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Failure to Thrive

Article in American family physician · October 2003

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Failure to Thrive
SCOTT D. KRUGMAN, M.D., Franklin Square Hospital Center, Baltimore, Maryland
HOWARD DUBOWITZ, M.D., M.S., University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland

Failure to thrive is a condition commonly seen by primary care physicians. Prompt diag-
nosis and intervention are important for preventing malnutrition and developmental O A patient informa-
sequelae. Medical and social factors often contribute to failure to thrive. Either extreme tion handout about
failure to thrive, writ-
of parental attention (neglect or hypervigilance) can lead to failure to thrive. About
ten by the authors of
25 percent of normal infants will shift to a lower growth percentile in the first two years this article, is provided
of life and then follow that percentile; this should not be diagnosed as failure to thrive. on page 886.
Infants with Down syndrome, intrauterine growth retardation, or premature birth follow
different growth patterns than normal infants. Many infants with failure to thrive are not
identified unless careful attention is paid to plotting growth parameters at routine check-
ups. A thorough history is the best guide to establishing the etiology of the failure to
thrive and directing further evaluation and management. All children with failure to
thrive need additional calories for catch-up growth (typically 150 percent of the caloric
requirement for their expected, not actual, weight). Few need laboratory evaluation.
Hospitalization is rarely required and is indicated only for severe failure to thrive and for
those whose safety is a concern. A multidisciplinary approach is recommended when fail-
ure to thrive persists despite intervention or when it is severe. (Am Fam Physician 2003;
68:879-84,886. Copyright© 2003 American Academy of Family Physicians.)

T
See page 785 for defi- he recognition of growth and NCHS growth chart or if it crosses two major
nitions of strength-of- developmental problems in percentile lines.3 Recent research has validated
evidence levels.
infants and children is one of the that the weight-for-age approach is the sim-
major challenges facing primary plest and most reasonable marker for FTT.4
care physicians. Failure to thrive Other growth parameters that can assist in
(FTT) is a common condition of varying eti- making the diagnosis of FTT are weight for
ologies that has been associated with adverse height and height for age. FTT is diagnosed if
effects on later growth and cognitive develop- a child falls below the 10th percentile for
ment.1,2 Primary care physicians need to be either of these measurements.
able to diagnose and manage FTT promptly to
reduce the risk of long-term sequelae. Etiology and Differential Diagnosis
Historically, FTT has been classified as
Definition organic or nonorganic. Usually, this distinction
FTT is best defined as inadequate physical is not useful because most children have mixed
growth diagnosed by observation of growth etiologies.5 For example, a child may have a
over time using a standard growth chart. The medical disorder that causes feeding problems
National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) and family stress. The stress can compound the
recently released improved growth charts that feeding problem and aggravate FTT. A more
can be found at www.cdc.gov. While defini- useful classification system is based on patho-
tions of FTT have varied, most practitioners physiology—inadequate caloric intake, inade-
diagnose FTT when a child’s weight for age quate absorption, excess metabolic demand, or
falls below the fifth percentile of the standard defective utilization. This classification leads to
a logical organization of the many conditions
that cause or contribute to FTT (Table 1).
Failure to thrive is diagnosed when a child’s weight for age is Stress and other psychosocial factors fre-
quently contribute to FTT. For example, a
below the fifth percentile or crosses two major percentile lines.
depressed mother may not feed her infant
adequately. The infant may become with-

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TABLE 1
Selective Differential Diagnosis of Failure to Thrive

Inadequate caloric intake

Incorrect preparation of formula (too diluted, too concentrated)
Unsuitable feeding habits (food fads, excessive juice)
Behavior problems affecting eating
Poverty and food shortages
Neglect modified growth charts for specific popula-
Disturbed parent-child relationship tions, such as premature infants,8 exclusively
Mechanical feeding difficulties (oromotor dysfunction, congenital anomalies, breastfed infants, specific ethnicities (e.g.,
central nervous system damage, severe reflux) Asian), and infants with genetic syndromes
Inadequate absorption (e.g., Down syndrome),9 can help reassure the
Celiac disease physician that these children are growing
Cystic fibrosis appropriately.
Cow’s milk protein allergy
Vitamin or mineral deficiencies (acrodermatitis enteropathica, scurvy) Evaluation
Biliary atresia or liver disease RECOGNIZING F T T
Necrotizing enterocolitis or short-gut syndrome
The key to diagnosing FTT is finding the
Increased metabolism time in busy clinical practice to accurately
Hyperthyroidism measure and plot a child’s weight, height, and
Chronic infection (human immunodeficiency virus or other immunodeficiency,
head circumference, and then assess the trend.
malignancy, renal disease)
Hypoxemia (congenital heart defects, chronic lung disease)
One study10 from England demonstrated that
54 percent of general practitioners had not
Defective utilization
diagnosed FTT although a child’s weight for
Genetic abnormalities (trisomies 21, 18, and 13)
Congenital infections
age fell below two major percentile lines. In
Metabolic disorders (storage diseases, amino acid disorders) addition, a pilot study11 performed at a family
practice residency clinic found that of 29 chil-
dren diagnosed with FTT, 100 percent of the
charts contained measurements that were
drawn, responding to the mother’s depres- incorrectly plotted. The diagnosis was delayed
sion, and feed less well. Another example is in 41 percent of the patients.
when parents are overly anxious about a
child’s feeding. Coercive practices can lead to HISTORY
feeding behavior problems and FTT. After determining that FTT is a concern, the
Growth variation in normal infants can evaluation should focus on a careful history,
confound the diagnosis of FTT. Approximately including an assessment of diet and feeding or
25 percent of children will shift down their eating behaviors, and past and current med-
weight or height by more than 25 percentile ical, social, and family history. Table 2 details
points in the first two years of life.6 These chil- items that should be covered in each category.
dren are falling to their genetic potential or It is important to ascertain the child’s devel-
demonstrating constitutional growth delay opmental status at the time of diagnosis because
(slow growth with a bone age less than children with FTT have a higher incidence of
chronologic age). After shifting down, these developmental delays than the general popula-
infants grow at a normal rate along their new tion.12 Physicians should still be concerned
percentile and do not have FTT. about a child without developmental delays
Specific infant populations with growth who is failing to thrive. FTT is primarily a
variations also need to be considered when growth disorder, not a developmental problem.
making the diagnosis of FTT. Infants who
have had intrauterine growth retardation or PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
premature infants may appear to have FTT A complete physical examination is essen-
when they grow at less than the fifth per- tial, with four main goals: (1) identification of
centile. As long as the child is growing along a dysmorphic features suggestive of a genetic
curve with a normal interval growth rate, FTT disorder impeding growth; (2) detection of
should not be diagnosed.7 In addition, using underlying disease that may impair growth;

880 AMERICAN FAMILY PHYSICIAN www.aafp.org/afp VOLUME 68, NUMBER 5 / SEPTEMBER 1, 2003
TABLE 2
Evaluation of Failure to Thrive: History

History Implication

Dietary history
Important to be as specific as possible (one-day log of all foods Quantify total caloric intake.
given and eaten)
Amount of food and/or formula
Attempt to quantify total caloric intake (for infants)
Is the formula prepared correctly? Too diluted = too few calories; too concentrated
= unpalatable, infant may refuse to drink
Types of food
Beverage consumption–specifically milk, juice, sodas, and water Excess fruit juice as cause for FTT
Feeding history
When does the child eat? Where? With whom? Distracted infants, inappropriate supervision
How is the child fed–self, spoon, other? Positioning? Inappropriate feeding techniques for developmental stage
Feeding battles Food refusal
Snack intake–what, how often is the child grazing? Poor mealtime eating caused by snacking and early satiety
Past and current medical history
Birth history–complications, small for gestational age, prematurity Differentiate FTT from small for gestational age.
Recent acute illnesses–otitis media, gastroenteritis, recurrent Growth may improve shortly on own, but needs close follow-up.
viral infections
Chronic medical conditions–anemia, asthma, congenital heart disease Organic causes of FTT
Past hospitalizations, injuries, accidents Evaluate for neglect or child abuse.
Stool pattern–frequency, consistency, blood, mucus Rule out malabsorption (cystic fibrosis, celiac disease), infection,
and allergy.
Vomiting, reflux, or other gastrointestinal symptoms Evaluate for milk protein allergy, gastroesophageal reflux,
and infection.
Social history
Who lives in the home? Identify those caring for the child.
Who are the caregivers?
Who helps support the family? Assess adequate quantity of food.
What is the child’s temperament? High-strung, colicky children may have feeding difficulty.
Any important stressors–economic, intrafamilial, major life events? May lead to inadequate food supply, depressed parents, neglect
Does anyone at home have a problem with alcohol or drugs? Neglect
Other children with neglect, FTT, Children’s Protective Service reports? History of neglect
Family history
Medical conditions or FTT in siblings Predisposition to organic or genetic causes of FTT
Family members with short stature Check midparental height formula.*
Differentiate between falling to expected height and true FTT.
Mental illness Caretakers with mental illness who may be unable to care
for child

FTT = failure to thrive.

*—[(dad’s height in cm + mom’s height in cm) ± 13 cm] ÷ 2.
NOTE: Add 13 cm for boys, subtract 13 cm for girls. For example, if a girl has a mother who is 5 ft, 5 in (165 cm) tall and a father who is 5 ft,
10 in (178 cm) tall, her expected adult height is [(178 + 165) –13] ÷ 2, or 165 cm. This height falls between the 50th and 75th percentiles
for an 18-year-old girl, and this curve is followed to the actual age to predict the expected height.

(3) assessment for signs of possible child age with the expected weight (50th percentile)
abuse; and (4) assessment of the severity and at that age, the degree of malnutrition can be
possible effects of malnutrition.12,13 The sever- assessed. If the weight is less than 60 percent of
ity of a child’s undernutrition can be deter- expected, the FTT is considered severe, 61 to
mined most easily by using the Gomez criteria. 75 percent denotes moderate FTT, and 76 to
By comparing the child’s current weight for 90 percent is mild.14

SEPTEMBER 1, 2003 / VOLUME 68, NUMBER 5 www.aafp.org/afp AMERICAN FAMILY PHYSICIAN 881
 the majority of children with FTT have no
No routine laboratory tests are ordered in the initial work-up laboratory abnormalities. In a classic study of
of failure to thrive unless suggested by the history or physical hospitalized children with FTT, only 1.4 per-
cent (36 of 2,607 tests) were of diagnostic
examination.
assistance.15 [Evidence level B, historical,
uncontrolled study] A practical approach to
laboratory studies is to not order any at the
PARENT-CHILD INTERACTION time of diagnosis, unless suggested by the his-
FTT often involves psychosocial problems tory or physical examination. For example, a
compromising the relationship or fit between history of steatorrhea (greasy, malodorous
parent and child. Observing the interaction stools) should prompt the physician to send a
between a parent and child, especially during stool sample for fecal fat and perhaps order a
a feeding session in the office, may provide sweat test if there is suspicion of cystic fibrosis.
valuable information about the etiology of If the child’s growth has not improved, screen-
FTT.3,12 Parents can be asked to feed an infant ing tests to consider at the next visit include a
or bring in a snack for a toddler. The assess- complete blood count and a urinalysis. If FTT
ment should be done at a time when the child persists despite an adequate diet, malabsorp-
is hungry. It is important to pay attention to a tion can be further investigated by obtaining
caregiver’s ability to recognize the child’s cues, stool for fat and reducing substances, and pos-
the child’s responsiveness, and the parental sibly obtaining a celiac antibody profile.
warmth and appropriate behavior toward the
child.12 It is similarly important to observe the Management Tools
nature of the child’s cues (clear or not), the The first rule for treating FTT is to identify
child’s temperament, and responses toward the underlying cause and correct it. This
the parent. Developing a portrait of the rela- requires a stepwise approach that is guided by
tionship is key to guiding intervention. history and response to therapy. Most cases
can be managed by nutrition intervention or
LABORATORY EVALUATION feeding behavior modification. Children who
Laboratory evaluation should be guided by do not respond may require further evalua-
history and physical examination findings tion. Two principles that hold true irrespective
only. There are no routine laboratory tests that of the etiology are that all children with FTT
should be performed on every child, because need a high-calorie diet for catch-up growth,
and all children with FTT need close follow-
up. Usually, children should be followed at
least monthly until catch-up growth is demon-
The Authors strated and the positive trend is maintained.
SCOTT D. KRUGMAN, M.D., is chair of the pediatrics department at Franklin Square Hos-
pital Center, Baltimore, and faculty for the family practice residency program. In addition, THREE-DAY FOOD DIARY
he is clinical assistant professor of pediatrics at the University of Maryland School of Med-
icine, Baltimore. After graduating from Dartmouth Medical School, Hanover, N.H., Dr. It may seem surprising that undernutrition
Krugman completed his pediatric residency at Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore. is a common factor in FTT, but with an energy
HOWARD DUBOWITZ, M.D., M.S., is professor of pediatrics and co-director of the need that is almost triple that of adults (in
Center for Families at the University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore. He calories per kg) it becomes easier to under-
received his medical degree from the University of Cape Town, South Africa. After stand how quickly infants can fall behind on
completing a pediatrics residency at Boston Medical Center, he completed a child mal-
treatment fellowship at Children’s Hospital Boston. growth.16 Having parents write down the
types of food and amounts a child eats over a
Address correspondence to Scott D. Krugman, M.D., Dept. of Pediatrics, Franklin
Square Hospital Center, 9000 Franklin Square Dr., Baltimore, MD 21237 (e-mail: scott. three-day period is one way of quantifying
[email protected]). Reprints are not available from the authors. caloric intake. In some instances, it can make

882 AMERICAN FAMILY PHYSICIAN www.aafp.org/afp VOLUME 68, NUMBER 5 / SEPTEMBER 1, 2003
 Failure to Thrive
TABLE 3
Recommendations for Energy Intake

Energy (kcal per kg per

day) guidelines for
Age average replacement

10 days to one month 120

One to two months 115
Two to three months 105
Three to six months 95
Children diagnosed with failure to thrive need to receive
Six months to five years 90 150 percent of the recommended daily caloric intake for
their expected, not actual, weight for age.
Adapted with permission from Hay WW. Current
pediatric diagnosis and treatment. 15th ed. Nor-
walk, Conn.: Appleton & Lange, 2001:250.
not rushed. It often helps if the parents eat
with the child. The child should be positioned
so that the head is up and the child is com-
parents aware of how much the child is or is fortable (e.g., in high chair). Starting with
not eating. small amounts of food and offering more is
Limit fruit juice to 8 to 16 oz per day. Fruit preferable to beginning with large quantities.
juice is an important contributor to poor Parents should consider foods that the child
growth by providing relatively empty carbo- likes (e.g., it is not important for children to
hydrate calories and diminishing a child’s eat four different green vegetables, but it is
appetite for nutritious meals, leading to important to encourage some variety and to
decreased caloric intake.17 cover the basic food groups). Snacks need to
be timed in between meals so that the child’s
HIGH-CALORIE DIET appetite will not be spoiled.
Children with FTT will need 150 percent of
their recommended daily caloric intake, HOSPITALIZATION
based on their expected, not actual, weight Hospitalization is rarely required, and most
(Table 318).6,7 In infants, this increased calorie children with FTT are managed as outpa-
intake may be accomplished by concentrating tients. The lack of benefit to hospitalization in
formula or adding rice cereal to pureed foods. most cases has been apparent for decades.21
Toddlers can receive more calories by adding Hospitalization may be necessary when the
taste-pleasing fats such as cheese, sour cream, safety of the child is a concern, outpatient
butter, and peanut butter to common toddler management has failed, or the FTT is severe.
foods. The government’s supplemental food
program for women, infants, and children REFERRAL
(WIC) also provides high-calorie milk drinks For children who do not respond to initial
(e.g., PediaSure). One or two cans per day can management, it may be necessary to seek assis-
be used instead of milk, providing 30 calories tance from a subspecialist. Traditionally, a mul-
per oz instead of the 19 calories per oz in whole tidisciplinary approach to FTT—using physi-
milk. Adding a multivitamin helps ensure that cians, nurses, dietitians, social workers, and
a child receives the minimum recommended psychologists—has produced better outcomes.7
vitamins and minerals. Some practitioners add This approach may not be practical in all cases,
zinc to reduce the energy cost of weight gain but for children who are not improving because
during catch-up growth, though the data of an undiagnosed medical condition or a par-
about its benefit are mixed.19,20 ticularly challenging social situation, a multidis-
ciplinary approach may be the best answer.
FEEDING OR EATING BEHAVIORS
Parental anxiety about a child’s FTT can be Outcomes
helped by reassurance. Parents should encour- Children with FTT are at risk for adverse out-
age, but not force, their child to eat. Meals comes such as short stature, behavior problems,
should be pleasant, regularly scheduled, and and developmental delay.1,2,5,22-24 FTT is more

SEPTEMBER 1, 2003 / VOLUME 68, NUMBER 5 www.aafp.org/afp AMERICAN FAMILY PHYSICIAN 883
Failure to Thrive

likely a contributing or associated factor to these 11. Krugman SD, Jablonski KA, Dubowitz H. Missed
opportunities to diagnose failure to thrive in a fam-
adverse outcomes, rather than the exclusive ily medicine resident practice. Pediatr Res
cause. There are a limited number of outcome 2000;47(2 pt 2):204A.
studies on children with FTT, each with differ- 12. Rider EA, Bithoney WG. Medical assessment and
management and the organization of medical ser-
ent definitions and designs, so it is difficult to vices. In: Kessler DB, Dawson P, eds. Failure to
comment with certainty on the long-term thrive and pediatric undernutrition: a transdiscipli-
results of FTT.25 In addition, it is often difficult nary approach. Baltimore: Brookes, 1999:173-94.
13. Wissow LS. Failure to thrive and psychosocial
to disentangle the effects of FTT from those of dwarfism. In: Wissow LS, ed. Child advocacy for the
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occurs (e.g., poverty, high family stress, and Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1990:133-57.
14. Powell GF. Nonorganic failure to thrive in infancy:
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carefully for possible later sequelae. ment. 15th ed. Norwalk, Conn.: Appleton &
Lange, 2001:250.
The authors indicate that they do not have any con- 19. Walravens PA, Hambidge KM, Koepfer DM. Zinc
flicts of interest. Sources of funding: none reported. supplementation in infants with a nutritional pat-
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