Pascal’s Identity and Binomial Theorem

Pascal’s Identity and Binomial Theorem

August 27, 2013

Pascal’s Identity and Binomial Theorem

Pascal’s Identity

Pascal’s Triangle and the Binomial Coefficient

Pascal’s Identity and Binomial Theorem

Pascal’s Identity

Pascal’s Identity

Let n, r ∈ Z+ , with n ≥ r . Then,

     
n n n+1
+ =
r r −1 r

Pascal’s Identity and Binomial Theorem

Pascal’s Identity

Proof (Algebraic Version):

n! n! n! n!
+ = +
r !(n − r )! (r − 1)!(n − (r − 1))! r !(n − r )! (r − 1)!(n − r + 1)!
(n − r + 1)n! + rn!
=
r !(n − r + 1)!
(n + 1)! − rn! + rn!
=
r !(n − r + 1)!
(n + 1)!
=
r !(n − r + 1)!
 
n+1
=
r

Q.E.D.
Pascal’s Identity and Binomial Theorem
Pascal’s Identity

Proof (Algebraic Version):

n! n! n! n!
+ = +
r !(n − r )! (r − 1)!(n − (r − 1))! r !(n − r )! (r − 1)!(n − r + 1)!
(n − r + 1)n! + rn!
=
r !(n − r + 1)!
(n + 1)! − rn! + rn!
=
r !(n − r + 1)!
(n + 1)!
=
r !(n − r + 1)!
 
n+1
=
r

Q.E.D.
Pascal’s Identity and Binomial Theorem
Pascal’s Identity

Proof (Combinatorial Version):

Let n, r ∈ Z+ , with r ≤ n. Suppose S is a set of n + 1 elements.

S = {x1 , ..., xn , xn+1 }

Note
that the number of r -element subsets is easily given by
n+1
r . But another way of counting the number of r -element
subsets is by partitioning S into two:

S = {x1 , ..., xn } ∪ {xn+1 }

There would be two cases to form the r -element subsets, whether
the subset contains the element xn+1 or not.

(cont’d)

Pascal’s Identity and Binomial Theorem

Pascal’s Identity

Proof (Combinatorial Version):

Let n, r ∈ Z+ , with r ≤ n. Suppose S is a set of n + 1 elements.

S = {x1 , ..., xn , xn+1 }

Note
that the number of r -element subsets is easily given by
n+1
r . But another way of counting the number of r -element
subsets is by partitioning S into two:

S = {x1 , ..., xn } ∪ {xn+1 }

There would be two cases to form the r -element subsets, whether
the subset contains the element xn+1 or not.

(cont’d)

Pascal’s Identity and Binomial Theorem

Pascal’s Identity

If the r -element subset contains xn+1 , then there would be r − 1

elements to be taken from the set {x1 , ...,
xn }. The number of
n
r -element subsets containing xn+1 is r −1 .

Otherwise, if not, then there would r elements to be taken from

the set {x1 , ...,
xn }. The number of r -element subsets that does
not xn+1 is nr .

By the addition rule, the number of r -element subsets of S is equal

to the sum of the number of r -element subsets containing xn+1 and
the number of r -element subsets not containing xn+1 . Equating,
     
n+1 n n
= +
r r r −1

Q.E.D.

Pascal’s Identity and Binomial Theorem

Pascal’s Identity

If the r -element subset contains xn+1 , then there would be r − 1

elements to be taken from the set {x1 , ...,
xn }. The number of
n
r -element subsets containing xn+1 is r −1 .

Otherwise, if not, then there would r elements to be taken from

the set {x1 , ...,
xn }. The number of r -element subsets that does
not xn+1 is nr .

By the addition rule, the number of r -element subsets of S is equal

to the sum of the number of r -element subsets containing xn+1 and
the number of r -element subsets not containing xn+1 . Equating,
     
n+1 n n
= +
r r r −1

Q.E.D.

Pascal’s Identity and Binomial Theorem

Binomial Theorem

The Binomial Theorem

∀x, y ∈ X , where X ∈ {N, Z, Q, R, C}, and, ∀n ∈ Z≥0 ,
n  
n
X n
(x + y ) = x n−r y r
r
r =0

Pascal’s Identity and Binomial Theorem

Binomial Theorem

Proof By Mathematical Induction:

Let P(n) be
n  
X n
(x + y )n = x n−r y r
r
r =0

Base Case: Show that P(0) is
true.

Note that (x + y )0 = 1 and 00 x 0 y 0 = 1. Hence, P(0) is true.

(cont’d)

Pascal’s Identity and Binomial Theorem

Binomial Theorem

Inductive Step:
Suppose that P(k) is true [Inductive Hypothesis]. Show that
P(k + 1) is also true.

(x + y )k+1 = (x + y )k (x + y )
And by the inductive hypothesis,
k   k  
X k k+1−r r
X k k−r r +1
= x y + x y
r r
r =0 r =0

Note that, by adjusting the indices of the summation,

k   k+1  
X k k−r r +1
X k
x y = x k−r +1 y r
r r −1
r =0 r =1

Pascal’s Identity and Binomial Theorem

Binomial Theorem

  k      
k k+1 X k k k+1−r r k
= x + + x y + y k+1
0 r r −1 (k + 1) − 1
r =1
k
X k + 1

k+1
=x + x k+1−r y r + y k+1 , by Pascal’s Identity
r
r =1

k+1 k+1



And since, 0 = k+1 =1
k+1  
X k + 1 (k+1)−r r
= x y
r
r =0

Q.E.D.

Pascal’s Identity and Binomial Theorem

Binomial Theorem: Examples

1.) What is the 18th term of (x + 2y )25 ?

2.) What is the 10th term of (2x − 3y )15 ?

3.) Using the binomial theorem, express

n  
X n k
9
k
k=0

as xy , where x, y ∈ Z.

Pascal’s Identity and Binomial Theorem