application, presentation, session, transport, network, data link, and
physical. Data travels through the protocol layers at the source by being broken into
smaller data units and having header information added for each layer. When the
data is reassembled and passed to the upper protocols at the destination, the header
is discarded for each layer that the data has passed through. This allows
independence of layers from each other. The header addition for each protocol layer
is called encapsulation.

The physical layer is responsible for the bitstream of data, and its transmission. The
data link layer consists of two sublayers: Logical Link Control and Media Access
Control. The MAC sublayer handles hardware addressing-MAC addresses. The LLC
sublayer handles control information in the frames, which are the data units at the
data link layer.

The IEEE (Institute for Electrical and Electronics Engineers) created an 802 series of
standards for physical and data link layer protocols. These included the standards for
Ethernet (802.3) and for Token Ring (802.5), among others. ANSI (American National
Standards Institute) created FDDI, a physical and data link layer standard that uses
optical fiber media.
28
Ethernet, originally created by DIX (Digital/Intel/Xerox) is a CSMA/CD protocol
allowing all nodes access to the network. If a collision occurs, the protocol has a
method of sensing the collision and retransmitting the data. Ethernet can use thick or
thin coax or unshielded twisted-pair copper wire. The rate of data transmission is
usually 10 Mbps, however, 1Base5 is 1 Mbps. The most common form of Ethernet is
10BaseT, but 100BaseT is gaining in popularity.

Token Ring is a token-passing ring topology that is wired in a star fashion. IBM
initially developed Token Ring. The physical medium used is generally shielded or
unshielded twisted-pair copper wire. In this protocol, any station that has data to send
must wait until a token frame is received. When the token is received, that station
may send the data. The receiving station copies the data and changes a bit on the
header, then forwards that data on to the original sending node. When the sending
node receives the frame, it releases the token and checks the header to see if the
data was received at its destination. With Token Ring, there are no collisions, so data
is only retransmitted if a frame is damaged.

FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) is a dual ring token-passing protocol, similar
to Token Ring, based on fiber-optic media. This has high-capacity speed for 100
Mbps. The dual ring topology uses a similar token-passing mechanism to Token
Ring, but includes the capacity for fault management by creating a single ring. FDDI
can be installed without using hubs, and it uses the secondary fiber ring to recover
from failures in the primary ring.

There are several physical interfaces used for connecting nodes to a network. The
most prevalent of interfaces is the RS-232 serial interface. V.35 is a physical layer
protocol. HSSI is a high-speed serial interface suitable for WAN connections. BRI
interfaces are used to connect to an ISDN line.

WAN links include Point to Point Protocol, which is a standard IP protocol used to
encapsulate data over IP, and can be used over serial connections. Frame Relay is a
packet network standard. X.25 is a legacy packet network standard that is very slow
as a result of its error checking at each packet switch in the data path. ISDN
connects to the digital telephone network. ATM is a cell-switching protocol for high-
speed LAN and WANs.

The network layer defines logical addresses for network nodes. Routed protocols
support network and node addressing at this layer, enabling packets to be routed
through the network. Routing protocols determine the path between two networks by
using routing algorithms and metrics, and by advertising their routes.

The transport layer handles reliability of data transfer, and can negotiate a sliding
window of data transmission in order to maximize throughput on a network.

The upper layer protocols-application, presentation, and session-handle the data

from the application, its format (such as encryption), and the session settings
between the source and destination nodes.

Two-Minute Drill

 A potential CCNA must have the knowledge to install, configure, and operate
simple-routed LAN, routed WAN, and switched LAN and LANE networks.
29
 Internetworking is the process and methodology applied to connecting multiple
networks, regardless of their physical topologies and distance.
 Interconnectivity is the means of transporting information between the
computers, inclusive of the physical media, the data packaging mechanism,
and the routing between multiple network equipment pieces from the starting
node until reaching the destination node.
 Interoperability is the methodology applied to make data understandable to
computers that use proprietary or simply different computer operating systems
and languages.
 The OSI reference model provides a hierarchical tool for understanding
networking technology, as well as a basis for current and future network
developments.
 The OSI model is a seven-layer protocol suite model.
 A common mnemonic device for remembering the layers (application,
presentation, session, transport, network, data link, physical) in the right order
is All People Seem To Need Data Processing.
 Encapsulation is the process of adding a header to the data, or wrapping the
data.
 The physical layer, or layer 1, defines the actual mechanical specifications and
electrical data bitstream.
 The data link layer, or layer 2, is also known as the link layer. It consists of two
sublayers, the upper level being the Logical Link Control (LLC), and the lower
level being the Media Access Control (MAC).
 802.3 specifies the physical layer and the MAC portion of the data link layer,
while DIX Ethernet specifies the entire physical and data link layers. 802.3
specifies different physical layers, but DIX Ethernet only specifies one.
 Token Ring networks are nearly identical and compatible with the IEEE 802.5
specification developed later, which was based on IBM's Token Ring.
 The FDDI standard specifies the physical and MAC portion of the data link
layers for a token-passing, dual-ring topology using fiber-optic media at 100
Mbps.
 The data link layer consists of two sublayers: Logical Link Control (LLC) and
Media Access Control (MAC).
 Interfaces are used to connect data terminal equipment (DTE) and data
circuit-terminating equipment (DCE) devices.
 In the RS-232 serial port, one pin is used to transmit data, another to receive
data.
 The V.35 standard is a physical layer protocol suitable for connections to a
packet network at speeds up to 48 Kbps, and beyond, even to 4 Mbps.
 HSSI is a DTE/DCE interface that handles high-speed communication over
WAN links.
 BRI (Basic Rate Interface) is an ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)
term for an ISDN connection consisting of two B channels at 64 Kbps and one
D channel at 16 Kbps.
 Synchronizing network timing is handled at the physical layer of the OSI
reference model.
 The purpose of a WAN connection is to be able to transmit data between two
distant networks as efficiently as possible.
 SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol) is a legacy UNIX physical layer protocol for
providing serial connections between two networks, or between a network and
a remote node.

30
 PPP includes enhancements such as encryption, error control, security,
dynamic IP addressing, multiple protocol support and automatic connection
negotiation. PPP will work over serial lines, ISDN, and high-speed WAN links.
 Frame Relay is a widely used packet-switched WAN protocol standardized by
the ITU-T. Frame Relay relies on the physical and data link layer interface
between DTE and DCE devices.
 The ITU-T X.25 standard describes the physical, data link, and network layer
protocols for a legacy packet-switching protocol.
 Integrated Services Digital Network was developed as a project to upgrade the
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) to a digital service.
 ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) is a cell-switching protocol that uses a
fixed 53-byte cell length and a cell relay method that reduces transmission
delays.
 The main services provided at the network layer are logical addressing of the
node and network segments.
 Layer 3, or the network layer, is where addressing is most important.
 Routed protocols are used by end nodes to encapsulate data into packets
along with network-layer addressing information so it can be relayed through
the internetwork.
 A routing algorithm is the calculation that the routing protocol uses to
determine the best route to a destination network.
 The transport layer provides data transport services, effectively shielding the
upper layers from data transfer issues.
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is considered a reliable, connection-
oriented protocol. User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is unreliable and
connectionless.
 The term upper-layer protocols refers to the session, presentation, and
application layer protocols.
 Cisco IOS Software (Internetworking Operating System) is the software that
runs on the Cisco products. This platform is integral to the interoperations of
network devices in a Cisco internetwork.

31