Günther Ruhe • Claes Wohlin

Editors

Software Project
Management in a
Changing World
10 Motivating Software Engineers Working in Virtual
Teams across the Globe

Sarah Beecham

Abstract: The motivation of software engineers affects the quality of the software
they produce. Motivation can be viewed in terms of needs. The key need for a soft-
ware engineer is to ‘identify with their task’ which requires being given a task that
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tion to the complete system being developed. Software engineers’ needs are com-
plex - they also require regular feedback, trust, appreciation, rewards, a career path
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factors, these motivators require sensitive tuning in line with a software engineers’
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cated environment, so how can project managers motivate teams of individuals dis-
tributed across the globe?
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teams may encounter. Some background theory is presented for a deeper under-
standing of how to manage team motivation. Recommendations are drawn from
a case study where issues raised by practitioners working in virtual teams serve to
highlight and magnify known motivational issues. Project managers play an import-
ant part in software engineer motivation. If they can create a working environment
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likely to turn up to work, are less likely to look elsewhere for employment, will
work harder to meet deadlines, will take more pride in their work, and will share
their knowledge, concerns, and ideas for innovation.

10.1 Introduction
This chapter explores how to motivate a software engineer working in a virtual team.
To answer this question some general motivation theories are introduced which are
relevant to software engineer motivation in a global setting. Since motivating prac-
titioners is likely to lead to improved quality of the software product (McConnell
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in globally distributed teams should be of interest to software development practi-
tioners.
Although motivation is a well-researched area, existing theories have not kept
pace with today’s software engineering climate. The 21st Century has seen radical
changes in both the working environment and the demands made on the people
employed to undertake the work. The move towards developing software globally
has been rapid, requiring engineers to work in teams around the clock, with mixed
256 Beecham

values and cultural styles. It is clear that JOREDOVRIWZDUHGHYHORSPHQW*6'LVKHUH

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GSD can require software engineers to work on sites hundreds or even thou-
sands of miles away from their virtual team-mates, where members of the same
team may never meet in person. Engineers may also have to cope with time zone
differences between sites that constrain the ability to communicate in real time and
can lead to delays and frustration, or to working antisocial hours. Other barriers
emerge such as cultural and linguistic differences between team members who may
need to discuss complex technical issues (Noll et al. 2010; Shah et al. 2012; Mona-
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ary controls and requirements for high quality software. It is clear from this short
summary, that GSD places unique and extreme demands on the engineer. While
existing theories of motivation do not account for the complexities introduced when
working in distributed teams, fortunately we have a wealth of empirical research we
can draw on to help identify how, where and what motivation means in this context.
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of work undertaken in GSD.
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organisational hierarchies have all contributed to our understanding of how to fos-
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agile principles generally meet software engineers’ motivational needs, with a few
exceptions. However, recent work also suggests that too much freedom and ad hoc
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development paradigms that are gaining in popularity and impetus (Chapters 13 and
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OSS practices, are likely to be the recipients of many types of rewards - shown
in this chapter to be important intrinsic motivators. In OSS self-selecting volun-
teers come together to create their own communities and expend effort to produce
high quality and useful software. It is not surprising that researchers look to these
environments to learn about motivation since contributors appear to be motivated
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Having read through this chapter, the reader should come away with a basic
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for whether software engineers are likely to have distinct personalities of their own
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al team setting through a case study example presented in Section 10.4. Section 10.5
maps Global Teaming practices to motivation factors. Section 10.6 discusses the
case study example in context with some motivation theory. Section 10.7 concludes
the chapter with a summary of software engineer motivation in GSD.
 Motivation Software Engineers Working in Virtual Teams across the Globe 257

10.2 Motivation Theory

There are techniques managers can apply that will motivate employees to work
harder, and increase their commitment to the organisation. Creating the right condi-
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These content theories assume a “complex interaction between internal and external
factors”, and explore “the circumstances in which individuals respond to different
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ory, on the other hand describes motivation as “a sequence or process of related
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on the process theories relating to work design and job characteristics (Hackman
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integral part of GSD.
Motivation theories try to explain the conscious or unconscious decisions peo-
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sulates many of these process theories in his ‘motivation calculus’ that expresses
motivation in terms of needs, results that satisfy needs, and effort 1 expended to
achieve those results that satisfy the needs. The calculus demonstrates that the level
of effort a person is willing to expend on a task is linked to how the person feels that
effort will be rewarded; if the person values the expected reward they will increase
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will feed into the person wanting to expend energy again on similar need related
tasks and so the cycle continues. The re-enforcement cycle is explained in the ex-
ample in Figure 10.1 and summarised in Figure 10.2:

1
Effort is just one of the E’s in the calculus; other E’s include energy, excitement, enthusiasm,
emotion, expenditure of time, expenditure of money, and expenditure of passion.
258 Beecham

A software engineer with a strong need to learn is given a problem-solving

task that promises to expand his or her knowledge and skill-set. The effort
the engineer is prepared to expend on the task will depend on the degree to
which he or she
a) believes that solving the problem will lead to increased knowledge
and skills (expectancy that the need will be satisfied) and
b) having completed the task, finds that the resulting increased knowledge
and skills satisfy the learning needs (instrumentality of the satisfied need).

Figure 10.1 Example scenario of motivation elements adapted from Handy (1993)

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tivation can break down if the problem solving task does not lead to enhancing the
skill set, as this will not satisfy the need to learn. Alternatively, the motivation cycle
is broken if an enhanced skill set does not satisfy the need to learn. The need and
how to satisfy that need, will vary from person to person. Individual characteristics
play an integral part in motivation theories.
It is the mapping of the individual need to the type of job that forms the basis
for the ‘Job Characteristics Theory’ also discussed in this chapter. Section 10.3 con-
siders the individual personality traits and characteristics of the software engineer
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to the software engineering profession, it will ease the task of motivating engineers.

Satisfies +/-

Needs
Results e.g. Results Need
Hertzberg/ enhanced salience +/-
(specificity)
Maslow skill set ‘to Learn’

Leads to Drives energy

‘E’ Factors expended to ...
conscious, ‘E’ Factors
unconscious, problem
long/short horizon solving

(a) Motivation cycle (b) Example decision making mechanism

Figure 10.2 Motivation calculus inspired by Handy (1993)

 Motivation Software Engineers Working in Virtual Teams across the Globe 259

10.2.1 Motivation as a Social Process

While Handy’s approach is useful in capturing motivation, understanding can be
broadened by viewing motivation as part of a social process. This complementary
social process dimension relates strongly to the context of software engineers who
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how people join, remain part of, and perform adequately in, a human organisation
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comprising members who are motivated to join, to stay and to perform at acceptable
levels. It is within a social context that teams working remotely are encouraged to
work harder and more effectively. Some research suggests that social interaction
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that drives an individual to join an orgnisation, to stay and to perform at acceptable
levels. These other drivers are discussed section 10.3. The increase in the use of
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distributed teams to collaborate via formal in informal channels.

10.2.2 Rational-economic Needs

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work into structural units and offering monetary incentives would motivate indi-
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cepts of motivation that he believed would lead to work being more satisfying and
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control of work, a goal shared with today’s global software development managers.
Key principles of Taylor’s approach includes the division of labour, the sharing of
responsibility between management and workers, knowledge sharing, and carrying
out work in a prescribed way. It appears that Taylor anticipated the need for a work
environment suited to automation. Taylor’s vision can also be mapped to GSD and
other product management approaches, since dividing up processes into discrete,
unambiguous pieces, eases task allocation and sharing among developers working
in virtual teams. Chapter 9 discusses how to allocate tasks in distributed and global
development to maximize team cohesion and minimize coupling.
Initially, the effect of the introduced changes raised productivity and employee
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boring and called for a low level of skill. Requiring low levels of skill allowed man-
agement to treat people as pure resources that could easily be replaced. In line with
this, managers could reduce wages and ignore the psychological needs of the em-
ployees who had little opportunity to give feedback, experiment or make changes.
These factors resulted in Taylorism in its strictest sense becoming obsolete with the
260 Beecham

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Paradoxically, even though we are aware that Taylor’s methods do not work
in the long term, today’s managers of distributed teams seem to be re-introducing
some of these practices. In terms of division of labour one model is that testing gets
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and coding is performed in satellite locations. And looking at monetary rewards; the
carrot is that the contract is won, which translates to hiring engineers and paying
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can be the province of the centralized managers, where the needs of those working
remotely are not necessarily represented in the organisational process.
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time of industrial reorganisation, new forms of technology and the emergence of
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reorganisation, with even more complex work structures in the form of globally
distributed software development. Work patterns have changed largely due to new
forms of technology, especially concerning methods of communication. Perhaps
for this reason elements of Taylor’s approach have not died out, a sentiment shared
by academics who proclaimed in the early 1990s that “Taylorism is alive today”
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Engineering work is now highly controlled by procedures and increased need for
senior management approval. This has implications for motivation as “so long as
the Taylorist paradigm persists, the organisational aspiration to create a high com-
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er, it could be that it is the high employee turnover and subsequent low knowledge
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10.2.3 Motivation Theories for Software Engineering

Given that motivation is important, and that looking at people as machines that will
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people within the organisation that matter most.
Organisational theory records several approaches and models of motivation,
many of which have been applied in software engineering research (Hall et al. 2009;
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this group as being particularly relevant to motivating people who work in global
software development teams: Firstly, the content theory expounded by Herzberg
HWDO±WKHtwo factor theory, and secondly the process theory according to
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theories is given next, along with why they might, even after 40 plus years, support
the management of virtual teams.
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 Motivation Software Engineers Working in Virtual Teams across the Globe 261

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sent, can reduce motivation; these extrinsic factors are concerned with the work
environment. However to motivate employees to give their best, the focus moves
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the task itself.
The work of Herzberg is pertinent to global software development, since motiva-
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and that beyond a limited threshold, money cannot motivate. Although classifying
factors as either hygiene or motivators can appear contrived, it is helpful for the
purpose of identifying how GSD factors may demotivate. Also it is helpful as there
might be some hygiene factors that are outside the control of the project manager.
Of note is that demotivators are not the opposite of motivators; demotivators and
motivators are distinct groups of factors.
-RE &KDUDFWHULVWLFV 7KHRU\ According to the review of motivation literature
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ory views the work itself as the main motivator, where given a set of personal needs,
a person will only be motivated if these needs are matched by the job. The JCT
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organisations and across studies. As shown in the investigation into Herzberg’s
hygiene factors, global software development can involve environmental factors
outside the control of the project manager. The importance, therefore, of the per-
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is considered later in this chapter.

10.3 Software Engineer Characteristics

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solution to motivating software engineers, since motivation depends on individual
needs and personality. Findings are derived from an in-depth systematic literature
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attracted to the software engineering profession, as opposed to what motivates them
to stay in the profession, to do better work, etc. As a result, some characteristics
262 Beecham

appear similar to motivators, even though they came from a different strand of re-
search. The original rationale for conducting the research into characteristics was to
assess whether software engineers are somehow different to professionals in other
domains. Because, if there is no difference, we could argue that we do not need a
separate study and model of motivation for software engineers; we could draw on
the existing models and theories of motivating people in the workplace, some of
which have been discussed in the previous section. On balance 73% of studies into
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software engineers and researchers.
Figure 10.3 shows how controls and mediators will shape a software engineer’s
characteristics.
A systematic literature review of 92 separate studies relating to software engi-
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teristics are formed by two factors: their internal make-up (termed ‘Control Fac-
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For readers interested in knowing more about this dimension, Chapter 4 gives an
in-depth description of personality and how to assess different personality types.
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change the strength of certain characteristics.
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the control of the manager, they still need to be acknowledged as important to the
individual. For example, although an individual’s career stage, age and the state of
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The Software Engineer

Control Factors Moderators

(Internal)
Software Engineer (External)
e.g. Personality
Characteristics e.g. Career stage
Managerial/technical +/- +/-
(Listed in Table 10.8) Role
leanings
Responibilities
Innate ability

Determine the characteristics Moderate strength of each

of an individual characteristic

Figure 10.3 Model of software engineer characteristics adapted from

Beecham et al. (2008)
 Motivation Software Engineers Working in Virtual Teams across the Globe 263

Table 10.1 Software engineer moderators

1. &DUHHUVWDJHDJH H[SHULHQFH

2. &XOWXUHUHODWLQJWRQDWLRQDOFXOWXUH
3. Job type/role/occupational level
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5. 7\SHRIRUJDQLVDWLRQHJSURPRWLRQRSSRUWXQLWLHVUXOHV

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can take advantage of a mixed cultural team for enhanced creativity, innovation and
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Promotion prospects are also seen as moderating a software engineer’s charac-
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tion between an employee’s promotion focus and affective commitment. Promo-
tion prospects are a poorly studied area in GSD research, and may as a result be
overlooked as an important motivator. Translating this moderator to a GSD context
highlights the need for software engineers working remotely to have a clear career
path and promotion opportunities. All factors listed in Table 10.1 are likely to mod-
erate the strength of software engineer characteristics.
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VLGHUHG LQ UHODWLRQ WR *6' ODWHU LQ WKLV FKDSWHU LQ 7DEOH  JURZWK RULHQWHG
introverted and need for independence were the most cited. However, some char-
acteristics contradict each other, such as ‘introverted’ with a low need for social
interaction, and ‘Need to be sociable and identify with a group or organisation’.
7KHYLHZWKDWVRIWZDUHHQJLQHHUVDUHLQWURYHUWHGUHÀHFWV¿QGLQJVIURPWKHPDQ\
studies coming from Couger and colleagues’ who measured Social Needs Strength
RIHQJLQHHUV&RXJHUDQG=DZDFNLLQWKHLU-RE'LDJQRVWLFV6XUYH\IRUIXOO
OLVWRIVRXUFHVVHH%HHFKDPHWDO7KLVYLHZLVQRWXQLYHUVDODVVHHQLQWKH
ERG\RIPRUHUHFHQWUHVHDUFKWKDWLGHQWL¿HGVRIWZDUHHQJLQHHUVDVVRFLDEOHSHRSOH
%HHFKDPHWDO&HUWDLQO\WKHQHHGIRUVRIWZDUHHQJLQHHUVWRFRPPXQLFDWH
DQGUHODWHWRRWKHUVLVFUXFLDOLQD*6'FRQWH[W7KHQHZVRIWZDUHHQJLQHHUSUR¿OH
PD\WKHUHIRUHUHÀHFWWKHFKDQJLQJGHPDQGVRIWKHUROH
Figure 10.4 shows the relationship between characteristics, controls and moder-
DWRUVJLYHQLQGHWDLOLQ)LJXUHPRWLYDWRUVDQGRXWFRPHV7KHOHYHOWRZKLFK
WKHQHHGVGH¿QHGE\DVRIWZDUHHQJLQHHU¶VFKDUDFWHULVWLFVDUHPHWE\WKHPRWLYD-
WRUVZLOOLPSDFWRQWDQJLEOHRXWFRPHV)RUH[DPSOH+DOOHWDOIRXQGDSRV-
itive correlation between software engineer motivation and employee turnover, and
9HUQHUHWDOIRXQGDSRVLWLYHFRUUHODWLRQEHWZHHQPRWLYDWLRQDQGVRIWZDUH
engineering/management agreements on project success.
264 Beecham

The Software Engineer Motivators Outcomes

Characteristics Extrinsic and - Absenteeism

(likes, dislikes, etc.) Intrinsic Factors - Job retention
relating to - Software quality
Controls (personality etc.), needs software met? - Productivity
Moderators (age, state of - Commitment
profession, etc.) engineers
- Innovation

Figure 10.4 Model of software engineer motivation adapted from Beecham et al. 2008

,QVXPPDU\WKLVVHFWLRQUHÀHFWHGRQWKHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRIVRIWZDUHHQJLQHHUV
and whether they have any common characteristics. Understanding that engineers
are likely to have some distinct traits should help managers to motivate their soft-
ware development teams. The studies included in the motivation review (Beecham
HWDOGLGQRWFRQVLGHUWKHH[WUDFRPSOH[LW\RIZRUNLQJLQDGLVWULEXWHGHQYL-
ronment. Characteristics in a GSD context are considered in the theory and practice
VHFWLRQRIWKLVFKDSWHU7KHQH[WVHFWLRQSODFHVDOOWKHPRWLYDWLQJIDFWRUV
LGHQWL¿HGLQWKHUHYLHZLQD*6'FRQWH[WWKURXJKDQHPSLULFDOPDSSLQJVWXG\

10.4 Software Engineer Motivation in GSD - A Case Study

This section examines how software engineer needs are likely to be affected by
GSD. A case study conducted during 2010-2011 is used as an example of how vir-
tual team behaviour may inhibit or strengthen software engineer motivation.
The case study is based on a GSD organisation which distributes its software de-
velopment activities across several sites and countries. The organisation has its
FHQWUDORI¿FHLQ,UHODQGDQGGHYHORSVEHVSRNHVRIWZDUHIRUWKH¿QDQFLDOVHUYLFHV
sector. It is a medium-sized organisation with approximately 200 employees. For
UHDVRQVRIFRQ¿GHQWLDOLW\DQGDQRQ\PLW\WKLVRUJDQLVDWLRQLVUHIHUUHGWRDV³*6'
Corp”. GSD Corp offshore much of their development activities, but maintain a
ODUJHWHDPRISUDFWLWLRQHUVLQWKHFHQWUDORI¿FHZKRZRUNPDLQO\DDPWRSP
¿YHGD\ZHHN7KLVWHDPGHYHORSVWKHLUFRUHSURGXFWPDQDJHVWKHRIIVKRUHWHDPV
and tests the bespoke software. The offshore teams are more focussed on require-
ments gathering and product deployment. Offshoring is undertaken for three key
UHDVRQV¿UVWO\WRH[WHQGWKHLUFXVWRPHUEDVHVHFRQGO\WRZRUNFORVHO\ZLWKWKHLU
customers, and thirdly, to hire excellent technical talent in low cost countries. All
development comes under the organisational control of GSD Corp. The purpose
of conducting the case study was to examine the processes used by GSD Corp to
develop their software.
 Motivation Software Engineers Working in Virtual Teams across the Globe 265

Onshore and offshore opinions and lessons learned were solicited through a
series of in-depth interviews which provided insights into where GSD processes
might be improved. To gain a full picture of day-to-day work patterns two proj-
ects were studied, one of which had just been completed, and the other was still
in progress. Twenty-four employees performing various roles in the development
SURFHVVEDVHGLQIRXUGLIIHUHQWFRXQWULHV,UHODQG86$6RXWK$IULFDDQG$XVWUDOLD
were interviewed using the same set of semi-structured questions. Each employee
ZDVLQWHUYLHZHGIRUKRXUVRQDRQHWRRQHFRQ¿GHQWLDOEDVLV$OOLQWHUYLHZHHV
worked in a distributed environment. Detailed notes were taken during the inter-
views, which were also recorded and later transcribed verbatim. A cross-section
of roles were interviewed in the sample, including Technical and Business Con-
sultants, Quality Assurance, Project managers, Project Leads, Solution Architects,
Technical and Business Stream Leads, and Programme Manager.
The detailed notes and analysis of interview transcripts presented a full picture
RIKRZ*6'&RUSRSHUDWHVDFURVVLWVVHYHUDOVLWHV7KH¿QGLQJVSUHVHQWHGLQWKLV
section are drawn from a subset of responses to direct and indirect interview ques-
tions that related to motivation. Direct questions included “how motivated were
you in your project?”, “was your project a success or highly challenged?”, “how
GR\RXGH¿QHSURMHFWVXFFHVV"´,QGLUHFWTXHVWLRQVWDFNOHGWKHSUREOHPVDQGFKDO-
lenges the interviewees experienced in conducting their day to day tasks working
in a virtual team, as well as discussing what excited them about their work. Using
DTXDOLWDWLYHFRQWHQWDQDO\VLVDSSURDFK.ULSSHQGRUIIVLPLODUWRWKDWXVHGLQ
1ROOHWDOUHVSRQVHVZHUHFDWHJRULVHGDFFRUGLQJWRZKHWKHUWKH\KLJKOLJKWHG
a challenge or a solution to a given problem, as well as advantages and disadvantag-
es to working in virtual teams.

10.4.1 Case Study Results

3UHOLPLQDU\UHVXOWVVKRZQLQ7DEOHVDQGPDSFDVHVWXG\¿QG-
LQJVVXFKDVDGYDQWDJHVDQGGLVDGYDQWDJHVWRZRUNLQJLQDYLUWXDOWHDPWRPRWL-
YDWLRQDOIDFWRUVGUDZQIURPWKHOLWHUDWXUH%HHFKDPHWDOExtrinsic factors
are presented separately as it is likely they will require a different management
approach to the intrinsic motivators that are concerned with the job itself.

Table 10.2 Extrinsic Motivators enhanced by virtual team practices.

Extrinsic Factor Virtual Team Practice (drawn from case study)

Working in a successful Spreading the business into new markets was seen as a good
organisation business model. Operating in different countries was linked
to organisational success.
Job security / None of the employees interviewed felt insecure. They knew
stable environment that good engineers where in short supply and did not feel
WKDWWKHLUMREVZHUHXQGHUWKUHDWGHVSLWHWKH¿QDQFLDOFOLPDWH
266 Beecham

In the case study, two extrinsic factors were enabled by GSD, which was job
VHFXULW\QRLQWHUYLHZHHIHOWWKHLUMREZDVXQGHUWKUHDWDQGWKHQHHGWRZRUNIRUD
VXFFHVVIXOFRPSDQ\VHH7DEOH6RPHIDFWRUVDSSHDULQGHSHQGHQWRIZKHWKHU
employees work in a co-located or virtual environment, such as having a feedback
PHFKDQLVPV LQ SODFH )DFWRUV WKDW DUH OLNHO\ WR EH HTXDOO\ GLI¿FXOW WR DFKLHYH LQ
virtual and co-located teams are not covered in these tables.

Table 10.3 Extrinsic Motivation challenged by virtual team practices

Extrinsic Factor Virtual Team Practice (drawn from case study)

Rewards and incen- Requires objective measurement, and as such is independent of

tives (e.g. scope for location – however making sure that rewards are given to each
increased pay and employee fairly across different locations may not be achievable,
EHQH¿WVOLQNHGWR e.g. some remote workers were not able to take time off in lieu for
SHUIRUPDQFH working long hours and overtime.
Good management Becomes even more important when working remotely – extra
(senior management pressures, extra layer of complexity requires experienced and
support, team-build- FRQ¿GHQWPDQDJHUVWRGHDOZLWKXQIRUHVHHQSUREOHPV$UHFXUULQJ
ing, good communi- theme was that remote projects required experienced managers
FDWLRQ that can communicate well with both customers and all team.
Sense of belonging/ 'LI¿FXOWWRIHHOVXSSRUWHGZKHQ\RXUFRXQWHUSDUWPLJKWEHVOHHS-
supportive relation- ing during your core working hours. However the organisation had
ships a strong corporate culture, clearly communicated in all interviews.
Work/life balance ([WUHPHO\GLI¿FXOWWRDFKLHYHZKHQWKHUHLVDORWRIWUDYHOZRUN-
ÀH[LELOLW\LQZRUN LQJDZD\IURPKRPHDQGIDPLO\DQGNHHSLQJZRUNKRXUVGRZQ
times, caring manag- to core times seems impossible. It was rare to hear any reports of
er/ employer, work people working sustainable hours when working remotely.
ORFDWLRQ
Employee participa- Some experienced managers working remotely, did not want to
tion/ involvement/ SDUWLFLSDWHZLWKWKHZLGHURUJDQLVDWLRQ¿QGLQJLQWHUIHUHQFHIURP
working with others KLJKHU PDQDJHPHQW WR EH D QHJDWLYH LQÀXHQFH 7KH\ WHQGHG WR
ZDQWWREHOHIWDORQHWRVRUWRXWWKHLUFXVWRPHUIDFLQJLVVXHV$¿QH
balance needs to be struck between participation, and a top-down
style of management that imposes the processes.
Appropriate working Working conditions specially affected remote workers. For exam-
conditions/ environ- ple, when working onsite with customers they often did not have
ment /equipment/ DQ\LQÀXHQFHRQZKHUHWKH\ZRUNRUKRZDQGVRPHWLPHVZKHQ
tools / physical space They were not able to separate themselves from being on call to
/quiet the customer: there was a tension between dealing with customer
demands and their tangible deliverables.
6XI¿FLHQWUHVRXUFHV Resources were scarce in terms of people – (individuals were
VWUHWFKHGWR¿OOWKHJDSV
 Motivation Software Engineers Working in Virtual Teams across the Globe 267

However, the case study did reveal several motivational factors that appear to be
challenged as a result of working in a distributed team. Extrinsic factors (see Table
 VXFK DV SRRU ZRUNLQJ FRQGLWLRQV GLVUXSWLYH DQG D SRRU ZRUNOLIH EDODQFH
HJXQSUHGLFWDEOHZRUNLQJKRXUVH[WHQVLYHWUDYHODQGORQJFRPPXWHFDQGHPR-
WLYDWHVRIWZDUHHQJLQHHUV*6'&RUS¶VSRRUO\GH¿QHGYLUWXDOWHDPUROHVZHDNHQHG
practitioner empowerment and feeling of responsibility. Ambiguous roles and re-
sponsibilities can be problematic in a co-located environment and working remotely
PDJQL¿HVWKHSUREOHP)RUH[DPSOHDWHDPOHDGZRUNLQJDWDUHPRWHFXVWRPHUVLWH
was undermined by senior management (working from a different country and time
]RQHZKRGHFLGHGWRGLVFXVVRQVLWHPDWWHUVGLUHFWO\ZLWKWKHFXVWRPHULJQRULQJWKH
WHDPOHDGZRUNLQJLQDSUHGRPLQHQWO\FXVWRPHUIDFLQJUROH1RWRQO\ZDVWKLVXQ-
dermining for the onsite team member, it caused confusion as to who is responsible
for handling customer issues.

Table 10.4 Intrinsic Motivation challenged by virtual team practices

Intrinsic Factor Virtual Team Practice (from case study)

Development needs Formal training, though offered centrally, would not always
addressed (e.g. training be extended to those employees working remotely. Many em-
opportunities to widen ployees would have liked to attend training programmes that
VNLOOV were only made known to them after they occurred, or when
DOO SODFHV ZHUH ¿OOHG$OVR ZRUNLQJ UHPRWHO\ WKH\ ZHUH QRW
able to take the time out for training, that was not built into the
development schedule.
Technically challenging The technical work may be less challenging if task is highly
work VSHFL¿HGZLWKUHGXFHGGHSHQGHQFLHV+RZHYHUEDODQFLQJWKH
many responsibilities and demands on time, and keeping both
customer and management happy was very challenging.
Identify with the task Working in a distributed fashion in some cases resulted in de-
(clear goals, how task velopers not seeing the bigger picture and how their part of the
¿WVLQZLWKZKROH ZRUN¿WWHGLQZLWKWKHRYHUDOOGHOLYHUHGSURGXFW
Employee participation/ 0HPEHUVRIWKHWHDPPD\¿QGLWGLI¿FXOWWRZRUNZLWKRWKHUV
involvement/ working if they are in different time zones. They can become disenfran-
with others FKLVHGRUDOLHQDWHG'LI¿FXOWWRPDNHWKHLURSLQLRQKHDUGLIQRW
working physically together.
Career Path (opportunity There was a perceived lack of opportunity for advancement
for advancement, pro- within the organisation – especially in an offshore role. Also
motion prospect, career in this SME there were a limited number of roles available.
SODQQLQJ Individual career plans to gain as much experience as possible
to improve their marketability with external employers were
met. Yet, even if employee work experience and skills were
increased over time, they may leave the organisation to reap the
EHQH¿WVRILQFUHDVHGVNLOOV
268 Beecham

Table 10.4 (continued)

Intrinsic Factor Virtual Team Practice (from case study)

Making a contribution/ Working in a piecemeal fashion, e.g. just doing the coding, or
WDVNVLJQL¿FDQFHGHJUHH part of the coding, prevented the developer from recognising
to which job impacts on how his/her part will make a difference. Some were uncertain
RWKHUV as to whether software they are developing was used / imple-
mented.
Recognition (for a high 8QLYHUVDOUHFRJQLWLRQIRUDMREZHOOGRQHLVGLI¿FXOWWRDFKLHYH
quality, good job done when working remotely, where the main reason for making
FRQWDFWZLWKKHDGRI¿FHPLJKWEHWRHVFDODWHDSUREOHPRUWR
check back when some action needs to be granted permission,
or expenses need to be paid. If all is going well, then the prac-
titioner ‘doing a good job’ may just be invisible.
Trust/respect Trust is a recognised problem in GSD and can cause barriers
WRWKHGHYHORSPHQW(QJHQGHULQJWUXVWLVGLI¿FXOWZKHQWHDPV
may never have met face to face, may not share a common
language, and may have different cultures. This however did
not pose a problem in the case study with their strong corporate
and friendly culture.
Equity Fair treatment of all individuals working in virtual teams is
GLI¿FXOW WR DFKLHYH LQ *6' )RU H[DPSOH WHDPV ZRUNLQJ LQ
both UK and the USA may feel that the employee in the other
county is working less hours. (e.g. a US developer may not be
DEOHWRFRQWDFWWKHLU(XURSHDQFRXQWHUSDUWDIWHUDP86WLPH
also the US tend to take fewer days leave than their European
counterparts.
Empowerment/ respon- Responsibility by role is ambiguous – when roles are not well
sibility GH¿QHG LW LV GLI¿FXOW WR NQRZ MXVW KRZ PXFK DXWKRULW\ \RX
have to make changes and make decisions. Decision making
LV NH\ WR PRWLYDWLRQ +DQG\  WKHUHIRUH UHVSRQVLELOLWLHV
needs to be clear.

Considering issues directly associated with the job itself (shown in Tables 10.4
DQGWKHUHZHUHSHUFHLYHGGLIIHUHQFHVLQKRZHPSOR\HHVZHUHWUHDWHGEDVHG
on where they were located. For example, a practitioner working offshore reported
that they sometimes missed out on training opportunities. Also, those based remote-
ly felt they did not have the same promotion prospects as the onshore team since
the remotely based senior management tended to see problems rather than when the
employee was doing a good job and there were fewer options in a small organisation
for internal promotion. Offshore teams felt that they worked longer hours and had
OHVVOHDYHWKDQWKRVHEDVHGLQWKHKHDGRI¿FH7KHVHIDFWRUVWKUHDWHQPRWLYDWRUVVXFK
as career path, trust, recognition, good management, respect, rewards and equity.
 Motivation Software Engineers Working in Virtual Teams across the Globe 269

Table 10.5 Intrinsic Motivation enhanced by virtual team practices

Intrinsic Factor Virtual Team Practice (from case study)

Variety of Work 7KH LQGLYLGXDO FDQ ¿QG WKHPVHOYHV IXO¿OOLQJ VHYHUDO UROHV HYHQ LI
(e.g. making good not trained or experienced in the role. When working remotely, there
use of skills, being might be no-one to delegate to. Employees made excellent use of
VWUHWFKHG their skills. However there became an over-reliance on the employee,
who at times experienced unsustainable working hours.
Autonomy Autonomy is usually not a problem when working remotely; a pre-
requisite for remote working is the ability to work independently.
+RZHYHULQGLYLGXDOVFDQEHXQGHUPLQHGLIKHDGRI¿FHLVKHDY\KDQG-
ed, and interferes with communication, say with onsite customers, or
if their work is monitored too stringently. For developers working
under the spotlight of the customer, autonomy can be problematic.

10.5 Motivation Factors and GSD Guidelines

GSD research is rich in frameworks, guidelines and recommendations that aim to
overcome the problems associated with working over global distance. However,
none of these guidelines are expressly connected to motivation. This subsection
therefore addresses the question, “How do GSD recommended practices support
software engineer motivation”? For brevity, consideration is given to guidelines
GHYHORSHGVSHFL¿FDOO\IRUJOREDOWHDPV7KHVHDUHSUHVHQWHGLQWKH*OREDO7HDPLQJ
0RGHO*70DFFRUGLQJWR5LFKDUGVRQHWDODQGHQFRPSDVVHVGHWDLOHG
GSD practices drawn from empirical research and the GSD literature. Where pos-
VLEOH WKH JXLGHOLQH LV PDSSHG WR WKH PRWLYDWLRQ IDFWRU LGHQWL¿HG LQ 7DEOHV 
10.3, 10.4 and 10.5. Tables 10.6 and 10.7 present a mapping of extrinsic and intrin-
sic motivation factors to GTM practice guidelines. Motivation factors included in
%HHFKDPHWDODUHFRQVLGHUHGDQGWKHFDVHVWXG\¿QGLQJVKDYHEHHQXVHG
WRH[SORUHKRZWKH*OREDO7HDPLQJ0RGHO*70JXLGHOLQHVVXSSRUWVPRWLYDWLRQ
Mappings shown in Tables 10.6 and 10.7 indicate that if a project manager fol-
lows the guidelines offered by the Global Teaming Model, they will in turn also
address many of the software engineer’s motivational needs (labeled ‘NEED DI-
5(&7/< $''5(66(' 7KRVH DUHDV QRW VXSSRUWHG E\ WKH JXLGHOLQHV ODEHOHG
µ1(('127$''5(66('¶WHQGWREHHQYLURQPHQWDODQGRXWVLGHWKHVFRSHRID
SURFHVVPRGHOVXFKDVWKH*OREDO7HDPLQJ0RGHO5LFKDUGVRQHWDO+RZ-
ever, many of the solutions are indirectly addressed (labelld ‘IMPLIED/PARTIAL
68332572)1(('¶DQGZLOOUHTXLUHFDUHIXOLPSOHPHQWDWLRQWRHQVXUHWKHSUDF-
tice fully meets the motivational needs of the virtual engineer. Those motivators
labeled ‘NEED DIRECTLY ADDRESSED’ will also need further investigation,
since as already discussed in this chapter, each guideline needs to be tailored to
the individual requirements of the software engineer. (The GTM (Richardson et al.
FRQWDLQVPRUHGHWDLOHGGHVFULSWLRQVRIWKHJXLGHOLQHV
270 Beecham

Table 10.6 GSD guideline support for Intrinsic Motivation

SW Engineer Global Teaming Guidelines

Intrinsic Motivators (Richardson et al. 2012)

NEED DIRECTLY ADDRESSED

Development needs ³7UDLQLQJVKRXOGEHWDLORUHGWRWHDPPHPEHU¶VVSHFL¿FQHHGV
addressed (e.g. training and location”. “Undertake training onsite and face-to-face so
opportunities to widen team members can be directly assessed and training provision
VNLOOV WDLORUHGWRWKHLUVSHFL¿FUHTXLUHPHQWV´
Identify with task (how “Project goals and objectives should be communicated, under-
WDVN¿WVLQZLWKZKROH stood and agreed across all team members regardless of loca-
tion”.
Making a contribution/ “Let team members know their input to process development
WDVNVLJQL¿FDQFH and ownership is valued”.
IMPLIED / PARTIAL SUPPORT OF NEED
Variety of Work (e.g. “Gather all information relating to the technical … experience
making good use of of potential and existing team members. When teams are in
VNLOOVEHLQJVWUHWFKHG place and project details reported project managers should
understand .individual’s skills and knowledge.”
Technically challenging “Gather all information relating to the technical and profession-
work al experience of potential and existing team members.”
Employee participation “… individuals visit locations for extended periods…”
Autonomy Modularisation is one approach to development where work is
SDUWLWLRQHGLQWRPRGXOHVZKLFKKDYHDZHOOGH¿QHGIXQFWLRQDO
whole.
Recognition (for a high “The global team is viewed as an entity in its own right, regard-
quality, good job done less of the location of its team members and its performance
-different to Rewards/ should be judged and rewarded accordingly”. “Acknowledging
LQFHQWLYHV team success may require tailoring rewards to the needs of dif-
ferent cultures”.
Trust/respect “Structure global team and monitor operation to minimize fear
and alienation in teams”. “Set up a strategy to handle, monitor
DQG DQWLFLSDWH ZKHUH FRQÀLFW EHWZHHQ UHPRWH ORFDWLRQV PD\
occur.”
Equity “Be aware of problems with unbalanced team sizes …” “Ensure
supervision, support and information needs of all team are met
regardless of location.
Empowerment/respon- ,QIRUPDWLRQ RI LQGLYLGXDO¶V UROH ZLWKLQ WKH WHDP DQG VSHFL¿F
sibility areas of responsibility [should be recorded].
 Motivation Software Engineers Working in Virtual Teams across the Globe 271

Table 10.6 (continued)

SW Engineer Global Teaming Guidelines

Intrinsic Motivators (Richardson et al. 2012)
NEED NOT ADDRESSED
Career Path (opportu- Outside scope of practice model: depends on organisation size;
nity for advancement, hierarchy; state of economy.
SURPRWLRQSURVSHFW

Table 10.7 GSD Guideline support for Extrinsic Motivation.

SW Engineer Global Teaming Model Guidelines

Extrinsic Factors (Richardson et al. 2012)

NEED DIRECTLY ADDRESSED

Rewards and incentives “Identify common goals, objectives and rewards”. Consider
“cultural issues, economic situation and income tax laws when
planning rewards”.
Employee participation/ “Face-to-face meetings are recommended when and where
involvement possible”
IMPLIED/PARTIAL SUPPORT OF NEED
Good management “Ensure that the supervision, support and information needs of
all team members are met regardless of location”.
Feedback “Strategies need to be put in place to encourage formal and
informal reporting… Seek and encourage input from team
members at all locations.”
Sense of belonging/ “Provide training to give all team members an opportunity to
supportive relationships learn and understand about each other’s culture”.
Work life balance “Achievable milestones should be planned and agreed.” “proj-
ect manager should allocate tasks and timescales that are real-
istic”.
Appropriate working Many solutions relate to this under practice “Determine team
conditions/ environment and organisational structure between locations.”
NEED NOT ADDRESSED
Working in successful Environmental / Not based on practice
company
Job security stable Environmental / Not based on practice
environment/
6XI¿FLHQWUHVRXUFHV Environmental / Not based on practice

Although the Global Teaming Model takes a management or organisation view,

LWGRHVUHÀHFWWKHQHHGVRIWKHHPSOR\HHDVVKRZQLQWKLVSUDFWLFH³(QVXUHWKDWWKH
supervision, support and information needs of all team members are met regardless
272 Beecham

RIORFDWLRQ´+RZHYHUDOWKRXJKJXLGHOLQHVIRUJOREDOWHDPLQJUHÀHFWEHVWSUDFWLFH
they are no substitute for highly experienced project managers (Hall et al. 2008;
%HHFKDPHWDO0RQDVRUHWDO

10.6 Theory and Practice of GSD Motivation

âWHLQEHUJD DQG âPLWH  FRQGXFWHG D FRPSOHPHQWDU\ VWXG\ RI PRWLYDWLRQ LQ
distributed software development teams. They mapped motivators to the GSD liter-
ature in order to assess the impact of GSD on software engineer motivation. Their
assessments, however, do not totally agree with the empirical results reported in
WKLVVHFWLRQ7KHVHGLIIHUHQFHVÀDJWKDW¿QGLQJVUHSRUWHGLQWKLVFKDSWHUDUHSUHOLP-
LQDU\FRQWH[WVSHFL¿FDQGQRQJHQHUDOL]DEOHâWHLQEHUJDDQGâPLWHK\SRWK-
esized that many motivators challenged by working in a distributed manner would
be supported by agile methods. For example, feedback, recognition and trust are
likely to be promoted by iterations and small releases that enable early and frequent
feedback, and recognition for a job well-done. Some of these ideas are supported
E\%HHFKDPHWDO¶VHPSLULFDOVWXG\RIPRWLYDWLRQRIWHDPVDSSO\LQJ;3GH-
YHORSPHQWPHWKRGV6SHFL¿FDOO\;3KDGDSRVLWLYHHIIHFWRQPRWLYDWLRQE\FOHDUO\
monitoring project progress, promoting knowledge sharing and learning on the job,
working independently as team, and communicating good and bad news through
positive feedback without punitive repercussions. However, individual recognition
ZDVDSUREOHPDVWKHIRFXVZDVRQWKHWHDPRUSDLUVRISURJUDPPHUVZKLFKFRXOG
KDYHDQHJDWLYHLQÀXHQFHRQSURPRWLRQSURVSHFWVDQGUHZDUGV$OVRWKHZRUNWHQG-
ed to be repetitive and therefore did not meet the need for variety. Although agile
methods were originally designed for co-located teams, research has shown that
distributed teams can apply many of the practices effectively (Jalali and Wohlin
 +LOOHJHUVEHUJ HW DO  )RU PRUH LQIRUPDWLRQ RQ JHQHUDO DJLOH SURMHFW
management see Chapter 11.
Returning to Motivation Theory – how can it help us to understand how to man-
age motivation in virtual teams? The job characteristics theory emphasizes the need
to match the person to the role to ensure their growth needs and social needs are
met. We found in our analysis of software engineer characteristics that software
HQJLQHHUVYDU\LQWKHLUSUR¿OHV)RUH[DPSOHWKH\DUHQRWQHFHVVDULO\LQWURYHUWHG
RUPRWLYDWHGE\¿QDQFLDOUHZDUGVDOWKRXJKVRPHPLJKWEH3ODFLQJWKHVHLGHDV
in the context of GSD points to the importance of global project managers identi-
fying which practices can be adapted to meet the needs of the engineer and which
SUDFWLFHVDUH¿[HG:KHUHWKHJOREDOPDQDJHULVSRZHUOHVVWRFKDQJHDSUDFWLFHRU
environmental factor associated with a given task, an option will be to select a per-
son whose characteristics are most suited to the role required to complete that task.
If the software engineer enjoys the task to the extent that environmental factors do
not detract, or whose growth needs and social needs match those offered by the task,
their motivation level should remain high.
 Motivation Software Engineers Working in Virtual Teams across the Globe 273

Analysis of the impact of GSD on the motivation of practitioners interviewed in

the GSD Corp case study listed areas that were ‘challenged’ by distributed develop-
ment. Applying GSD best practice in the form of Global Teaming recommendations
indicates that good management could, in many cases, counteract these vulnerable
areas. Challenged areas in GSD motivation include rewards and incentives, staff
development, work life balance and promotion opportunities. However, of more
FRQFHUQDUHWKRVHIDFWRUVWKDWGXHWRWKHHQYLURQPHQWZRXOGEHH[WUHPHO\GLI¿FXOW
or even impossible, to change or control. The only way to support practitioners
LQYROYHGLQ*6'H[SRVHGWRWKHVH¿[HGIDFWRUVLVE\KDYLQJDFOHDUNQRZOHGJHRI
their characteristics. For example, an engineer with a high need to work with peo-
ple face to face would be unsuited to working in a virtual team. Enjoyment of travel
and ability to communicate with people from different cultures is also a prerequisite
in many distributed projects.
Tables 10.8 and 10.9 list characteristics, moderators and controls associated with
software engineers’ suitability to working in a GSD environment according to case
VWXG\¿QGLQJV0DQDJHUVFDQXVHWKHVHWDEOHVDVDVWDUWLQJSRLQWWRLGHQWLI\WKRVH
practitioners suited to working in virtual teams, either because of their character-
istics, or moderators and controls of those characteristics. For example in Table
10.8, some engineer characteristics (for the sake of the example labeled ‘Low’ suit-
DELOLW\IRU*6'UHTXLUHKLJKJHRJUDSKLFVWDELOLW\VXJJHVWLQJDGLVOLNHRIWUDYHO

Table 10.8 Software Engineer Characteristics and GSD Role

GSD com-
Characteristic
patibility
Ch.1 1HHGIRUVWDELOLW\RUJDQLVDWLRQDOVWDELOLW\ Low
Ch.2 Technically competent High
Ch.3 $FKLHYHPHQWRULHQWDWHGHJVHHNVSURPRWLRQ Medium
Ch.4 *URZWKRULHQWDWHGHJFKDOOHQJHOHDUQQHZVNLOOV High
Ch.5 Need for competent supervising Medium
Ch.6 ,QWURYHUWHGORZQHHGIRUVRFLDOLQWHUDFWLRQ Low
Ch.7 Need for involvement in personal goal setting Medium
Ch.8 1HHGIRUIHHGEDFNQHHGVUHFRJQLWLRQ Medium
Ch.9 Need for Geographic stability Very Low
Ch.10 1HHGWRPDNHDFRQWULEXWLRQZRUWKZKLOHPHDQLQJIXOMRE High
Ch.11 $XWRQRPRXVQHHGIRULQGHSHQGHQFH High
Ch.12 Need for variety High
Ch.13 Marketable High
Ch.14 Need for challenge High
Ch.15 Creative High
Ch.16 Need to be sociable/identify with group High
274 Beecham

and an introverted personality. A manager may decide that the role demands a lot of
WUDYHODQGLQWHUDFWLRQZLWKRWKHUWHDPPHPEHUVDQGWKHUHIRUHWKLVSUR¿OHFRXOGEH
deemed unsuited to the role. A more suitable set of characteristics for GSD (labeled
+LJK*6'FRPSDWLELOLW\DUHOLNHO\WREHWKDWWKHVRIWZDUHHQJLQHHULVWHFKQLFDOO\
competent, growth oriented, independent, creative, etc.
6KDUSHWDO¶VHPSLULFDOUHVHDUFKFRQVLGHUHGWKHPRWLYDWLRQRIVRIWZDUH
engineers in terms of the role they play, thus creating a more pragmatic model of
motivation than considering each member of a large team individually. This view
UHÀHFWV0DVORZ¶VWKHRU\RIPRWLYDWLRQ0DVORZZKHUHIRUH[DPSOHGHYHO-
opers may be at a different stage in their careers than project managers. Sharp et al.
IRXQGDGLIIHUHQFHLQKRZVRIWZDUHGHYHORSHUVDQGSURMHFWPDQDJHUVZHUH
motivated, and suggest that project managers should recognize these differences.
Management approaches applied by project managers who assume that developers
are motivated in a similar way to themselves are in danger of being ineffective or
HYHQ GHWULPHQWDO +RZHYHU WKLV ¿QGLQJ GRHV DVVXPH WKDW UROHV DUH ZHOO GH¿QHG
,Q*6'WKLVLVQRWDOZD\VWKHFDVH5LFKDUGVRQHWDO)XUWKHUPRUHWKHOLW-
HUDWXUHLVGLYLGHGDVWRZKHWKHUFOHDUUROHGH¿QLWLRQLVDJRRGWKLQJ)RUH[DPSOH
.HQQHG\DQG1XUIRXQGFOHDUUROHGLIIHUHQWLDWLRQFDQKLQGHUHIIHFWLYHSURM-
ect management. Motivation by groupWKHUHIRUHZLOOEHGLI¿FXOWWRDFKLHYHZKHUH
JURXSLVGH¿QHGE\WKHUROHDSUDFWLWLRQHUSOD\VLQWKHGHYHORSPHQWLIWKDWUROHLV
QRWZHOOGH¿QHG
While role ambiguity can be stimulating for the practitioner – and far from the
7D\ORU DSSURDFK RIQDUURZVSHFLDOLVHGZRUN LWFDQ EHGLI¿FXOW WR PDQDJH7KH
case study in this chapter highlights some advantages and disadvantages associated
with role ambiguity: the individual may enjoy up-skilling, developing a healthy CV
with a broad skill set to market. However, if one member plays several roles, they

Table 10.9 Software Engineer Moderators and Controls and GSD compatibility

Moderators and Controls GSD compatible

Mod.1 Career stage $W VWDJH WKDW DOORZV ÀH[LEOH ZRUNLQJ KRXUV DQG
travel
Mod.2 Culture Open, interested in and tolerant of other cultures
Mod.3 Job type/role/occupational Applies to all development roles and levels, though
level inexperienced levels may not be suited to GSD.
Mod.4 State of IT profession Ideally, buoyant to support feeling of security
Mod.5 Type of organisation Offers promotion opportunities, e.g. management,
FXVWRPHUIDFLQJGRPDLQVSHFL¿FWHFKQLFDOUROHV
Cont.1 Personality Traits Good communicator; not too introverted
Cont.2 Career Paths (Managerial/ Fixed in a person: Either type likely to be compat-
7HFKQLFDO ible with most GSD organisations.
Cont.3 Competencies $ELOLW\ERWKWHFKQLFDODQGPDQDJHULDO
 Motivation Software Engineers Working in Virtual Teams across the Globe 275

can become over-stretched in terms of holding key knowledge, and having demands
RQWKHLUWLPHIURPFXVWRPHUVVDOHVIRUFHKHDGRI¿FHGHYHORSPHQWWHDPHWF$OVR
the hours they are required to work can be unsustainable. Therefore, despite the
challenging work, the individual may leave their employment if no time is allowed
for their own needs and for a work-life balance.

10.6.1 Herzberg’s Two-factor Theory and the ‘Crowding Out’ Effect

Software engineers are motivated by internal factors such as challenging and varied
work, fairness, participation, trust, respect and social interaction (discussed earlier
±VHH7DEOHVDQG,WLVWKHFDUHIXOPDQDJHPHQWRIWKHVHintrinsic factors
that will result in software engineer’s increased commitment to the task. External
factors such as rewards and salary also need to be managed in order to match the
software engineer’s expectations. However, internal and external needs must be
¿QHO\EDODQFHG)RUH[DPSOHDGYDQWDJHVJDLQHGIURPLQWULQVLFPRWLYDWLRQFDQEH
crowded out by placing too much emphasis on extrinsic motivators (Frey and Os-
WHUORKCrowding outFDQEHH[SODLQHGDVIROORZV$QHPSOR\HH¿QGVWKHLU
job interesting and challenging, feels they are treated fairly, and feel that they are
SDUWRIDWHDPDQGKDYHVRPHWKLQJVSHFL¿FWRFRQWULEXWH+RZHYHUWKHPRWLYDWLRQ
engendered by these intrinsic factors can be crowded out – “obscured by shifting the
excitement connected with the job towards monetary reward”. According to Frey
DQG 2VWHUORK   ³2IIHULQJ H[WULQVLF PRWLYDWRUV VXFK DV VDODU\ FDQ DFWXDOO\
VZLWFKVRPHRQH¶VHQMR\PHQWDQGIXO¿OOPHQWIURPWKHMRELWVHOIWRGRLQJWKHMREIRU
¿QDQFLDOUHZDUG7KDWUHZDUGLVRIWHQVKRUWOLYHG´+RZHYHUWKHDXWKRUVDGGWKDW
extrinsic motivators cannot be ignored and that under certain circumstances they are
LQGLVSHQVDEOH)UH\DQG2VWHUORK

10.6.2 People, Process and Creativity

We know from software engineer motivation research that the profession attracts
people who are technical, and creative with a very high need for challenging work
%HHFKDPHWDO7KLVLVUHÀHFWHGLQIRUH[DPSOHWKHHQMR\PHQWGHULYHGIURP
problem solving, or learning a new programming language. The idea of working on
the same small area, in piecemeal fashion, is anathema to the software practitioner.
As much as managers might strive to put processes in the place of dependence on
people, this can never work in software development, since the task itself is so de-
SHQGHQWRQVNLOOHGSHRSOH¿QGLQJVROXWLRQVWRQHZSUREOHPVDQGLWLVXQOLNHO\WKDW
two pieces of software will be identical when viewed as a whole.
7KHYHU\MRELWVHOILVGLI¿FXOWKDUGWRHVWLPDWHDQGFKDOOHQJLQJWRJHWULJKWLQ
terms of meeting customer requirements, since each piece of software is in some
way going to be different from other software written in the past. But, that is the
attraction, the challenge, and perhaps a key reason software engineers are attracted
WRWKLVSURIHVVLRQLQWKH¿UVWSODFH
There is a tension between some management practices and software engineer
FUHDWLYLW\DQGMREVDWLVIDFWLRQ)RUH[DPSOHLWLVGLI¿FXOWWRZRUNDFURVVVLWHVRS-
276 Beecham

erating in different time zones without structure: “While synchronous groups can
often vary the degree and type of structure dynamically as needed, this is more dif-
¿FXOWIRUGLVWULEXWHGDV\QFKURQRXVJURXSVWKDWDUHGHSHQGHQWRQERWKVWUXFWXUHDQG
SURFHVVUXOHVIRUFRRUGLQDWLRQ´2FNHUHWDO%HLQJGHSHQGHQWRQVWUXFWXUH
¿WVWKH7D\ORU¶VVFLHQWL¿FPDQDJHPHQWYLHZWKDWWKHZD\WRPD[LPL]HRXWSXWZDVWR
discourage free thought, and expect employees to follow prescribed steps (Kenne-
G\DQG1XU,WDSSHDUVWKDWFRQWUROVDQGSURFHVVHVDUHRUWKRJRQDOWRFUHDWLYLW\
According to Ocker et al., “too much structure, or the wrong structure, can limit the
creative process”. This is supported by Van de Walle et al. who note the absence of
structured task support led to greater satisfaction in their study of distributed teams
9DQGH:DOOHHWDO7RDOORZSUDFWLWLRQHUVWKHIUHHGRPWREHFUHDWLYHWKH
project manager must therefore aim for a correct balance between structure (seen as
GH¿QHGSURFHVVHVDQGÀH[LELOLW\

10.6.3 Returning to the Rational–Economic Model in GSD

Working remotely, managers are encouraged to keep the need for interaction among
UHPRWHORFDWLRQVWRDPLQLPXPHJ5LFKDUGVRQHWDO,WLVDIWHUDOOWKHVH
FRPPXQLFDWLRQV WKDW FDQ LQWURGXFH GLI¿FXOWLHV VXFK DV PLVXQGHUVWDQGLQJV VWUHVV
and delays into the process, especially when working in different time zones, etc.
Effective partitioning and allocation of work across the GSD team is something
all managers need to plan for at the start of any project. There are several options
WRWDVNDOORFDWLRQ&DUPHODQGDFFRUGLQJWR3DUQDVPDQDJHUVFDQ
choose one or more of the following approaches: modularisation; phase-based; or
LQWHJUDWHG3DUWLWLRQLQJFDQEHFRPSRQHQWEDVHG.RWODUVN\HWDORUOLIHF\FOH
EDVHGâPLWH6WUDWHJLFSDUWLWLRQLQJRIWKHGHYHORSPHQWWDVNFDQUHGXFHWKH
need for communication across teams.
However, when we consider the individual, the perceived productivity gains of
working discretely are likely to be short lived. Developing software is essentially
a human intellectual and social activity (Ferratt and Short 1986; Burn et al. 1992;
-RUGDQDQG:KLWHOH\*DU]DHWDO6XPQHUHWDO,IWKHZRUNLV
viewed as repetitive, boring and fragmented, then the individual may not feel part
of the overall organization and may perceive their work to be meaningless. It is im-
portant for engineers’ motivation that they perceive that their contributions matter
)HUUDWWDQG6KRUW&UHSHDXHWDO*DU]DHWDO5HVHDUFKVKRZV
that monotony creates apathy, dissatisfaction and carelessness (Crepeau et al. 1992;
3HWHUV6XPQHUHWDO,WXPDSDUWLFXODUO\ZKHQDQLQGLYLGXDOGRHV
not develop new skills. However, another issue with task allocation by site is career
advancement. For example, if a programmer desires to become a software archi-
tect, he or she needs to see a career path and be given an opportunity to learn related
new skills. Working remotely can mean that the individual either does not have the
scope to advance up the career ladder, or that they may be overlooked.
The concepts and theories relating motivation to a GSD context have been drawn
from the literature, and the case study has been used to provide real world examples
of how these theories can be applied in practice. There are limitations to using one
 Motivation Software Engineers Working in Virtual Teams across the Globe 277

FDVHVWXG\DQG¿QGLQJVDUHXVHGPHUHO\DVLQGLFDWRUVRIZKHUHSUDFWLFHVFDQKHOS
or hinder motivation. For example, some engineers might be highly motivated by
salary, and providing they are well paid, will continue to produce high quality work
despite many other motivators being challenged.

10.7 Summary and Conclusion

This chapter explored motivation theories and used a case study as an example of
how to motivate software engineers working in virtual teams. Theories of motiva-
WLRQ VXJJHVW WKDW SHRSOH LQ ZKDWHYHU VSKHUH ZLOO KDYH WKHLU RZQ VSHFL¿F QHHGV
and that it is the strength of those needs and the likelihood that they will be met by
a given task that will determine the energy and enthusiasm the individual will ex-
pend on that task. However, despite the bespoke nature of motivation, the research
does point to areas that need to be considered in every case. In every situation, the
manager needs to balance three things: the task, the environment, and the software
engineer’s characteristics. If any of these are mismatched no amount of stimulus
from the job will result in sustained motivation.
Software development teams cannot be treated as a homogeneous group with
similar characteristics. As it appears that engineers needs differ according to the role
they play, a way to manage engineers’ motivation is by role. However, roles are an
DUHDWKDWFDQEHEOXUUHGSDUWLFXODUO\LQDJOREDOVHWWLQJ7KHUHVHDUFKDQG¿QGLQJV
IURPWKHFDVHVWXG\UHSRUWHGLQWKLVFKDSWHUKDYHLGHQWL¿HGWKLVDVDSUREOHP7KH
demands placed on engineers working remotely can mean that they are encouraged
to take on many roles to ensure project success. While keeping roles and responsi-
ELOLWLHVÀXLGPLJKWVXLWXSSHUPDQDJHPHQWDQGHYHQPHHWVWKHVRIWZDUHHQJLQHHU¶V
need for varied and challenging work, it can place unrealistic pressures on an indi-
vidual’s time.
This chapter listed factors known to motivate software engineers. Twenty-two
different factors that motivate software engineers to produce high quality soft-
ZDUHKDYHEHHQGLYLGHGLQWRLQWULQVLFDQGH[WULQVLFPRWLYDWRUV&DVHVWXG\¿QGLQJV
drawn from a company engaged in distributed software development, were mapped
to each motivation factor. In this way, preliminary results are presented relating to
areas that particularly threaten software engineers’ motivation in a global setting.
7DNLQJDQHHGVWKHRU\DSSURDFKPDQDJHUVPXVW¿UVWFRQVLGHUZKLFKPRWLYDWLRQ
factors they can control and which are outside their control. For example, the neg-
DWLYHLQÀXHQFHRIextrinsic factors can be reduced by ensuring that employees are
given adequate pay, a feeling of security, and good management. As global software
development stems from the ‘environment’ it makes sense to view external factors
as a separate threat or enhancement to motivation. Some environmental factors are
outside the control of the manager. For example no amount of best practice can
change the culture of a country, the security of a job in a volatile economy, or a
limited career path in a small organization.
278 Beecham

The MREFKDUDFWHULVWLFVWKHRU\+DFNPDQDQG2OGKDPHPSKDVL]HVWKHLP-

SRUWDQFHRISHUVRQMRE¿W7KH*6'HQJLQHHUQHHGVWRKDYHFHUWDLQFKDUDFWHULVWLFV
in place that are resilient to the environment, leaving them free to be motivated by
the intrinsic aspects of the work. Ideally, a software engineer recruited to work in a
YLUWXDOWHDPZLOOEHDWDFDUHHUVWDJHWKDWDOORZVWKHPÀH[LELOLW\WRWUDYHOÀH[LELOLW\
in their place of work and the hours they work. Also, they need to be open, tolerant
DQGLQWHUHVWHGLQGLIIHUHQWFXOWXUHV7KH\QHHGDJRRGOHYHORIFRQ¿GHQFHLQWKHLU
own ability, to know their own limitations, to be good and clear communicators, and
on the extrovert end of the personality spectrum.
6RRQFHWKHSHUVRQMRE¿WKDVEHHQPDWFKHGDQGextrinsic factors controlled for
where possible, managers can turn their attention to the intrinsic factors which relate
to the job itself. It is getting these factors right that will motivate software engineers
to do the best job they can. Software engineers need technically challenging work,
variety of tasks and evidence that their efforts will result in a useful contribution.
Engineers also require developmental training, to feel involved, recognition and
rewards for doing a good job, and to be treated fairly, regardless of their location.
Finally they need trust and respect, responsibility, autonomy and empowerment.
This chapter looked at how motivation theory can help to solve some GSD or-
ganisational problems such as low employee commitment and high turnover. It also
examined how motivation might promote software quality and inspire innovation.
However, an assumption associated with recommended management practices is
WKDWWKHHPSOR\HHVWD\VLQWKHRUJDQLVDWLRQORQJHQRXJKWREHQH¿WIURPDQ\PRWLYD-
WLRQSURJUDP:HKDYHVHHQWKDWKHDY\ZHLJKWSURFHVVHVFDQVWLÀHLQQRYDWLRQDQG
that enforced compliance will demotivate the technical employee. A way forward
could be to apply agile development methodologies, and empower employees by
creating an environment that allows a worker to develop a sense of ownership and
SULGHRIDFFRPSOLVKPHQW.HQQHG\DQG1XU
There is still more work required in this area. We need ways to measure the
SHUVRQMRE¿WIRU*6'$OVRDOWKRXJKDJLOHPHWKRGVDSSHDUWRDGGUHVVPDQ\VRIW-
ware engineer motivation needs in co-located settings, we still need to know how
to implement agile methods in a distributed setting so that motivation is positively
affected.
Finally, when managers are allocating tasks to engineers, they would do well to
heed the advice given by Herzberg:
³,I\RXZDQWVRPHRQHWRGRDJRRGMREJLYHWKHPDJRRGMREWRGR´

Acknowledgment
Thanks are extended to the many practitioners who gave their time and made this
study possible. Also thanks are given to the reviewers and colleagues who com-
mented and proof read early versions of this chapter. This work was supported, in
part, by Science Foundation Ireland grant 10/CE/I1855 to Lero - the Irish Software
(QJLQHHULQJ5HVHDUFK&HQWUHZZZOHURLH
 Motivation Software Engineers Working in Virtual Teams across the Globe 279

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,WXPD$7KHLQWHUQDOFDUHHUDQH[SORUDWLYHVWXG\RIWKHFDUHHUDQFKRUVRILQIRUPD-
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Technology Institute, University of Latvia
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tributed software projects: solution proposal, University of Latvia
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published by LNCS
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outcome and its impact on team motivation across three countries. In: ACM SIGMIS
CPR ‘10, Vancouver, Canada
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ware Engineering Teams: A Four Country Empirical Study. Journal of Systems and Soft-
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developers. Proceedings - International Conference on Software Engineering: 419-429

Author Biography

Sarah Beecham holds the position of Research Fellow in the Process Quality
Group in Lero – the Irish Software Engineering Research Centre. Sarah’s research
interests include software fault prediction, effort estimation, evidence based soft-
ware engineering, requirements engineering, software process improvement. She
has published widely in the area of Software Engineer Motivation.