Lecture Notes
Lecture Notes
Lecture Notes
daniel raies
(0, 1)
√ √
3 3
− 12 , 2
1
2, 2
√ √ √ √
− 22 , 2
2
π
2
2 , 2
2
2
2π π
3 3
√ √
− 23 , 12 3π
90◦
π 3 1
2 , 2
4 4
120◦ 60◦
5π π
6 135◦ 45◦ 6
150◦ 30◦
(−1, 0) (1, 0)
π 180◦ 0◦ ◦
360 2π x
210◦ 330◦
7π 11π
6 225◦ 315◦ 6
√ 240◦ 300◦ √
5π 7π
270◦
− 23 , − 21 4 4
3 1
2 ,−2
4π 5π
3 3
√ √ 3π √ √
− 22 , − 22 2 2
2 ,− 2
2
√ √
− 12 , − 23 1
2,− 2
3
(0, −1)
— J. A. Lindon [1]
This therefore is Mathematics:
She reminds you of the invisible forms of the soul;
She gives life to her own discoveries;
She awakens the mind and purifies the intellect;
She brings light to our intrinsic ideas;
She abolishes oblivion and ignorance which are ours by birth. . .
— Proclus Lycaeus [2]
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The images in this document were made with the tikz package. Doc-
umentation can be found on the CTAN website [7].
The content and examples in this document are my own but the sub-
ject matter is meant to reflect some of the material covered in Func-
tions Modeling Change: A Preparation for Calculus for the University of
Oregon by Connally et al. [4].
v
CONTENTS
1 introduction 1
1.1 Readiness Check 3
2 new functions from old functions 5
2.1 Combinations of Functions 6
2.2 Composition of Functions 22
2.3 Inverse Functions 37
2.4 Periodic Functions 61
3 trigonometry in circles and triangles 77
3.1 Basic Geometry 78
3.2 The Sine and Cosine Functions 99
3.3 Special Angles 120
3.4 Graphs of Sine and Cosine 140
3.5 The Tangent Function 160
3.6 Inverse Trig Functions 176
4 trigonometric functions 187
4.1 Radians and Arc Length 188
4.2 Non-right Triangles 205
4.3 Sinusoidal Functions 226
4.4 Trigonometric Equations 250
4.5 Relationships and Graphs 271
5 vectors 283
5.1 Introduction to Vectors 284
5.2 Components of a Vector 304
5.3 The Dot Product 326
5.4 Applications of Vectors 349
5.5 Abstract Vectors 366
Appendix 381
a answers to practice exercises 383
bibliography 389
index 391
vii
1
INTRODUCTION
1
2 introduction
1.1.1. Find 31 − 27 + 1. Leave your answer in exact 1.1.12. A software manufacturer is developing a
form and simplify your answer. particular computer game. They are doing
√ √ market research to determine at which
1.1.2. Find 50 + 72. Leave your answer in price they should sell this game. They find
exact form and simplify your answer. that if they sell the game for x dollars each
1.1.3. Simplify the expression then their expected profit per month from
1 1
+ x+4 1
+ x+3 . this game’s sales is
x2 +7x+12
P(x) = −10x2 + 700x − 2250 dollars.
1.1.4. Find all values of x such that
a.) At what price should they sell the
x2 + 7x + 1 = 0. Leave your answer in exact
game to maximize their profit?
form.
b.) What is the maximum profit they can
1.1.5. Find all values of x such that make in a month from the sale of this
(x + 2)2 = x2 − 2(x − 8). game?
1.1.6. Find all values of x such that 1.1.13. Three consecutive positive integers are
1 + 9 log(x − 3) = 19. such that twice the smallest integer minus
the largest integer plus the square of the
1.1.7. Let f(x) = x2 − 4x − 11. Find all values of t
middle integer is 153. What are the three
such that f(t) = 10.
integers?
3
1.1.8. Find the equation of a line with slope 2 1.1.14. The graph of f(x) is drawn below. Draw
which goes through the point (2, −1).
the graph of g(x) = 21 f(x + 3) − 4 on the
1.1.9. What is the largest possible domain of the same plot. (Assume that the scale on the axes
x+3
function g(x) = x2 +3x+2 ? Write your is in increments of one.)
answer in interval notation.
y
The bulk of MATH 111 covers the definition of a function as well some
important examples of functions including linear functions, polyno-
mials, power functions, exponential functions, and logarithms. This
chapter examines how one can use those functions and combine them
to form new functions. This chapter covers the content of Chapter 10
in College Algebra and Trigonometry for the University of Oregon, by Con-
nally et al. [4]
5
6 new functions from old functions
Motivation
Theory
Historically, f(x) is We start by introducing some notation. It is likely that, until now,
a new notation. students are accustomed to using single letters to denote functions
Until recently
like f and g. Functions work like machines that input a number and
mathematicians
would write fx or output another number. If f is a function and x is in the domain of f
(x)f instead of f(x). we write f(x) to denote the output corresponding to the input x.
2.1 combinations of functions 7
a. Evaluate (f + g)(−2).
b. Evaluate (1/f)(3).
Solution:
Answer: (f + g)(−2) = −1
If we can add and multiply functions it makes sense that we should It is just as easy to
be able to subtract and divide them, as well. Definition 2.1.3 defines define difference and
quotient functions
these functions by appealing to Definition 2.1.1. That is, we already
without the
know how to define (−1)g and we know how to add functions to- definitions of sum
gether so f − g is defined simply as f − g = f + (−1)g. and product
functions; this
choice is arbitrary.
(2.1.3) Definition . Let f and g be known functions.
• Define the function f/g such that f/g = (f)(1/g). That is,
if x is in the domain of both f and g and g(x) 6= 0 then
(f/g)(x) = (f(x))/(g(x)).
a. Evaluate (f/g)(1).
Solution:
f(1) 12 + 2 3
(f/g)(1) = = = .
g(1) 3(1) − 1 2
3
Answer: (f/g)(1) = 2
Answer: (f − g)(x) = x2 − 3x + 3
f(x) + g(x) so as long as both f(3) and g(3) are well-defined (that
is, as long as 3 is in the domain of both f and g) then f(3) + g(3) is
well-defined so (f + g)(3) makes sense and 3 is in the domain of f + g.
Thus the domain of f + g is every value of x which is in the domain
of both f and g.
Quotients of functions are a little more complicated. In order for
3 to be in the domain of f/g we need the output of f/g to be well-
defined. If 3 were in the domain of f/g then its output would be
(f(3))/(g(3)). For this value to be well-defined we first need f(3) and
g(3) to be well-defined (that is, 3 needs to be in the domain of f and
g) but we also need the fraction to be well-defined which means that
the denominator cannot be zero. In order for (f(3))/(g(3)) to make
sense mathematically we need f(3) to be defined, g(3) to be defined,
and g(3) to be non-zero. Thus the domain of f/g is every value of x
which is in the domain of both f and g such that g(x) 6= 0.
Some of the more difficult examples of sums and products of func-
tions involve rational functions. These can often be challenging for
students and may require extra practice depending on the student’s
level of previous experience.
1 x+1
(2.1.5) Example . Let f(x) = x2 +3x+2
and let g(x) = x+2 .
Solution:
a. Observe that
(f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)
1 x+1
= 2 +
x + 3x + 2 x + 2
1 x+1
= +
(x + 1)(x + 2) x + 2
1 (x + 1)(x + 1)
= +
(x + 1)(x + 2) (x + 2)(x + 1)
1 + (x2 + 2x + 1)
=
(x + 1)(x + 2)
2
x + 2x + 2
= 2 .
x + 3x + 2
In problems like these, be careful with your algebra and
make sure that you cancel any common factors.
x2 +2x+2
Answer: (f + g)(x) = x2 +3x+2
2.1 combinations of functions 11
b. Observe that
(fg)(x) = (f(x))(g(x))
1 x+1
=
(x + 1)(x + 2) x+2
(x + 1)
=
(x + 1)(x + 2)2
1
=
(x + 2)2
1
= 2 .
x + 4x + 4
1
Answer: (fg)(x) = x2 +4x+4
c. Observe that
f(x)
(f/g)(x) =
g(x)
1
(x+1)(x+2)
= x+1
x+2
1 x+2
=
(x + 1)(x + 2) x+1
(x + 2)
=
(x + 1)2 (x + 2)
1
=
(x + 1)2
1
= 2 .
x + 2x + 1
1
Answer: (f/g)(x) = x2 +2x+1
1 1
(2.1.a) Practice Exercise . Let f(x) = x+1 , g(x) = x+3 , and
h(x) = x21−1 .
5
y = f(x)
4
3
y = g(x)
2
x
-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
-1
-2
-3
For each function f and g in Figure 2.1.6, the height of the function
at an x-value corresponds to the output of the function at that x-value.
In order to graph f + g we need to determine its height at each x-value.
For a particular value of x we know that (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x). Well,
f(x) corresponds to the height of the graph of f and g(x) corresponds
to the height of the graph of g. Thus the height of the graph of f + g
at a particular x-value should be the height of the graph of f with the
height of the graph of g added on to it.
This gives us a method to determine points on the graph of f + g.
Consider x = 9. In order to find the height of the graph of f + g when
x = 9 we determine the height of the graph of g when x = 9 and place
it “on top” of the the graph of f when x = 9. Figure 2.1.7 demonstrates
this process. The height of the vertical blue line represents the value
of g(9). It is shown between the x-axis and the graph of g as one
expects and it is also shown starting at the graph of f when x = 9.
The end of this second segment is the value of (f + g)(9) which is
shown as a point in red.
y
6 (9, (f + g)(9))
5
g(9)
y = f(x)
4
3
f(9) y = g(x)
2
1
g(9)
x
-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
-1
-2
-3
Figure 2.1.7: The point (9, (f + g)(9)) on the graph from Figure 2.1.6.
2.1 combinations of functions 13
7 y = (f + g)(x)
6
5
y = f(x)
4
3
y = g(x)
2
x
-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
-1
-2
-3
Applications
Solution:
a. Observe that
b 107
x=− =− = 3282.21.
2a 2(−0.0163)
P(3282.21)
= −0.0163(3282.21)2 + 107(3282.21) − 156000
= 19598.16.
Solution:
The function R tells us the number of residents at the uni-
versity. Since 40 % of them need parking permits, the function
0.4R describes the number of permits that residents will need.
2.1 combinations of functions 17
(ii) Ken’s entire yard has an area of 567 ft2 . How long does
it take him to mow the entire yard?
(iii) Find the dimensions (the length and the width) of Ken’s
yard. Hint: Use the functions for length and width.
18 new functions from old functions
Homework Assignment
2.1.1. Imagine two functions, p and q, such that a.) Find and simplify (f − g)(x).
the domain of p is (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞) and the b.) Find and simplify (g/f)(x).
domain of q is (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, ∞). What is
the domain of p + q? 2.1.10. Consider the following functions:
1
2.1.2. Let f(x) = x2 +6x+5 , let g(x) = x + 5, and let f(x) = 1 − x2
1
h(x) = x+1 . x2 − x − 12
h(x) =
a.) Find (f + h) (x). x2 + 7x + 10
b.) Find (fg) (x). p(x) = x + 5
q(x) = x − 4
c.) Find (f/h) (x).
1
1 1 r(x) =
2.1.3. Let f(x) = 2x−1 , let g(x) = x−1 , and let x+3
h(x) = 3− 5x. Find and simplify
f
Find and simplify the following:
g + 2h (x).
a.) (f + pq) (x)
2.1.4. Let f(x) = x21−1 , let g(x) = x+1
x
, and let b.) hr q (x)
h(x) = 3x + 1. Find and simplify fh + g.
c.) (ph) (x)
1 1
2.1.5. Let f(x) = x+2 , let g(x) = x2 +x−2 , and let p(x)−2
d.) h(x)
h(x) = x. Find and simplify gh − f.
x+3 1
2.1.11. The functions f and g are graphed below.
2.1.6. Let f(x) = x−1 , let g(x) = x2 −x−12 , and let
Sketch the graph of f + g. (Assume that f
1
h(x) = x−4 . Find and simplify the function has a vertical asymptote at x = 0.)
(fg + h) (x).
y
x
2.1.7. Let f(x) = x+3 , let g(x) = x2 + 4x + 3, and
3
let h(x) = x + 1.
g
a.) Find and simplify f + h (x). 2 y = g(x)
2
2.1.8. Let f(x) = xx2 +5x+4
+x−6
, let g(x) = 1 y = f(x)
x+1 , and let x
1 1 2 3 4
h(x) = x−2 .
-1
a.) Find and simplify (fh) (x).
-2
b.) Find and simplify (f/g) (x).
c.) Find and simplify (f + g) (x). -3
g
d.) Find and simplify f + h (x).
2.1.12. The functions f and g are graphed below.
2.1.9. Define functions f and g such that
Sketch the graph of f + g.
x
f(x) = and
x−3
12
g(x) = 2 .
x − 2x − 3
2.1 combinations of functions 19
y y
3 3
2 2 y = f(x)
y = g(x)
1 1 y = g(x)
y =x f(x) x
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
2.1.13. The functions f and g are graphed below. 2.1.15. A friend of mine knits and sells blankets.
Sketch the graph of f + g. After doing some market research she
found a demand function, D. That is, if she
y
charges x dollars for each blanket then she
2 will be able to sell D(x) blankets in a
month where D(x) = 25 − x/2. In such a
1 y = g(x) month her costs are given by
y =x f(x) C(x) = 150 − 2x when she charges x dollars
1 2 3 4
for each blanket.
-1
a.) The revenue function R is defined
-2 such that R(x) = xD(x). Find and
simplify the revenue function.
b.) Find and simplify the the profit
2.1.14. The functions f and g are graphed below. function, P. Hint: How do we find profit
Sketch the graph of f + g. from cost and revenue?
c.) How much should she charge for each
blanket to maximize her profit? Hint:
How do we find the highest point on a
quadratic polynomial?
d.) What is the maximum profit that she
can make in a month? Hint: What is
the profit that she earns if she charges the
price determined in part (c)?
Challenge Problems
4
y = f(x)
y = g(x)
1
x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
P(t) = 12000e0.035t .
The city’s financial director has a model for the number of jobs that
the city can support. If t is the number of years after 2010 then the
2.1 combinations of functions 21
financial director expects there to be J(t) jobs available within the city
limits where
J(t) = 10t2 − 10t + 13000.
These models are predicted to be reasonable approximations through
the year 2030.
Motivation
Imagine two machines. The first machine will process truffula trees
“Truffula trees” into thneeds and the second machine processes thneeds into socks.
grow in the universe Now imagine that you have truffula trees but you need socks. There
of The Lorax [5]
isn’t a machine available that will proccess your truffula trees into
and are used to make
a type of cloth called socks, but that doesn’t mean you can’t make socks. If you put the
“thneeds” (which truffula trees into the first machine you will have thneeds. If you then
everyone needs). put the thneeds into the second machine you will get the socks that
you wanted.
The preposterous example above is the rough idea behind function
composition. Functions are analogous to machines; a function inputs
certain values and outputs values which correspond to the input. A
toy store is developing a new toy and they find a cost function for
this toy in terms of the number of toys sold and produced. That is, if
they want to sell n of these toys then it will cost the company C(n)
dollars to produce them. Then the function C is a machine which
inputs a number, n, and outputs the cost required to produce n toys.
A convenient visual representation for the function C uses boxes and
arrows as in Figure 2.2.1
Toys C Production
Produced Cost
Unit D Toys
Price Produced
which inputs the unit price of the toy and outputs the production cost.
You have a function which inputs the unit price and you have another
function which outputs the production cost but neither function does
both. In Figure 2.2.3, C and D are the functions that you already have
and K is the function that you want.
Theory
(f ◦ g)(x) = f(g(x))
Solution:
From Definition 2.2.4 we have that
(f ◦ g)(3) = f(g(3)).
Answer: (f ◦ g)(3) = 17
Note that to compute (f ◦ g)(x) we first plug x into g and then plug
g(x) into f but to compute (g ◦ f)(x) we first plug x into f and then
plug f(x) into g. To help remember this difference, the notation f ◦ g is
The language of “f sometimes read as “f after g” since computing (f ◦ g)(x) requires us to
after g” is not plug g(x) into f after we plug x into g. This difference is highlighted
standard. Not all
in Example 2.2.6.
mathematicians use
it.
(2.2.6) Example . Consider the functions f(x) = x2 + 1 and
g(x) = 2x − 2. Compute (g ◦ f)(3).
Solution:
From Definition 2.2.4 we have
a. Compute f(4).
Solution:
Answer: f(t + 3) = t2 + 4t + 6
a. Compute (f ◦ g)(1).
c. Compute (f ◦ g)(0).
26 new functions from old functions
Solution:
Answer: (f ◦ g)(1) = 3
(f ◦ g)(x) = f(x2 − 1)
= (x2 − 1)2 − 2(x2 − 1) + 3
= x4 − 2x2 + 1 − 2x2 + 2 + 3
= x4 − 4x2 + 6.
Answer: (f ◦ g)(0) = 6
x+1
(2.2.9) Example . Let f(x) = 2x + 3 and let g(x) = x−4 .
Solution:
Answer: (f ◦ f)(x) = 4x + 9
b. Observe that
(g ◦ f)(x) = g(f(x))
= g(2x + 3)
(2x + 3) + 1
=
(2x + 3) − 4
2x + 4
= .
2x − 1
2x+4
Answer: (g ◦ f)(x) = 2x−1
c. Observe that
(f ◦ g)(x) = f(g(x))
x+1
=f
x−4
x+1
=2 +3
x−4
2(x + 1) 3(x − 4)
= +
x−4 x−4
2x + 2 + 3x − 12
=
x−4
5x − 10
=
x−4
5x−10
Answer: (f ◦ g)(x) = x−4
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
f(x) 2 5 0 4 3 1
g(x) 0 4 1 2 3 5
(f ◦ g)(x)
(g ◦ f)(x)
(f ◦ f)(x)
Solution:
Let’s start by calculating (f ◦ g)(0). We know that (f ◦ g)(0) =
f(g(0)). From the table we know that g(0) = 0 and we know
that f(0) = 2. Hence
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
f(x) 2 5 0 4 3 1
g(x) 0 4 1 2 3 5
(f ◦ g)(x) 2 3 5 0 4 1
(g ◦ f)(x) 1 5 0 3 2 4
(f ◦ f)(x) 0 1 2 3 4 5
2.2 composition of functions 29
6
y = r(x)
5
x
-1 1 2y = 3h(x)4 5 6
-1
a. Find (h ◦ r)(1).
b. Find (h ◦ r)(2).
c. Find (h ◦ r)(3).
d. Find (r ◦ h)(0).
e. Find (r ◦ h)(5).
f. Find (h ◦ h)(4).
Solution:
a. From the definition, (h ◦ r)(1) = h(r(1)). From the graph
of y = r(x) we see that r(1) = 5 so that (h ◦ r)(1) = h(5).
From the graph of y = h(x) we see that h(5) = 2. Hence
(h ◦ r)(1) = h(r(1)) = h(5) = 2. We can solve the rest of
these similarly.
Answer: (h ◦ r)(1) = 2
b. (h ◦ r)(2) = h(r(2)) = h(5) = 2
Answer: (h ◦ r)(2) = 2
c. (h ◦ r)(3) = h(r(3)) = h(5) = 2
Answer: (h ◦ r)(3) = 2
d. (r ◦ h)(0) = r(h(0)) = r(2) = 5
Answer: (r ◦ h)(0) = 5
e. (r ◦ h)(5) = r(h(5)) = r(2) = 5
Answer: (r ◦ h)(5) = 5
30 new functions from old functions
(f ◦ g)(−3) = f(g(−3)),
√
but g(−3) = −3 is undefined. Since there is no way to make sense of
g(−3), there is certainly no way to make sense of f(g(−3)) and hence
−3 is not in the domain of f ◦ g. Now consider (f ◦ g)(4). Again, we
should be able to calculate
(f ◦ g)(4) = f(g(4)).
Applications
Find and simplify a function f such that when there are n stu-
dents enrolled in MATH 111/112 the Duck Store must spend
f(n) dollars on purchasing textbooks for MATH 111/112 from
their distributor.
Solution:
It can be helpful (even in problems that don’t involve com-
position) to make a diagram of the inputs and outputs in-
volved in this problem. The function S inputs the number of
students enrolled in MATH 111/112 and outputs the number
32 new functions from old functions
f(n) = C(S(n))
= C(0.45n + 50)
= 50(0.45n + 50) − e0.01(0.45n+50)
= 22.5n + 2500 − e0.0045n+0.5 .
25p − 70
H(p) = .
p−2
Homework Assignment
2.2.1. Fill in the table below. and f is the temperature in Fahrenheit. Use
function composition to find a function
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 Q(f) for the pressure of 0.029 mol of air in
f(x) 2 3 5 1 0 4 a 1 L container where Q(f) is in atm and f
g(x) 3 5 2 4 0 1 is the temperature in Fahrenheit. Be sure to
simplify your answer completely and,
(f + g) (x)
when necessary, round to five decimal
(g ◦ f) (x) places.
1
2.2.2. Let f(x) = 2x − 1 and g(x) = 3x−4 . 2.2.6. The number of guitars that a particular
a.) Find (f ◦ g)(x). store sells in a week is a function of the
price for which they sell them. If they sell
b.) Find (g ◦ f)(x).
the guitars for p dollars then they sell g(p)
c.) Find (g ◦ f) 32 .
guitars where
1
2.2.3. Let f(x) = x2 + 2, let g(x) = x+1 , and let 5 (360 − p)
x
h(x) = e . Simplify your answers. g(p) = .
p − 80
a.) Find (f ◦ g) (x)
The store’s costs in a week are a function of
b.) Find (g ◦ f) (x) the number of guitars that they sell that
c.) Find (f ◦ h) (x) week. If they sell n guitars then their costs
d.) Find (h ◦ f) (x) for that week are c(n) dollars where
e.) Find (g ◦ h) (x) (n + 2)2 + 40000
c(n) = .
f.) Find (h ◦ g) (x) 500
1
2.2.4. Let f(x) = x−3 , let g(x) = x + 5, and let Find a function f such that if the store
2
h(x) = x − 1. Find and simplify decides to sell their guitars for p dollars
then the store’s costs for the week are f(p)
a.) (f ◦ g) (x)
dollars. Be sure to simplify your answer
b.) (g ◦ f) (x) completely.
c.) (f ◦ h) (x)
2.2.7. Alicia works as a waitress in a restaurant.
d.) (h ◦ f) (x) She uses the functions T and P to
e.) (g ◦ h) (x) approximate the money she makes in an
f.) (h ◦ g) (x) evening. If she waits on a table whose total
bill is p dollars then she will get a tip of
2.2.5. The pressure of 0.029 mol of air in a 1 L approximately T (p) dollars where
container is P(k) atm (a unit of pressure)
where 3
T (p) = (p + 10) .
P(k) = 0.00476k 20
and k is the temperature of the air in Also, if she waits on a table seating n
Kelvin. Temperature in Kelvin is T (f) people then the total bill at that table is
where approximately P(n) dollars where
5 √
T (f) = f + 255.372 P(n) = 15n − 5 n + 10.
9
2.2 composition of functions 35
Find a function f such that if she waits on a corn that year. Find a function r which
table seating n people then she gets a tip of describes his revenue for the year in terms
approximately f(n) dollars. of the expected average temperature.
2.2.8. Ned, the park ranger, monitors animal 2.2.11. If a computer manufacturer sells u
populations in a particular park. He finds computers in a month then his revenue for
that m months into the year there are the month (in dollars) is approximated by
approximately W(m) thousand wolves in R(u) = 1000 + 1200u. If he spends d dollars
the park where on advertising
√ in a month then he will sell
2 C(d) = 0.7 d − 3 computers in that month.
W(m) = e−0.01(m−6) . Find a function f such that if he spends d
Additionally, the wolf population dollars on advertising in a given month
influences the rabbit population since then he will make f(d) dollars in revenue.
wolves feed on rabbits. Ned finds that 2.2.12. The demand function for a particular
whenever there are w thousand wolves in product is given by D(p) = 16000 − 80p;
the park there are approximately R(w) that is if the company charges p dollars per
thousand rabbits in the park where unit then they will sell D(p) units of that
R(w) = 2 − 10 ln w. product. The cost function for this
particular product is given by
Find and simplify a function F such that m c0 (q) = 20000 + 30q; that is if they sell q
months into the year there are F(m) units then it will cost them c0 (q) dollars to
thousand rabbits in the park. In your final manufacture those units. Round to two
answer you may use decimals rounded to decimal places when necessary.
two decimal places. In this context, m = 0
a.) If the revenue function is given by
corresponds to the first moment of January and
R(p) = p D(p), find and simplify the
m = 12 corresponds to the last moment of
revenue function.
December but this is not really important to the
problem. b.) Find a function C which describes the
cost as a function of the price for
2.2.9. The function V(r) = 34 πr3 gives the volume which they sell the product; that is, if
(in in3 ) of a sphere with radius r (in the company charges p dollars per
inches). If I am inflating a spherical balloon unit then it will cost them C(p)
at a rate such that its radius after t seconds dollars to manufacture the units that
is R(t) = 7 log(t + 1) (in inches) then find a they sell.
function S such that after t seconds the
c.) Find a profit function M in terms of
volume of the balloon is S(t) (in in3 ).
the price for which they sell the
2.2.10. A farmer is producing corn. The function R product; that is, if the company
gives his revenue in terms of the amount of charges p dollars per unit then they
corn he produces; that is, if he produces p will make a profit of M(p).
pounds of corn in a year then his revenue d.) Find the price per unit that the
is R(p) dollars for that year. The function C company should charge for this
gives the amount of corn he expects to particular product in order to
produce in terms of the average maximize their profit. Then find the
temperature for the year; that is, if the maximum profit. Round to two
average temperature for the year is t (in °F) decimal places.
then he expects to produce C(t) pounds of
36 new functions from old functions
Challenge Problems
Motivation
Using the same technique we can solve this equation for t in terms of
a.
a = 10000e0.025t
a
= e0.025t
1000
a
ln = 0.025t
1000 a
t = 40 ln
1000
The calculation in Section 2.3 tells us that in order for the account
a
to reach a value of a dollars the investment must last t = 40 ln 1000
years. Hence we can define a new function, T , such that
a
T (a) = 40 ln .
1000
Note that the functions A and T relate the same quantities: the value
of the investment and the length of the investment. However, the roles
of these quantities are switched. The function A inputs the length
of the investment and outputs the value of the investment while the
function T inputs the value of the investment and outputs the amount
of time required for the investment to reach that value. Figure 2.3.1
relates these quantities and functions.
Length of A Value of
Investment T Investment
Theory
Observe that
f(2) = 2(2) − 1 = 3.
Definition 2.3.2 stipulates that f−1 (y) = x if and only if f(x) = y.
Since f(2) = 3 we have that f−1 (3) = 2. Similarly,
so that f−1 (−13) = −6. Suppose that we want to find f−1 (5). Accord-
ing to Definition 2.3.2 we have that f−1 (5) = x if and only if f(x) = 5.
Thus we want a value of x such that f(x) = 5. We can use the defini-
tion of f to solve for x as follows:
5 = f(x)
5 = 2x − 1
6 = 2x
3=x
and hence f−1 (5) = 3. We can check our work by computing f(3). If
f−1 (5) = 3 then we expect f(3) = 5 and we see that
f(3) = 2(3) − 1 = 5,
as desired.
It is clear that the previous calculation can be performed to com-
pute f−1 (y) for any value of y. If we’re given a value of y and we
want to figure out an x-value such that f−1 (y) = x then we set up the
In general, it is equation f(x) = y and solve it for x in terms of y. For this particular
“hard” to solve an function, we can do this for arbitrary values of y as follows:
equation of the form
f(x) = y for x in
f(x) = y
terms of y.
2x − 1 = y
2x = y + 1
1 1
x = y+
2 2
Thus f−1 (y) = 12 y + 12 . In fact, this is the general procedure for find-
ing equations for the inverses of invertible functions.
a. f(x) = 13 x − 5
3
2.3 inverse functions 41
b. g(x) = 3 ln(x − 1)
1
c. h(x) = 2x+5
Solution:
1−5y
It follows that h−1 (y) = 2y .
1−5y
Answer: h−1 (y) = 2y
As we saw earlier in the section, not all functions are invertible. The
criterion developed in Definition 2.3.2 for determining if a function is
invertible is intuitive but there is a more practical way. We will now
develop that method.
Solution:
For each of the parts of this problem we will check if (f ◦
g)(x) = x and (g ◦ f)(x) = x. According to Theorem 2.3.4, if
both of these conditions hold then f and g are inverses of one
another. If either one of them fails, however, the functions are
not inverses.
a. First observe that
(f ◦ g)(x) = f(g(x))
1
=3 x+2 −6
3
= x+6−6
= x.
Now observe that
(g ◦ f)(x) = g(f(x))
1
= (3x − 6) + 2
3
= x−2+2
= x.
Since both (f ◦ g)(x) = x and (g ◦ f)(x) = x it follows
that f and g are inverses of one another.
Answer: Yes, f and g are inverses of one another.
b. First observe that
(f ◦ g)(x) = f(g(x))
q
= 3 (x + 2)3 − 1 + 1 − 2
q
= 3 (x + 2)3 − 2
= x+2−2
= x.
Now observe that
(g ◦ f)(x) = g(f(x))
√ 3
3
= x+1−2+2 −1
√ 3
3
= x+1 −1
= x+1−1
= x.
Since both (f ◦ g)(x) = x and (g ◦ f)(x) = x it follows
that f and g are inverses of one another.
Answer: Yes, f and g are inverses of one another.
44 new functions from old functions
Questions like the ones in Example 2.3.5 can be tricky. For example,
√
consider the function f(x) = x2 and g(x) = x. To start with, we know
that these two functions cannot be inverses of each other. We know
this because we know that f is not invertible. However, checking to
see if they’re inverses of each other can be misleading. First of all,
√ 2
(f ◦ g)(x) = f(g(x)) = x =x
3x + 4 = y
3x = y − 4
1 4
x = y− .
3 3
It follows that if f is invertible then f−1 (y) = 31 y − 43 . Define g(x) =
1 4
3 x − 3 (this function is defined to be equal to the possible inverse that
we just found). We know that in the case that f is invertible, the only
possible inverse it could have is g. That means that the only way f
can be invertible is if f and g are inverses of each other and we know
how to check for that. Observe that
1 4
(f ◦ g)(x) = 3 x− +4 = x−4+4 = x
3 3
and that
1 4 4 4
(g ◦ f)(x) = (3x + 4) − = x + − = x
3 3 3 3
46 new functions from old functions
a. f(x) = 6x + 4
1
b. g(x) = x+1
c. h(x) = 3 − |x|.
Solution:
a. We first solve the equation y = f(x) for x which will
provide us with a potential inverse function.
y = 6x + 4
y − 4 = 6x
1 2
y− = x
6 3
The last line in the above equation suggests that if f has
an inverse then f−1 (y) = 16 y − 32 . Since we don’t know
yet if f is invertible we define p(x) = 16 y − 23 . If f has an
inverse then it must be p so we now check if f and p are
inverses as we did in Example 2.3.5.
1 2
(f ◦ p)(x) = 6 x− +4 = x−4+4 = x
6 3
1 2 2 2
(p ◦ f)(x) = (6x + 4) − = x + − = x
6 3 3 3
It follows that f and p are inverses and hence f−1 = p
so that f−1 (y) = 61 y − 23 .
Answer: Yes, f is invertible and f−1 (y) = 61 y − 23 .
b. We first solve the equation y = g(x) for x.
1
y=
x+1
y(x + 1) = 1
1
x+1 =
y
1
x = −1
y
2.3 inverse functions 47
1
It follows that if g has an inverse it must be p(x) = x − 1.
1 1
(g ◦ p)(x) = 1
= 1 = x
x −1 +1 x
1
(p ◦ g)(x) = 1
−1 = x+1−1 = x
x+1
1 1 y 1−y
g−1 (y) = −1 = − = .
y y y y
1−y
Answer: Yes, g is invertible and g−1 (y) = y .
y = 3 − |x|
3 − y = |x|
y
y = f−1 (x)
5
4 y = f(x)
3 (3, 3)
(1,
2 2)
1 (2, 1)
(−1, 0)
x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1 (0, −1)
-2
(−4.5, −3) -3
-4
(−3, −4.5) -5
Figure 2.3.7: The graph of an invertible function y = f(x) and its inverse.
Remember that There are two ways to interpret Theorem 2.3.8. From a theoretical
horizontal lines have standpoint it says that a function is invertible if the line y = k and the
equations of the
graph y = f(x) intersect in at most one place for every value of k, or
form y = k for real
numbers k. that the equation k = f(x) has at most one solution for each value of
k, which should sound familiar. From a graphical standpoint, the line
y = k contains every point of the form (x, k) and the theorem says
that, in order for f to be invertible, the graph of y = f(x) can only con-
tain one of those points for each k. Theorem 2.3.8 is straightforward
to apply in practice.
2.3 inverse functions 49
x x
y y
x x
Solution:
y
y = f(x)
y=x
y = f−1 (x)
y = p(x) y=x
y = p−1 (x)
y = q−1 (x)
y=x
y = q(x)
y
y = f(x)
for our function g are positive so in this case we only end up with
√ √
the positive value of y. The inverse of g is then g−1 (y) = y. This
becomes more clear from the graph of y = g(x) in Figure 2.3.11
y
y = g(x)
y = g−1 (x)
Figure 2.3.11: The graph of y = g(x) where g(x) = x2 on [0, ∞) and the
graph of y = g−1 (x).
Applications
1
B(t) = .
5t + 10
The function B is not based on any facts; it was invented for this
problem.
Solution:
0.02 = B(t)
1
0.02 =
5t + 10
5t + 10 = 50
5t = 40
t=8
B
Time BAC
T
b = B(t)
1
b=
5t + 10
b(5t + 10) = 1
1
5t + 10 =
b
1
5t = − 10
b
1 − 10b
5t =
b
1 − 10b
t=
5b
Thus B−1 (b) = 1−10b5b and T (b) = 1−10b
5b . In an appli-
cation like this it is not necessary to use composition
to ensure that B is invertible. Since you were asked to
find an inverse function it is safe to assume that the in-
verse exists; you will not be asked to find nonexistent
functions.
1−10b
Answer: T (b) = 5b
a. How long will it take for the stone to hit the ground?
2.3 inverse functions 55
Solution:
0 = h(t)
0 = 200 − 16t2
200 = 16t2
12.5 = t2
t = ±3.54
y = h(t)
y = 200 − 16t2
y − 200 = 16t2
y − 200
= t2
r 16
y − 200
± =t
16
1p
± y − 200 = t
4
It seems, at this point, that we have a problem since
there are two values of t. However, as mentioned before,
only positive values of t work in this application so we
only use the positive value of t above. Hence h−1 (y) =
1√ 1√
4 y − 200 and T (y) = 4 y − 200.
√
Answer: T (y) = 14 y − 200
56 new functions from old functions
Homework Assignment
y
2.3.1. Consider f and g in the table below.
6 y = f(x)
5
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 4
3
f(x) 2 3 5 7 0 9 1 2
1
g(x) 7 6 2 7 9 1 3 x
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6
a.) Is f invertible? -2
-3
b.) Is g invertible? -4
-5
2.3.2. The functions p and q are defined such -6
that
their inverses: -1
a.) f(x) = − 23 x − 6 -2
b.) r(x) = 13 x − 1 -3
c.) t(x) = − 47 x + 3
2
d.) w(x) = 3x − 1 2.3.6. Is the function f(x) = 2x+3 invertible? If so,
find its inverse.
e.) g(x) = x3 + 4
f.) h(x) = 2x+3 2.3.7. Is the function g(x) = 3x − 1 invertible? If
x+1
so, find its inverse.
g.) p(x) = 1 − 2ex
h.) q(x) = ln(x − 3) 2.3.8. Is the function h(x) = |2x + 3| − 1
√ invertible? If so, find its inverse.
i.) s(x) = 3 + x − 2
√ 2.3.9. Is the function p(x) = 2 log(x) + 3
j.) v(x) = 1 − 3 7x + 4
invertible? If so, find its inverse.
k.) z(x) = 3 + 3 log(x + 5)
2.3.10. Are the following functions invertible? If
2.3.4. Sketch the inverse of the function y = f(x)
so, find their inverses.
graphed below:
a.) f(x) = 3x + 7
3
b.) g(x) = 1 − 2−x
c.) h(x) = x2 − 4
58 new functions from old functions
d.) p(x) = 23 x − 1
7 e.) f(x) = 3x+1
2x−5 and g(x) = 5x+1
2x−3
5−3x
e.) q(x) = 2x+1 2.3.14. Find any two functions f and g such that
f.) The function y = r(x) is graphed (f ◦ g) (x) = x for all x but there exists a
below. You may draw the inverse if it number t such that (g ◦ f) (t) 6= t.
is invertible.
y
2.3.15. Hint: The two parts of this question have
6 different answers. Why is that?
5 y = r(x) √
4 a.) Are the functions f(x) = 3 + 3 x − 1
3 and g(x) = (x − 3)3 + 1 inverses of one
2
another?
1
√
x b.) Are the functions f(x) = 3 + x − 1
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6
-2
and g(x) = (x − 3)2 + 1 inverses of one
-3 another?
-4
-5 2.3.16. The graphs of two functions, y = f(x) and
-6
y = g(x), are shown below.
g.) The function y = s(x) is graphed y
below. You may draw the inverse if it
is invertible. 3
6 y = s(x) 2 y = f(x)
5
4
3 1 y = g(x)
2
1
x
x
1 2 3 4
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6
-2
-1
-3
-4
-5
-6
a.) Is f an invertible function?
b.) Is g an invertible function?
2.3.11. True or False: 3
q The functions f(x) = 1 + 7x c.) Sketch the graph of y = (f + g)(x).
3 x−1
and g(x) = 7 inverses of each other.
d.) Is f + g an invertible function?
1
2.3.12. True or False: The functions f(x) = 1 −
1
x−1 2.3.17. The airspeed velocity of a European
and g(x) = 1 + 1−x inverses of each other. swallow is proportional to its heart rate.
2.3.13. For each of the following pairs of functions, That is, if a European swallow’s heart rate
decide whether or not they are inverses for is h bpm then its airspeed is A(h) = 0.01h
one another. m/s.
√ a.) The average heart beat of a European
a.) f(x) = x3 − 2 and g(x) = 3 x − 2
x+4 4+5x
swallow is 900 bpm. What is the
b.) f(x) = and g(x) =
√
2x−5 2x−1 airspeed velocity of such a swallow?
c.) f(x) = 3 2x − 4 + 3 and
b.) If a European swallow flies at
g(x) = 12 (x − 3)3 + 2
11.5 m/s, find its heart rate.
1
d.) f(x) = 1 + 4e3x and g(x) = 3 ln( x−1
4 )
2.3 inverse functions 59
2.3.18. Cindy works at an hourly job where her wants to make d dollars in a year then
pay is determined by a function P. If Cindy the average number of hours she
works an average of t hours a week over needs to work per week during that
the course of a year then she makes P(t) year is f(d).
dollars in that year where b.) Cindy’s mom is worried about her
and wants to know how much she
P(t) = 600t + 800.
will save depending on how many
Additionally, the amount that Cindy puts hours she works. Find a function g
into savings depends on the amount of such that if she works an average of t
money that she makes in a year according hours a week over the course of a year
to the function S. That is, if she makes d then she put g(t) dollars into savings
dollars in a year then she will put S(d) in that year.
dollars into her savings account that year c.) Cindy also wants to know how many
where hours a week that she needs to work
3d − 8000 in order to save a given amount of
S(d) = .
20 money. Find a function h such that if
a.) She wants to know how many hours a she wants to save m dollars in a year
week that she needs to work in order then the average number of hours she
to make a given amount of money. needs to work per week during that
Find a function f such that if she year is h(m).
Challenge Problems
Motivation
position when t = 45
80 ft
h(45)
Ground Level
180
100
20
t
90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720
Figure 2.4.2: Some of the points on the graph of y = h(t) shown in green.
Theory
(0.58,3) (1.42,3)
(1,2.28)
(0,1) (2,1)
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
the graph of f to the left by 2 units results in the same exact graph
which is why f is periodic.
We note that it seems, at first glance, that the function f in Fig-
ure 2.4.4 could be of period 4. After all, if you shift the graph of f to
the left by 4 units you will obtain the same graph. However, Defini-
tion 2.4.3 requires that the period of f be the smallest number p such
that a horizontal shift by p does not change the graph of f. Thus the
period of f cannot be p = 4 since p = 2 works just fine.
(-1.25,1) (0.75,1)
x x
y y
x x
-1.5 -0.5 0.5 1.5
Solution:
2
y
3 1
2
1 x
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2
-7
-1 -6
1 2
-5
3 4
-4
5
-3
7
x -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-1
6
-1
-2
-3 -2
Figure 2.4.6: A function that looks periodic in one view-3but does not look
periodic in another view.
Our approach to this point has been largely graphical. Example 2.4.7
shows that periodic functions can be expressed without a graph. It is
often very difficult to express a periodic function with an equation.
However, in order to define a periodic function it is sufficient to de-
fine it on one period. That is, in the event that f is a periodic function
with period p and we can use an equation to express f on some in-
terval of the form [a, a + p) then that single period defines the rest of
the function. Such a function is described in Example 2.4.7.
a. Find f(1).
b. Find f(−6).
c. Find f(5).
Solution:
Answer: f(−6) = 4
0 = −x2 − 2x + 3
0 = −(x + 3)(x − 1)
x
-10 -7 -5 -2 3 5 8 10
Example 2.4.7 states that the roots of this function are points (1 +
5n, 0) for integers, n. Remember that integers refers to both positive
and negative whole numbers.
2.4 periodic functions 67
y = f(x)
y=3
y = 1.5
y=1
(0.19, 1.5) (1.81, 1.5)
y = 0.5
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
Figure 2.4.9: The function y = f(x) in Figure 2.4.4 and the horizontal lines
y = 0.5 and y = 1.5.
Now consider the solutions to f(x) = 1.5. As you can see in Fig-
ure 2.4.9, this equation is much more interesting. The solutions are
the x-values of the points at which y = f(x) and y = 1.5 intersect. In
the figure, we see that there are plenty of these. In fact, there are an
infinite number of them. It seems like a daunting task to find them
all, but luckily we can handle it precisely because f is periodic.
Look at any one period of f. That is, consider any interval of the
form [a, a + 2) for a real number a. For convenience, we’re going
to use a = 0 and look at [0, 2) since that was the period we were
examining earlier. In Figure 2.4.9 we see that the only two solutions
to f(x) = 1.5 on [0, 2) are x = 0.19 and x = 1.81. Now remember that
the entire graph of y = f(x) is determined by the graph of y = f(x) on
the interval [0, 2). It follows that f(0.19 + 2n) = 1.5 for every integer,
n, and that f(1.81 + 2n) = 1.5 for every integer, n. Furthermore, these
can be the only solutions because otherwise there would be more
on [0, 2). We’ve now determined that all of the values of x such that
f(x) = 1.5 are
You can see in Figure 2.4.9 that every solution to f(x) = 1.5 is a mul-
tiple of 2 units away from one of the two that are in [0, 2). That shift
of 2n for some integer, n, is what accounts for the 2n in our list of
solutions.
We can generalize this procedure to any periodic function. Let f
be some periodic function with period p. Suppose we want to solve
68 new functions from old functions
f(x) = k for some real number k. Then there are either zero solutions
or an infinite number of solutions. If there are an infinite number of
solutions and we know all of the solutions on a single period, then
all of the solutions are obtained by adding pn to those solutions for
integers, n.
Solution:
We first need to find all of the solutions on a single period
of f. This will be easiest if we look at the period [−5, 5) since
we know the definition of the function on that period. If x
is a value in [−5, 5) such that f(x) = 5 then we know that
f(x) = x3 − x + 5 so
5 = x3 − x + 5
0 = x3 − x
0 = x(x + 1)(x − 1)
(0.58,3) (1.42,3)
1
y=2
(0,1) (2,1)
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
the midline is both 1 unit from the maximum and 1 unit from the
minimum and that the amplitude is precisely 1.
x
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6
-1
-2 y = T (x)
-3
Applications
To this point we have only defined periodic functions and have not
yet addressed any mathematical questions. Hence we can only look
at some examples of periodic functions.
y = B(t)
t
p
200
y = f(t)
y = 125
50
t
1 2
y = f(x)
x
1 2 3 4
Homework Assignment
y
2.4.1. True or False: The graph below is the
graph of a periodic function.
y
2.4.2. True or False: The graph below is the
graph of a periodic function.
y
2.4.3. True or False: The graph below is the
graph of a periodic function.
y
a.) What is the amplitude of f?
b.) What is the midline of f?
c.) Find f(−107).
x 2.4.13. A function g is periodic of period 100.
Whenever 0 < x 6 100 we have that
g(x) = log(x).
a.) Find g(0).
b.) Find g(200).
2.4.8. True or False: The graph below is the
graph of a periodic function. c.) Find g(−10).
y
d.) Find all of the zeros of g.
y
x
1
x
-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
2.4.9. A function f is periodic of period 9. If
-6 y = f(x)
f(4) = 12, f(2) = 3, and f(−8) = 20, find
f(20).
2.4.15. Below is the graph of a periodic function,
2.4.10. A function f is periodic with period 11. If
y = f(x).
√ f(6) = −7, f(14) = 10, and
f(2) = 2π,
f(18) = 7, find f(28). y
3
2.4.11. The function g is periodic with period 2
and g(x) = x3 whenever x is in [1, 3). 2
-1
function on [1, 3) and then translate that
section of the graph. -2
Challenge Problems
(f + g)(x + p) = (f + g)(x)
y = (f + g)(x)
y = f(x)
y = g(x)
x
2 4 6 8
e. It is not the case that the sum of two periodic functions must
either be a periodic function or a constant function. That is, if f
and g are periodic then f + g might be neither periodic nor con-
stant. Find an example of such a thing; find a periodic function
f and a periodic function g such that f + g is neither periodic
nor constant. Hint: There are a lot of answers to this question. The
functions that you use for f and g do not need to be terribly compli-
cated.
3
T R I G O N O M E T RY I N C I R C L E S
AND TRIANGLES
77
78 trigonometry in circles and triangles
Definitions
Figure 3.1.2 shows some examples of rays. Note that the rays shown
in Figure 3.1.2 are drawn as arrows but a ray actually extends off
indefinitely in the direction that the arrow points. Unfortunately there
is no better way to draw a ray. This is similar to the way we often draw
lines except that lines go off indefinitely in both directions.
3.1 basic geometry 79
It is important to be careful when using rays to indicate an angle. Actually, two rays
Figure 3.1.4a shows two rays emanating from the same point which define more than
just two angles.
forms an angle. However, those two rays actually form two different
There will be more
angles which are shown in Figure 3.1.4b and Figure 3.1.4c. Sometimes on this later.
a small arc of a circle will be used to indicate which angle is being
considered when there is confusion. Other times, when the angle is
labeled, we simply put the label where the arc would go as with
angles A and B in Figure 3.1.7b.
A
B
(a) A right angle. (b) Adjacent angles.
Figure 3.1.7a shows an example of a right angle while the angles A A small square (as
in Figure 3.1.7a)
will be used to
indicate right
angles.
80 trigonometry in circles and triangles
100 80
0 60
12
0
40
14
100 80
160
20
0 A
60
12
180
0
340
200
0
40
20
14
32
2
0 30
24 280 0
260
160
20
Figure 3.1.8: A protractor measuring a 58° angle.
0
(3.1.9) Definition . A degree is a unit of measure for an-
gles. An angle which corresponds to no rotation at all has a
340
200
3 2
2
The last sentence in the definition of degrees simply means that you
0 30
can add angle measures as you might expect. If something first rotates
24 280 0
260
by 35° and then rotates by 25° it seems natural that the total rotation
would be an angle of 60° and this is indeed the case. More precisely,
two adjacent angles form a larger angle and the degree measure of
the larger angle is obtained by adding the degree measures of the
smaller angles; this is shown in Figure 3.1.10. You shouldn’t think too
3.1 basic geometry 81
25° 60°
35°
Figure 3.1.12 shows a few examples of angles and their degree mea-
sures. Definition 3.1.3 stipulates that the legs of an angle should be
rays but using line segments instead of rays will suffice. We now
proceed to develop some language with which we can refer to some
important types of angles.
(3.1.11) Definition .
45°
45° 105° 75°
(a) Two 45° angles. (b) Supplementary angles.
60° 135°
(c) A 60° angle. (d) A 135° angle.
Later in the chapter we will make sense of angles larger than 360° but
for now we assume that all angles are between 0° and 360°.
Example 3.1.14 uses the letter θ. This is one of 24 letters in the
greek alphabet. Greek letters are often used to denote angles. The
entire greek alphabet is shown in Table 3.1.13.
Solution:
As drawn, the two angles in the diagram are supplemen-
tary since they form a straight line when drawn with a shared
leg. That means that 135° + θ = 180° so that θ = 45°.
Answer: θ = 45°
60° θ φ
γ
45°
70°
235° 140°
310° β
δ α
Solution:
It is difficult to explain how to do these in general. We know
that angles add and we know a lot of angles whose measure
are 90°. These allow us to set up simple equations and solve
for the desired angles.
Answer: γ = 290°
We now introduce triangles which, along with angles, will form the
basis of the study of trigonometry. Note that Definition 3.1.16 intro-
duces a lot of terminology but in reality the definition of a triangle is
exactly what one expects it to be.
The last thing we are going to introduce at this point is the unit
circle. The unit circle introduced in Definition 3.1.18 will provide us
with a valuable tool in the study of angles.
120° 225°
60°
Normally angles are drawn with two rays emanating from a vertex
as in Figure 3.1.20 but when drawing inscribed angles we will make a
86 trigonometry in circles and triangles
few adjustments. We only need to draw the terminal leg as the other
leg is assumed to be along the x-axis and the terminal leg is drawn as
a line segment ending in the inscription point. Also, when drawing
angles we often use a small arc of a circle to indicate the angle of
interest. To indicate that we are actually using an inscribed angle we
attach a small arrow to the end of the arc. These differences are shown
in Figure 3.1.21.
120° 225°
60°
Figure 3.1.21: The same inscribed angles as in Figure 3.1.20 but with the
appropriate decoration.
120° 225°
60°
135°
Figure 3.1.22: Various angles in the unit circle. Inscribed angles are in red
and angles which are not inscribed angles are in black.
Figure 3.1.22 shows some inscribed angles and some angles that
are not inscribed angles. In Figure 3.1.22a the 60° angle is not an
inscribed angle because neither of its legs are along the positive x-
axis. In Figure 3.1.22b the 135° angle is not an inscribed angle because
while one of its legs is along the positive x-axis, the second leg is
oriented clockwise from the positive x-axis.
Not all angles drawn in the unit circle are inscribed angles but
given any angle we can draw it in the unit circle as an inscribed angle
3.1 basic geometry 87
58°
Early Results
71°
63° θ
Solution:
Let A be the angle supplementary to θ; that is, the third
interior angle in the triangle. Then, by Lemma 3.1.24, we have
that
A + 63° + 71° = 180°
and hence A = 46°. Then, since θ and A are supplementary,
we have that
180° = A + θ = 46° + θ.
It follows that θ = 134°.
Answer: θ = 134°
The result in Lemma 3.1.24 is simple but it is quite lucrative. Con- See
Definition 3.1.11 for
the definitions of the
types of triangles
88 trigonometry in circles and triangles
200 feet
200 feet
The large square is the entire garden and the yellow triangle
is the section dedicated to corn. What is the area of the section
to be dedicated to corn?
Solution:
At first it seems as though not enough information is given
in the problem since the precise location of one of the vertices
is not given. However, it turns out that it doesn’t matter. We
designate the base of the triangle as the side which is shared
with the square. From a theoretical standpoint it doesn’t mat-
ter which side is chosen as the base but oftentimes a clever
choice will make the problem significantly easier. The length
of the base is 200 m so all that’s left to do is to find the height.
Call the vertex which is not on the base p. Then the height
is the shortest distance from p to the base which is certainly
200 m regardless of where p is placed along the top edge of
the square. It follows that the area of the triangle is given by
1 1
bh = (200)(200) = 20000.
2 2
Thus the area of the triangle is 20,000 m2 .
Answer: 20,000 m2
I now wish to arrange four copies of the above triangle into a square.
a b
B θ A
a
c B
θ
b c
A A
c b
θ
B c
a
A θ B
b a
Now consider the angle θ as drawn above. Since the edges of the
outer-most square are straight lines,
θ + A + B = 180° (3.1.31)
A + B = 90° (3.1.32)
On the other hand we can find S by adding the areas of the shapes
inside it. The outermost square consists of four yellow triangles which
have area 12 ab by Lemma 3.1.26 and the blue square which has area
c2 . Therefore
1
S=4 ab + c2 = 2ab + c2 . (3.1.34)
2
By combining Equation 3.1.33 and Equation 3.1.34 we have that
After subtracting 2ab from each side of Equation 3.1.35 we have Equa-
tion 3.1.30.
c
3
Solution:
Note that the above triangle is a right triangle so that the
Pythagorean Theorem applies. According to the language of
Theorem 3.1.29 we have that a = 3 and b = 4 (or the other
way around - this choice is arbitrary). Then, after substituting
into Equation 3.1.30, we have
3 2 + 4 2 = c2
4
2
Solution:
Since the triangle is a right triangle we can apply Theo-
rem Thus 22 + b
√ 3.1.29. √
2 2 2
√ = 4 and b = 12. Finally b =
± 12 = ±2 3 so√b = 2 3 since b is the length of a line.
Answer: b = 2 3
5 in
2 in 3 in
Lemma 3.1.38 and Lemma 3.1.40 are presented solely for reference;
no examples will be done with them and there will be no exercises
using them. They are technical results that will be useful in passing
later in the chapter.
a b c
= = .
x y z
We conclude our results in this section with Lemma 3.1.41. This is Recall
the result that will allow us to use inscribed angles to study trigonom- Definition 3.1.18 for
the definition of the
etry. It is recommended that students read the proof of this lemma as
unit circle.
it is an interesting application of the Pythagorean Theorem.
Proof. Pick an arbitrary point (x, y) on the unit circle like the one
shown in Figure 3.1.43.
|x|
|y|
(x, y)
x2 + y2 = 1,
94 trigonometry in circles and triangles
as desired.
Solution:
This problem can be solved without the use of a graph but
a picture is always illustrative. The line y = 2x + 1 and the
unit circle are shown below. Their points of intersection are
shown in red.
x2 + y2 = 1 and y = 2x + 1.
x2 + (2x + 1)2 = 1
x2 + 4x2 + 4x + 1 = 1
5x2 + 4x = 0
x(5x + 4) = 0
y = 2x + 1 = 2(0) + 1 = 1
3.1 basic geometry 95
Angles in Practice
32°
125 ft
65°
60 ft
the first city and the other flies 100 mi before landing in the second
city as depicted in Figure 3.1.47. How far apart are they after they’ve
both landed?
City 1
140 mi
City 2
60°
100 mi
Airport
We cannot answer these questions just yet but they are only a few
of the examples of applications of the study of trigonometry.
3.1 basic geometry 97
Homework Assignment
3.1.5. A right triangle has a hypotenuse of length 3.1.11. What is the linear distance between the
10 cm. If one of its legs is twice as long as points (−3, 1) and (2, −4) in the xy-plane?
the other, find its perimeter. Leave your That is, what is the length of the line in the
answer in exact form. image shown below? Leave your answer in
exact form. Hint: Try drawing a right triangle
3.1.6. Angles θ and φ are supplementary. If φ is with the line whose length you want as the
10° larger than θ, find both angles. hypotenuse.
3.1.7. Mark goes jogging one morning. He leaves y
his house and jogs 3 mi north and he then 1
turns right and jogs 5 mi east before he
x
stops to stretch. At that point, how far -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
away from his house is he (in a straight
-2
line)? Round your answer to two decimal
-3
places.
-4
3.1.14. The hypotenuse of a right triangle has a 3.1.16. A particular township is in the shape of a
length of 200 and the longer leg is three rectangle which is 4 mi on one side and
times as long as the shorter leg. Find the 6 mi on the other side. A hiker wants to
perimeter of the triangle. Round to two hike the longest possible distance in a
decimal places. straight line without leaving the township
so she decides to hike from the northeast
3.1.15. A pizza box is rectangular. If it is 16 in
corner to the southwest corner. How far is
wide and 18 in tall, how far does the box
her hike? Round to two decimal places.
measure from corner to corner? Round
your answer to two decimal places.
Challenge Problems
30 ft
20 ft
x y
3.2 the sine and cosine functions 99
Motivation
Certainly right triangles do not account for all of the triangles that
arise naturally but they are a very important special case. Also, a
mastery of right triangles will allow us to study other triangles as
well.
We have already seen a result that is specific to right triangles: the
Pythagorean Theorem in Theorem 3.1.29. Given a right triangle where
two of the side length are known, the Pythagorean Theorem allows
us to calculate the length of the third side. Suppose that instead we
know the length of the hypotenuse and one of the interior angles of
this right triangle. In this section we will develop techniques to find
the lengths of the legs.
For example, consider a television. In the technical specifications
for this television it says that the screen’s diagonal measures 40 in and
that the diagonal makes a 30° angle with the bottom of the screen as
shown in Figure 3.2.1.
in
40
30°
In this case we might want to know the length and width of the
television screen. These are the types of questions that we wish to
address in this section.
Theory
It is important to realize that cos and sin are functions whose inputs
are angles. If θ is an angle then to find cos(θ) and sin(θ) we place θ in
the unit circle as an inscribed angle; the resulting inscription point has
coordinates (cos(θ), sin(θ)). Figure 3.2.3 shows the values of cos(60°)
and sin(60°) on the unit circle.
(cos(60°), sin(60°))
60°
(0, 1)
90°
180°
(−1, 0)
(1, 0)
360°
270°
(0, −1)
Figure 3.2.4: Inscription points for 0°, 90°, 180°, 270°, and 360°.
legs are also in the same place. Thus the inscription angles for both 0°
and 360° have terminal legs on the positive x-axis which means that
both of their inscription points are the point (1, 0).
As mentioned earlier, it is difficult to calculate cos(θ) and sin(θ) for
arbitrary values of θ. There are a few that we know exactly, but most
of the time we need a calculator to approximate these values. You
should stop now, turn on your calculator, and attempt to do some Not all calculators
calculations. The only thing that might be tricky about your calcula- can evaluate
trigonometric
tor is the mode that it is in. There are two common ways to measure
functions, but most
angles: in degrees and in radians. We have already discussed degrees modern calculators
and we will discuss radians later. Your calculator has a separate mode can.
for each of these types of angle measures. In degree mode your calcula-
tor expects angles to be in degrees and in radian mode your calculator
expects angles to be in radians.
Go to your calculator and try to calculate cos(90). If you get that
cos(90) = 0 then your calculator is in degree mode and if you get
cos(90) = −0.4481 then your calculator is in radian mode. For now
it should be in degree mode but eventually it will need to be in ra-
dian mode so, one way or another, you should learn how to switch
between the two modes. Example 3.2.6 below is meant to help you
check your calculator.
a. cos(35°)
b. cos(200°)
c. sin(312°)
102 trigonometry in circles and triangles
d. sin(122°)
Solution:
Solution:
3.2 the sine and cosine functions 103
x = 0.6
Figure 3.2.10: The two possible inscription points for the angle θ in
Example 3.2.9.
Figure 3.2.10 explains the two possible values for sin(θ) that we
found in Example 3.2.9. Based on that calculation, one of the possible
inscription points is (0.6, 0.8) and the other is (0.6, −0.8). If all we
know about θ is that sin(θ) = 0.6 then there is no way to determine
104 trigonometry in circles and triangles
Solution:
This example is similar to Example 3.2.9 except that we also
know that sin(θ) > 0. Using the calculations in Example 3.2.9
we know that the only two possibilities for sin(θ) are 0.8 and
−0.8. Since we know that sin(θ) > 0, it must be the case that
sin(θ) = 0.8.
Answer: sin(θ) = 0.8
In Example 3.2.11 we are given the fact that sin(θ) > 0 so, geo-
metrically, we know that, with this additional piece of information,
the inscription point corresponding to θ must be (0.6, 0.8). That extra
piece of information allowed us to determine the inscription point
uniquely. However, there are other ways of determining the value of
sin(θ) and hence the inscription point.
Solution:
First consider the geometry. The inscription point corre-
sponding to θ has an x-coordinate of −0.4 and hence must
lie on the line x = −0.4. The line x = −0.4 and the unit circle
are shown below.
x = −0.4
3.2 the sine and cosine functions 105
θ1
θ2
Solution:
We first use Theorem 3.2.7 to find the two possible values
of cos(θ).
θ2
and a vertical line when you’re given the value of cos. This is done
because sin values are the y-coordinates of inscription points and cos
values are the x-coordinates of inscription points.
So far, we have defined the sine and cosine functions and looked
at their values, but there has been no mention of their usefulness.
Their first application will be to relationships between sides in right
triangles. Consider a right triangle whose legs have lengths a, b, and The following
c with an interior angle of θ as oriented in Figure 3.2.14. explanation is a
little technical. Feel
free to skip right to
Theorem 3.2.16 if it
gets confusing.
c
b
θ
a
b a
sin(θ) = and cos(θ) = .
c c
This is exactly the result in Theorem 3.2.16.
c
b
sin(θ)
1
θ x
cos(θ) a
b a
sin(θ) = and cos(θ) = .
c c
5
b
40°
a
Solution:
Notice that the triangle in this example is arranged the
same as the triangle in Theorem 3.2.16 where c = 5 and
θ = 40°. It is important that a is the leg of the triangle which
3.2 the sine and cosine functions 109
is also a leg of the angle θ and we see that it is. Using the
equation in Theorem 3.2.16 we then have that
b a
sin(40°) = and cos(40°) = .
5 5
By rearranging those equations we have that
te
adjacent
nu θ ten
se use
θ
adjacent opposite
use
te
opposite
adj
ten ace
osi
po nt
hy
opp
θ θ
adjacent hypotenuse
opposite adjacent
sin(θ) = and cos(θ) = ,
hypotenuse hypotenuse
opposite a adjacent b
sin(φ) = = and cos(θ) = = .
hypotenuse c hypotenuse c
φ
c
b
θ
a
Figure 3.2.19: A right triangle with two angles. The side a is adjacent to θ
but opposite to φ whereas the side b is adjacent to φ but
opposite to θ.
Make sure that you practice using the sine and cosine functions to
determine information about right triangles. We end the theory with
a couple of examples.
x
20
21°
3.2 the sine and cosine functions 111
Solution:
We are going to invoke Theorem 3.2.16 with θ = 21°. Hence
we will use either
opposite adjacent
sin(θ) = or cos(θ) =
hypotenuse hypotenuse
to solve for x. Observe that the side with length 20 is the op-
posite side to the 21° angle and that we have no information
on the adjacent side. Since we do not know the length of the
adjacent side and we are not trying to solve for its length,
there is no need to use the equation with the adjacent side in
it. Hence we use
opposite
sin(θ) =
hypotenuse
20
x= = 55.81.
sin(21°)
Answer: x = 55.81
34°
x
Solution:
We will examine the 34° angle. Observe that we know the
length of the hypotenuse and we want the length of the leg
adjacent to the 34°. Hence we will use
adjacent
cos(θ) =
hypotenuse
112 trigonometry in circles and triangles
3
Be careful of the difference between 3 cos(34°) and cos(34°) . Both of
these expressions show up sometimes in different situations and so
you should be careful that you’re using the right one. When in doubt,
check your triangles. If you’re using cos(θ) then you’re relating the
hypotenuse and one of the legs. The hypotenuse should always be
longer than each leg.
x
27°
7
Applications
Solution:
3.2 the sine and cosine functions 113
200
h
ft
72°
The horizontal leg is the ground, the vertical leg is the tree,
and the hypotenuse is the rope. From this picture and the
techniques developed in this section we have
h
sin(72°) =
200
so that
h = 200 sin(72°) = 190.21
and hence the tree is 190.21 ft tall.
Answer: 190.21 ft
Example 3.2.23 below examines the example from Section 3.1 in-
volving the trusses on a house.
32°
125 ft
Solution:
Before we address the questions, we first examine the ge-
ometry of the truss. The problem statement dictates that the
truss is an isosceles triangle so the two unknown sides of the
triangle are equal. Let’s call this length `. We also want to con-
sider the height whose length is h. These things are shown
below:
` `
h
32° 32°
62.5 ft 62.5 ft
Note that the height splits the base into two equal parts. This
is a general fact about isosceles triangles; if it is not clear,
take a moment to think about it. Once we have drawn in this
height, the rest of the problem becomes much easier.
a. To find ` we can look at one of the smaller triangles.
Since ` is the hypotenuse of the smaller triangle and the
leg adjacent to the 32° angle has length 62.5 we have
that
62.5
cos(32°) =
`
or
62.5
`= = 73.7.
cos(32°)
Hence the length of the other two sides of the truss is
73.7 ft.
Answer: 73.7 ft
h2 + (62.5)2 = `2
so that
q q
h= `2 − (62.5)2 = (73.7)2 − (62.5)2 = 39.05.
3.2 the sine and cosine functions 115
in
40 h
30°
`
Solution:
We will use the 30° angle for our solution. Again, although
it is not explicitly stated in the problem, it is safe to assume
that the corners of the television form right angles. This is a
fair approximation. Hence
opposite h
sin(30°) = = and
hypotenuse 40
adjacent `
cos(30°) = =
hypotenuse 40
so that
Homework Assignment
3.2.1. Find sin(θ) and cos(θ) in the triangle 3.2.7. Suppose that sin(θ) = − 35 and cos(θ) > 0.
below. Leave your answer in exact form. Find cos(θ). Round your answer to two
decimal places.
θ
3.2.8. Suppose that cos(θ) = −2/3 and
15 180° 6 θ 6 360°. Find sin(θ). Round your
answer to two decimal places.
θ
2
`
5 5
40°
3.2.3. Find the length of the hypotenuse of the
right triangle shown below. Round your 2
answer to two decimal places.
3.2.11. A ladder is 20 ft long and is leaning against
the side of a house. The ladder is making
40° an angle of 80° with the ground. How far
is the base of the ladder from the wall?
15 Round your answer to two decimal places.
3.2.13. Emilio likes to fly kites. His favorite kite strand is 15 ft long and makes an angle of
has exactly 200 ft of string and on a 70° with the ground, how high up on the
particularly windy day he can attach the flag pole does the web reach? Round your
loose end of the string to the ground and answer to two decimal places.
watch the kite fly on its own. On one such
day I used a protractor to measure the 3.2.17. A ladder is leaning against a wall at an
angle that the kite string made with the angle of 80°. If the base of the ladder is 3 ft
ground at 41°. How far off the ground was from the wall, how high on the wall does
the kite at that particular time? Round the ladder reach? Round your answer to
your answer to two decimal places. two decimal places.
3.2.14. A ladder is 4 m long and is leaning against 3.2.18. Two roads diverged in a yellow wood at a
a house. If it makes a 75° angle with the right angle, both of which go in perfectly
ground, how far is the base of the ladder straight lines. Luckily, a straight dirt path
from the house? Round to two decimal has been built between the ends of these
places. two roads for those who cannot make up
their mind. The road less traveled is 3 mi
3.2.15. A rope is used to anchor a sign post to the long and meets the dirt path at a 42° angle.
ground and it is attached to the post half How long is the dirt path? Round to two
way between the ground and the top of the decimal places.
post. Given that 7 ft of rope is needed and
the rope makes an angle of 65° with the 3.2.19. A hiking path goes straight from the base
ground, find the height of the sign post. of a mountain to the top of the mountain.
Round your answer to two decimal places. It is 4000 ft long and makes an angle of 27°
with the horizontal. How tall is the
3.2.16. A strand of a spider web extends at an
mountain?
angle from the ground to a flag pole. If the
Challenge Problems
37°
26°
a
c
θ
b
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos(θ).
This equation is used in Section 4.2 but it is not proved there. Hint:
Draw in a height.
120 trigonometry in circles and triangles
Motivation
The sine and cosine functions are very powerful tools and in Sec-
tion 3.4 we will explore the graphs of these functions more carefully.
Before we can do that, however, we need to do two things:
It will be our goal in this section to fill in a few points on the graphs
in Figure 3.3.1 in the interval [0°, 360°] and to understand what in
means to have an angle outside of that interval.
Theory
y y
1 1
x x
90° 180° 270° 360° 90° 180° 270° 360°
-1 -1
(a) The values on the graph of (b) The values on the graph of
y = cos(x) that are given in y = sin(x) that are given in
Table 3.2.5. Table 3.2.5.
Figure 3.3.1: Some of the points on the graphs of the sine and cosine
functions.
are 45° it is an isosceles triangle so that its legs are the same length,
which is labeled `. Then, using the Pythagorean Theorem, we have
`2 + `2 = 1
2`2 = 1
1
`2 =
2
1
`= √ .
2
Note that ` is the length of a side of a triangle so that ` must be
positive.
It follows that the inscription point corresponding to 45° is
√1 , √1 and hence
2 2
1 1
cos(45°) = √ and sin(45°) = √ . (3.3.2)
2 2
(`, `)
`
45°
`, h
2
60°
30°
h
60°
`
60°
Equation 3.3.2 and Equation 3.3.4 give two more angles for which
we can calculate the outputs of sine and cosine without a calculator.
These values, however, will allow us to calculate many more values
using Lemma 3.3.6.
3.3 special angles 123
60°
1 1
2
30°
√
3
2
The only right triangle with interior angles of 45° that has
a hypotenuse of length 1 is the following:
45°
1 √
2
2
45°
√
2
2
How does Lemma 3.3.6 help us calculate new values of sine and
cosine? Consider an angle of 60° and observe the triangle shown in
Figure 3.3.7. We see that it’s a right triangle whose hypotenuse has
length 1 which has interior angles of 60° and 30°. By Lemma 3.3.6
there is only
√
one triangle with those dimensions √ so the side lengths
must be 2 and 2 . The longer side is q so q = 23 and the shorter
3 1
√
1 1 3
side is p so p = 2 (since 2 < 2 ). Hence
√
1 3
cos(60°) = and sin(60°) = .
2 2
The procedure outlined above can be repeated for any angle which
is a multiple of 30° or a multiple of 45°. To do this we use reference tri-
angles. Definition 3.3.8 below may seem confusing, but it is extremely
intuitive in practice. If the definition seems overwhelming, read the
explanation that follows.
124 trigonometry in circles and triangles
(p, q)
60°
Figure 3.3.7: The reference triangle used to calculate sin(60°) and cos(60°).
30° (0, 0)
|q|
(p, q)
reference triangle and then we will have to decide the signs on the
coordinates of the inscription point.
The other part of Definition 3.3.8 is the definition of a reference
angle. The reference angle is the angle in the reference triangle which
is formed at the origin. In Figure 3.3.9 we see that the reference angle
is 30°. How do we know that the angle is actually 30°? Let’s call the
reference angle θ. The angle formed between the positive x-axis and
the negative x-axis is 180° and, since angles add we have that
θ + 180° = 210°
and hence θ = 30°. If this is calculation is uncomfortable, go back
and review Example 3.1.15 where we first encountered these types of
calculations.
Note that we don’t always need to form reference triangles to figure
out a reference angle. The reference angle is the smallest angle formed
between the leg of the inscription angle and the x-axis. Reference
triangles look a little bit different in each of the four quadrants of
the xy-plane and Figure 3.3.10 shows how they work in each of those
cases. In each of those figures, the angle in question is θ and the
corresponding reference angle is α. Each figure also shows how to
calculate the reference angle in that particular quadrant. You should
practice finding reference triangles and reference angles.
The next three examples explore how to find reference triangles
and reference angles. They are all very similar, but take place in dif-
ferent quadrants. Take great care to study and practice examples like
126 trigonometry in circles and triangles
θ α
α
α α
Solution:
We first draw an inscription angle of 52°.
52°
52°
52°
Solution:
We first draw an inscription angle of 147°.
128 trigonometry in circles and triangles
147°
147°
33°
Solution:
We first draw an inscription angle of 319°.
3.3 special angles 129
319°
319°
41°
√
x-coordinates. Since we know that |p| = 2
3
and p < 0 it must be that
√
p = − 23 .Similarly, points in the third quadrant all have negative
y-coordinates so q must be negative. Since |q| = 12 and q < 0 it must
be that q = − 12 .
We
have now found that the inscription point corresponding to 210°
√
3 1
is − 2 , −2 so that
√
3 1
cos(210°) = − and sin(210°) = − .
2 2
The process used to find these values can be used in some other spe-
cial cases. Any time we have an angle θ and we can determine the
lengths of the legs of the reference triangle corresponding to θ, we
can determine the values of cos(θ) and sin(θ).
Solution:
In order to calculate these, you need to draw the reference
triangle. This has been drawn for you below, but in practice
you’ll need to do it step-by-step as done in the last three ex-
amples.
|p|
300°
60°
|q|
(p, q)
1
y-coordinate so that p > 0 and q < 0. Hence p = 2 and
√
q= − 23 . It follows, finally, that
√
1 3
cos(300°) = and sin(300°) = − .
2 2
√
1 3
Answer: cos(300°) = 2 and sin(300°) = − 2
Solution:
The reference triangle has been shown below.
(p, q)
|q|
135°
45°
|p|
In Example 3.3.11 we make the claim that points in the fourth quad-
rant have a positive x-coordinate and a negative y-coordinate. If that is hard
132 trigonometry in circles and triangles
for you to see, imagine a point in the fourth quadrant (perhaps the
inscription point in Figure 3.3.10d). This point is to the right of the y-
axis so its x-coordinate must be positive. Also, this point is below the
x-axis so its y-coordinate must be positive. Using similar arguments,
can you justify the statement in Example 3.3.12 that points in the second
quadrant have a negative x-coordinate and a positive y-coordinate?
(i) θ = 315°
(ii) θ = 120°
(iii) θ = 240°
We now address our other concern for this section: angles which
are larger than 360° or smaller than 0°. In Definition 3.1.3 we defined
an angle to be the geometric object formed by two rays emanating
from the same point. However, we have since come to use inscribed
angles as an intuition for measuring angles. That is, we can think
of angles as counterclockwise rotation from the positive x-axis. If we
accept this notion of angles as a guide, it is natural to exted the defini-
tion to include angles with measure outside of the interval [0°, 360°].
Think about an angle of 400°. We have not yet defined this, but
let’s think about what it should be. Of course, 400° = 360° + 40° since
angles add. We also understand both a 360° angle and a 40° angle.
An angle of 360° corresponds to a complete rotation around the unit
circle and it seems that a 400° angle should be 40° past 360°. This
situation is depicted in Figure 3.3.16.
Note in Figure 3.3.16 that the only difference between the 40° angle
and the 400° angle is that we draw the arc going around an extra time
in the 400° angle.
360° 40°
400°
Figure 3.3.16 shows the general procedure for defining angles larger
than 360°. Every angle θ which is larger than 360° can be written as
θ = k · 360° + α
It follows that an angle of 1000° will go around the circle twice and
then an additional 280°. Similarly we have that
and
1500° = 4 · 360° + 60°.
Inscription angles of 1000°, 750°, and 1500° are shown in Figure 3.3.16.
1000°
1500°
750°
1000° = k · 360° + α?
Well, to find k we divide 1000 by 360 and round down. Use your
calculator to see that
1000
= 2.78
360
so that k = 2. Once we know k we simply subtract k · 360° from 1000° 1000/360 = 2.78
to find α. That is, tells us that 1000° is
more than 2 · 360°
α = 1000° − k · 360° = 1000° − 2 · 360° = 280° but less than
3 · 360°.
134 trigonometry in circles and triangles
Solution:
We first need to write
1200° = k · 360° + α
1200
= 3.33
360
so that k = 3. Hence
so that
1200° = 3 · 360° + 120°.
To draw an inscription angle of 1200° we go around the unit
circle three times and then go an extra 120°.
1200°
60°
−60°
214°
−214°
−1000°
The last thing that we need to address in this section is how to eval-
uate the sine and cosine functions outside of the interval [0°, 360°].
Remember that we defined cos(θ) and sin(θ) by referencing the in-
scription point corresponding to θ. Well, we know how to make in-
scription angles and hence inscription points for angles outside of the
interval [0°, 360°] so the same definition of the sine and cosine func-
tions still apply. That is, if θ is a real number whose degree measure is
any real number then cos(θ) is the x-coordinate of the inscription point
corresponding to θ and sin(θ) is the y-coordinate of the inscription
point.
For most angles outside of [0°, 360°] we still need to use a calculator
to approximate values of cos(θ) and sin(θ) but if θ is a multiple of 30°
or 45° we can use the same techniques that we used in Example 3.3.14
and Example 3.3.15.
136 trigonometry in circles and triangles
Solution:
We first draw a reference triangle. To find the inscription
angle we observe that 660/360 = 1.83 and 660° − 1 · 360° =
300° so that
660° = 1 · 360° + 300°.
Hence the inscription angle, the reference triangle, and the
reference angle are drawn below.
|p|
660°
60°
|q|
(p, q)
Solution:
3.3 special angles 137
(p, q)
−675° |q|
45°
|p|
θ = n · 360° + α.
This can be done even when θ is negative. Some students find this
appoach to negative angles easier than the one presented above.
138 trigonometry in circles and triangles
(i) θ = −135°
(ii) θ = 930°
Compare Example 3.3.14 and Example 3.3.22. You will note that
√
1 3
cos(300°) = = cos(660°) and sin(300°) = − = sin(660°).
2 2
This follows from the simple fact that 300° and 660° correspond to
the same inscription point. This demonstrates a subtle point, which
is that the sine and cosine function represent a measure of the net
positional change incurred by a rotation. It is clear that 300° and 660°
are not the same angle. It is even clear that if you take an object and
rotate it by an angle of 660° then it undergoes a lot more movement
than if you rotate it by an angle of 300°. However, after the rotation
has occurred, the object would be in the same position under rotation
by those two angles. The value of cos(θ) indicates the position change
of something in the x-direction (whatever that means in the context of
the situation) under a rotation of θ and the value of sin(θ) indicates
the position change of something in the y-direction (whatever that
means in the context of the situation) under a rotation of θ.
It seems odd at first to consider angles which cannot be measured
with a protractor. These angles are not, however, a matter of math-
ematical curiosity but rather an important physical distinction. Con-
sider the steering wheel in your car. If you are going straight and
then turn the steering wheel by an angle of 410° that will certainly
result in a much sharper turn than if you turned it by an angle of 50°.
However, in each of those cases the wheel would look like it was in
the same position.
3.3 special angles 139
Homework Assignment
The sine and cosine functions were defined in Section 3.2. Here we
will learn the compete shape of the graphs of these function and will
learn to apply them to some rudimentary application.
Motivation
The sine and cosine functions provide a convenient “shape” that al-
lows us to model all sorts of interesting applications. Let’s consider
the application introduced in Section 2.4. Someone is sitting on a
Ferris wheel with a radius of 80 ft, whose center is 100 ft off of the
ground, and which rotates at a rate of 1° every second. When the ride
starts, this person is sitting level with the center of the wheel and is
moving upward. A rudimentary image of this Ferris wheel is shown
in Figure 2.4.1. We define h such that the rider is h(t) feet off of the
ground after riding for t seconds.
Now imagine that this ride has gone on for less than 90 seconds.
Since the Ferris wheel is moving at a rate of 1° every second, the
rider’s position looks like the one shown in Figure 3.4.1.
point at time t
80 ft
starting point
100 ft
Ground Level
` = 80 sin(t).
Now, ` describes the vertical distance between the center of the Ferris
wheel and the rider. Since the center is 100 ft from the ground, we
have that the rider is ` + 100 ft from the ground, so
Theory
In Section 3.3 we found several new and exciting outputs of the sine I know I’m excited.
and cosine functions. Several of these values are shown in Figure 3.4.3.
Now that we have these values we can see a shape of these functions
start to emerge. The entire graph of the sine and cosine functions are
also shown in Figure 3.4.3.
y
x
−180° −90° 90° 180° 270° 360° 450° 540° 630° 720°
-1
x
−180° −90° 90° 180° 270° 360° 450° 540° 630° 720°
-1
Figure 3.4.3: The graph of the sine and cosine functions, including the
points found in Section 3.3.
range: Let’s consider the outputs of the cosine function for a mo-
ment. To find cosine of an angle we look at its inscription point
and then take the x-coordinate. Since inscription points are on
the unit circle and the unit circle has radius 1, the biggest possi-
ble x-value of an inscription point is 1 and the smallest is −1. If
you’re having trouble seeing that, take a look at the unit circle.
Similarly, the values of the sine function are y-coordinates on
the unit circle which must lie between −1 and 1. Hence both
the sine and cosine function have a range of [−1, 1].
142 trigonometry in circles and triangles
while
sin(θ) = q and sin(−θ) = −q.
From this we can conclude that
The definitions of for any angle θ. It follows that cos is an even function and sin is
even and odd an odd function.
functions are given
in section 6.2 in period: The sine and cosine functions are both periodic with pe-
Functions
riod 360°. We can justify this using the fact that the sine and
Modeling Change
[4]. cosine functions reflect the position of the inscription point cor-
responding to an angle. And, based on the discussion in Sec-
tion 3.3, rotation by 360° does not change the position of an in-
scription point. That is, angles of θ and θ + 360° have the same
inscription point. Since the sine and cosine functions record the
coordinates of the inscription point, we have
midline: For each of the sine and cosine functions, the maximum
value is 1 and the minimum value is −1 (see the discussion of
the range). Hence the midline of each of these functions is y = 0.
3.4 graphs of sine and cosine 143
Amplitude 1 1
Table 3.4.4: The geometric features of the sine and cosine functions.
x
x 90° 180° 270° 360°
90° 180° 270° 360°
-1
y = 0.5 cos(x)
-1
y = cos(x)
-2
-2 y = −2 sin(x)
Figure 3.4.5: The sine and cosine functions under a vertical stretch.
A is negative then the graph is also reflected about the x-axis. Fig-
ure 3.4.5 shows examples when A = 0.5 and when A = −2. Observe
Note that we use |A| that the maximum and minimum values are multiplied by |A| and
instead of A because hence the maximum value becomes |A| and the minimum values be-
A could be negative.
comes −|A|. It follows that the midline is still y = 0 but the ampli-
tude becomes |A|. We see that when the graphs of sine and cosine are
stretched vertically by a factor of A, the midline does not change and
the amplitude becomes |A|.
Now let’s examine the effect of k. This will change the graph by
a vertical shift of k units. Examples are shown in Figure 3.4.6 when
k = −1 and k = 2. We see that the maximum and minimum values of
these graphs get shifted upward by k to k + 1 and k − 1, respectively.
It follows that the midline becomes y = k and the amplitude is still 1.
Under a vertical shift by k units, the midline gets shifted up by k but
the amplitude remains unchanged.
y y
2 2
y = cos(x) y = sin(x)
1 1
y = cos(x) + 2 y = sin(x) + 2
x x
90° 180° 270° 360° 90° 180° 270° 360°
-1 -1
-2 -2
y = cos(x) − 1 y = sin(x) − 1
Figure 3.4.6: The sine and cosine functions under a vertical shift.
y
3 y = 2 cos(x) + 1
x
90° 180° 270° 360° 450° 540° 630° 720° y = 1.5 sin(x) − 1
-1
y = 0.5 sin(x) − 1.5
-2
-3
k+A
(p, q)
A θ
k
(h, k)
k−A
h−A h h+A
300°
(3, −2)
(p, q)
Solution:
A direct application of Theorem 3.4.10 with h = 3, k = −2,
A = 5, and θ = 300° yields
11
p = A cos(θ) + h = 5 cos(300°) + 3 =
2√
5 3+4
q = A sin(θ) + k = 5 sin(300°) − 2 = − .
2
√
11
Answer: p = 2 and q = − 5 3+4
2
3.4 graphs of sine and cosine 147
(−250, −250)
30°
250
(p, q)
Solution:
We will use another application of Theorem 3.4.10, this time
with h = −250, k = −250, and A = 250. However, while it is
tempting to use θ = 30° in Equation 3.4.11, that will not yield
the correct answer. If you read Theorem 3.4.10 it requires that
θ be measured from the point (h + A, k) which, in this case,
is (0, −250). Hence we need to use θ = 180° + 30° = 210° in
Equation 3.4.11.
inscription point and the 30° angle looks like a reference angle. The
circle is not a unit circle so these definitions do not apply, but we
can use similar techniques. A portion of this circle is shown in Fig-
ure 3.4.14, along with a triangle similar to a reference triangle.
a (−250, −250)
30°
b
250
(p, q)
Now, since we know a and b and we know that the center of the circle
is (−250, −250), we can find (p, q). You can see from the figure that
(p, q) is a units to the left of (−250, −250) so that
√ !
3
p = −250 − a = −250 − 250 cos(30°) = −250 − 250 = −466.51.
2
Similarly, the figure shows that (p, q) is b units below (−250, −250)
so that
1
q = −250 − b = −250 − 250 sin(30°) = −250 − 250 = −375.
2
Compare these results with the results shown above in the solution
to Example 3.4.13.
(p, q)
40°
x
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1
-1
-2
(w(θ), v(θ))
(6, 5)
Solution:
This example is merely a restatement of Theorem 3.4.10.
The setup is the same in the case where h = 6, k = 5, A = 4,
and θ is a variable. We then have that
Applications
point at time t
t (80, 100)
x
(0, 0)
Let’s instead place the origin on the ground in the center of the
base of the Ferris wheel as shown in Figure 3.4.16. Then we can apply
Theorem 3.4.10 with h = 0, k = 100, A = 80, and θ = t. It follows that
the rider’s position is
x
(7.5, 0) (60, 0)
Solution:
Consider an angle θ which is between 0° and 90° and con-
sider the geometry drawn below.
y
H(θ)
θ
x
40 m
h(θ)
60 m
Solution:
A right triangle is drawn into the diagram below. Note that
we put one of the vertices at the origin so that θ is an interior
angle in the triangle.
40 m
`
θ
h(θ)
60 m
`
sin(θ) =
40
so that ` = 40 sin(θ). Hence h(θ) = 40 sin(θ) + 60.
Answer: h(θ) = 40 sin(θ) + 60
154 trigonometry in circles and triangles
Homework Assignment
3.4.1. Let f(θ) = 2 sin(θ) − 1 and let water (so that the lowest point of the wheel
g(θ) = 12 cos(θ) + 32 . is 3 ft underwater). If a beetle lands on the
a.) What is the midline and amplitude of very edge of the wheel, find a function f so
f? that f(θ) is the height of the beetle (in feet)
when the beetle makes an angle of θ with
b.) What is the midline and amplitude of the horizontal (in the usual way). Note:
g? Look up the wikipedia article called water
c.) Sketch the graphs of both f and g on wheel if you’re not sure what it is.
the same plot. (Be sure to identify
3.4.5. A windmill has blades that are 20 ft in
which is which.)
length and reach a maximum height of
3.4.2. Sketch a graph of the following functions; 50 ft. A small light is placed at the very end
assume that x is in degrees and be sure to of one of the blades. Find a function f such
label your axes. Additionally, give their that when the blade on which the light is
midline and amplitude. placed makes an angle of θ with the
horizontal, f(θ) gives the height of the light
a.) f(x) = 3 cos(x) − 3
in feet.
1
b.) g(x) = 3 sin(x) + 2
3.4.6. Consider the propeller of an airplane. The
c.) h(x) = 5 cos(x) − 7
radius of a single blade of the propeller is
3 1
d.) p(x) = 4 sin(x) + 2 6 ft and the center of the propeller is 20 ft
off the ground. Find a function f such that
3.4.3. Consider the circle shown below. Round all
when a particular blade makes an angle of
answers to two decimal places.
θ with the horizontal, the end of the blade
a.) Find the coordinates of a. is a height of f(θ) feet off the ground.
b.) Find the coordinates of b.
3.4.7. Elmer is on a Ferris wheel which has a
c.) Find the coordinates of c. diameter of 140 ft and whose center is 80 ft
d.) Find the coordinates of d. off the ground. Find a function h such that
h(θ) is the height (in feet) of Elmer’s
y carriage when it makes an angle of θ with
5 the horizontal (measured in the usual way).
4 a
3.4.8. The tire of a particular car is 620 mm in
b 3
110° diameter and the valve stem on the wheel
2
35° is at a radius of 200 mm. The diagram
1
15° below demonstrates the geometry; the
d x
-2 -1 1
45°
2 3 4 5 6 dashed line represents the ground, the
-1
c large circle represents the outside diameter
-2
of the tire, and the point v represents the
position of the valve stem. Find a function
3.4.4. Consider a water wheel with a radius of f such that when the valve stem is at an
15 ft which uses the flowing water of a angle of θ with the horizontal (in the usual
river to turn a shaft. The center of the manner) then f(θ) describes the height of
water wheel is 12 ft off of the surface of the the valve stem off the ground in
156 trigonometry in circles and triangles
millimeters. Note: The valve stem is the valve b.) Find a function M such that when
into which one pumps air when filling their Andy’s seat is an angle of θ from the
tire. It is not important to understand a valve horizontal, M(θ) should be the
stem to do this problem. amount of time (in minutes) for which
Andy has been riding the Ferris
wheel.
v c.) Find a function ` which describes
62
Andy’s height as a function of time.
mm
0m
0
20
That is, when Andy has been riding
m
θ
Challenge Problems
y
4
x
−720° −540° −360° −180° 180° 360° 540° 720°
-1
-2
-3
-4
y
2
x
−720° −540° −360° −180° 180° 360° 540° 720°
-1
y
4
x
−720° −540° −360° −180° 180° 360° 540° 720°
-1
-2
-3
-4
y
4
x
180° 360° 540° 720° 900° 1080° 1260° 1440°
-1
-2
-3
-4
rider
θ)
d(
300 ft
park entrance
400 ft 200 ft
a. Find and simplify d(θ). Hint: Use the Pythagorean identity to sim-
plify.
b. What are the maximum and minimum values of d. That is, what
is the closest and the farthest that the rider ever gets from the
park entrance?
d. The graph that you found in the previous part should have a
familiar form. Using the things that you’ve discovered so far
about d, try to guess a “nicer” formula for d(θ).
160 trigonometry in circles and triangles
Motivation
4 `
cos(34°) = and sin(34°) = .
h h
The only equation that has an ` in it also contains an h and, unfortu-
nately, we don’t know h. We can still find the value of `, we just have
to combine those two equation. Using the equation for cos(34°) we
know that
4
h=
cos(34°)
and using the equation for sin(34°) we know that
4 sin(34°)
` = h sin(34°) = sin(34°) = 4 = 2.70 (3.5.1)
cos 34° cos(34°)
h
`
34°
4
The triangle in Figure 3.5.2 gives us the side adjacent to the 34°
angle and asks us to find the side opposite to the 34° angle. The
cosine function relates the adjacent side to the hypotenuse and the
sine function relates the opposite side to the hypotenuse but, to this
point, there is no function which relates the adjacent side and the
opposite side. We were able to get the job done by combining the
sine and cosine functions but it would have been more convenient
if there were a function that related the sides involved. This is the
purpose of the tangent function.
3.5 the tangent function 161
Theory
We begin with Definition 3.5.3. Recall from Equation 3.5.1 (and some
manipulation) that
` sin(34°)
=
4 cos(34°)
with respect to the triangle in Figure 3.5.2. We had that ` was the
length of the opposite side and that 4 was the length of the adjacent
sin(34°)
side so, in this case, cos(34°) related the opposite and adjacent sides.
Hopefully that explains the definition of the tangent function.
Before explaining the tangent function and its usefulness, let’s look
at some calculations.
a. tan(0°)
b. tan(90°)
c. tan(60°)
d. tan(495°)
e. tan(−71°)
Solution:
sin(0°) 0
tan(0°) = = = 0.
cos(0°) 1
Answer: tan(0°) = 0
sin(90°) 1
tan(90°) = = .
cos(90°) 0
162 trigonometry in circles and triangles
Answer: tan(495°) = −1
sin(−71°)
tan(−71°) = = −2.90.
cos(−71°)
Note that −71° is not one of the special angles for which
we can find exact values of the sine and cosine func-
tion so we are forced to approximate. It is better to put
sin(−71°)
cos(−71°) into the calculator all at once than to approx-
imate the numerator and the denominator separately
before dividing. However, you will also find that your
calculator has a tangent button and if you use that but-
ton directly you can also find
tan(−71°) = −2.90
(i) tan(45°)
(ii) tan(120°)
(iii) tan(900°)
(iv) tan(−570°)
(v) tan(342°)
You should be able to find exact values for all of these except
for the last one.
(p, q)
In fact, the tangent function can be used to find the slope of any line.
If the line y = mx + b intersects the x-axis at an angle of θ (measured
in the usual way), then m = tan(θ). This idea can be used directly, as
shown in Example 3.5.6 below.
164 trigonometry in circles and triangles
1
(−2, 0) 42°
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2
-1
-2
-3
Solution:
We know that the line is of the form y = mx + b for some
values of m and b. Since we know that the angle the line
makes with the x-axis is 42°, we have
m = tan(42°) = 0.9.
Then y = 0.9x + b. To find b we use the fact that the line goes
through the point (−2, 0). Hence
We would now like to use the tangent function to relate the legs of
a right triangle. Consider the same triangle that we examined when
we defined the sine and cosine functions, as shown in Figure 3.2.14.
We know that
b a
sin(θ) = and cos(θ) = .
c c
so we have that
sin(θ) b/c b c b
tan(θ) = = = · = .
cos(θ) a/c c b c
This is the result in Lemma 3.5.7. In the triangle above, we called a the
side adjacent to θ and we called b the side opposite to θ. According
to these conventions we can write
opposite
tan(θ) = .
adjacent
3.5 the tangent function 165
b
tan(θ) = .
a
25
53°
`
Solution:
Since the triangle in question is a right triangle we can use
Lemma 3.5.7. The side opposite to the 53° angle has length 25
and the side adjacent to the 53° has length ` so we have
25
tan(53°) =
`
and hence
25
`= = 18.84.
tan(53°)
Answer: ` = 18.84
`
19°
12
166 trigonometry in circles and triangles
Solution:
Since the triangle in question is a right triangle we can use
Lemma 3.5.7. The side opposite to the 19° angle has length `
and the side adjacent to the 19° has length 12 so we have
`
tan(19°) =
12
and hence
` = 12 tan(19°) = 4.13
Answer: ` = 4.13
50 x
60°
the magnitude of tan(θ) gets very large. When θ is just below 90° we
have that tan(θ) is very large and when θ is just above −90° we have
that tan(θ) is very large but negative. Since tan(θ) is undefined when-
ever cos(θ) 6= 0, the graph of y = tan(x) has a vertical asymptote at
x = θ whenever cos(θ) = 0. The graph of y = tan(x) is shown in
Figure 3.5.11.
y
x
−360° −270° −180° −90° 90° 180° 270° 360°
-1
-2
-3
Range R = (−∞, ∞)
Roots (n · 180°, 0)
y-intercept (0, 0)
Symmetry Odd
Period 180°
Solution:
First consider the geometry. The inscription point corre-
sponding to θ has an x-coordinate of −0.4 and hence must
lie on the line x = −0.4. The line x = −0.4 and the unit circle
are shown below.
x = −0.4
θ1
θ2
Applications
Solution:
As always, we start by drawing a picture:
height
55°
30 ft
so that
h = 30 tan(55°) = 42.84
and hence the tree is 42.84 ft tall.
Answer: 42.84 ft
65°
60 ft
Solution:
In the image we can clearly see a triangle. Of course, it
is reasonable to assume that the building comes out of the
ground at a right angle so that the triangle is a right triangle.
Then, if the building’s height is h, we have
h
tan(65°) =
60
and hence
h = 60 tan(65°) = 128.67
so that the building’s height is about 128.67 ft.
Answer: 128.67 ft
75 ft
43°
34°
Solution:
There are two triangles that we will use in this figure. They
are drawn in below along with a new length, `.
d
75 ft
43°
34°
` d
75 ft
43° 34°
` `+d
172 trigonometry in circles and triangles
Things now start to become a lot more clear. Using the trian-
gle on the left we have that
75
tan(43°) =
`
so that
75
`= .
tan(43°)
Using the triangle on the right we have that
75
tan(34°) =
`+d
and hence
75
`+d = .
tan(34°)
Combining these two equations yields
75 75
+d =
tan(43°) tan(34°)
so that, finally,
75 75
d= − = 30.67.
tan(34°) tan(43°)
Homework Assignment
3.5.1. Compute the following and leave your 3.5.6. Find ` below. Round to two decimal places.
answers in exact form:
a.) tan(30°) 38°
b.) tan(45°)
21
c.) tan(60°)
d.) tan(135°)
`
e.) tan(225°)
f.) tan(−60°) 3.5.7. Find y in the following diagram. Round
your answer to two decimal places.
3.5.2. Find tan(θ) in the triangle below and leave
your answer in exact form.
50
16
θ 20
y
3.5.3. Find tan(θ) in the triangle below and leave
your answer in exact form.
38° 50°
25
7 3.5.8. Find an equation for the line graphed
θ below and leave your answer in exact form.
(Assume that the line goes through the
3.5.4. Find the value of a below. Round your point (1, 0) as it appears.)
answer to two decimal places.
y
6
62° 5
a 4
3
5 2
1
60°
3.5.5. Find ` below and round to two decimal x
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6
places. -1
-2
-3
42° -4
-5
131 -6
the x-axis at an angle of 60°. Find the 3.5.13. The area of the outermost triangle shown
y-intercept of f and leave your answer in below is 5 in2 . Find the perimeter of the
exact form. large triangle and round your answer to
two decimal places. Remember: The
3.5.10. The function f is linear, f(1) = −4, and f
perimeter of a shape is the distance around the
intersects the x-axis at an angle of 150°
outside of it.
(measured counterclockwise from the
x-axis, as usual). Find a formula for f and
leave your answer in exact form.
Challenge Problems
y(θ)
inscription point
θ x
x(θ)
a. First, find the equation of the tangent line (in terms of θ), find
x(θ), and find y(θ). Justify and simplify your answer.
b. Now consider a second circle with radius one centered at (4, 0).
There are four lines which are tangent to both circles as shown
in the diagram below. Find all of them. Hint: Two of them are easy.
Use the previous part of this problem to find the other two.
x
4
176 trigonometry in circles and triangles
Motivation
b
θ
a
Figure 3.6.1: Sides and angles of a right triangle related by the tangent
function.
invertible function by restricting its domain. It turns out that all three
trigonometric functions are invertible when we only consider angles
which can live in a right triangle and in this section we endeavor to
use inverse trigonometric functions to find angles in right triangles.
Theory
Go back and review the graphs of the cosine, sine, and tangent func-
tions. These can be found in Figure 3.4.3a, Figure 3.4.3b, and Fig-
ure 3.5.11, respectively. It is clear from these graphs that none of these
three functions are invertible. However, Figure 3.6.4 shows the graphs In fact, no periodic
of these three functions on a domain of (0°, 90°). These functions do functions are
invertible. Can you
not look as exciting on this smaller interval as they do on the entire
see why?
domain of R, but they are certainly invertible on this interval.
y y y
2 2 2
1 1 1
x x x
90° 90° 90°
Figure 3.6.4: The cosine, sine, and tangent functions restricted to a domain
of (0°, 90°).
(3.6.5) Definition .
a. cos−1 12
√
b. sin−1 22
c. tan−1 (1.5)
Solution:
√
b. Similarly, to find sin−1 2
2
we need to find an angle
√
θ with 0° < θ < 90° such that sin(θ) = 22 . If you
remember from √ Section
3.3, the only such angle is θ =
−1 2
45° so sin 2 = 45°.
√
Answer: sin−1 22 = 45°
You calculator should have buttons for each of the three inverse
trigonometric functions. All calculators are different, of course, but
any calculator which can evaluate trigonometric functions should be At least any
able to evaluate inverse trigonometric functions, as well. However, calculator that I
have seen. . .
you should also be able to recognize when inverse trigonometric func-
tions will output the special angles discussed in Section 3.3.
Now, the astute among us might have realized that the choice to
restrict these trigonometric functions to the interval (0°, 90°) in order
to invert them was somewhat arbitrary. There are other choices of
restrictions that would yield invertible functions. The value of restric-
tion to (0°, 90°) is that those are precisely the angles which show up in
a right triangle. This will allow us to solve for angles in right triangles
as discussed in the beginning of the section.
The next few examples explore how to use inverse trigonometric
functions to solve for angles in a right triangle. These problems are
all set up similarly to those in Section 3.2 and Section 3.5. However,
instead of solving for one of the sides in the equation we will be using
an inverse function to solve for one of the angles.
30
60
180 trigonometry in circles and triangles
Solution:
We still want to think about how trigonometric functions
relate sides to angles. That is, the quantities involved in this
triangle are the angle θ, the side adjacent to θ, and the side
opposite to θ. We know that
30
tan(θ) =
60
or
1
tan(θ) = . (3.6.8)
2
Now, according to Definition 3.6.5, tan−1 12 should be the
Answer: θ = 26.57°
Note that we were really careful in the last part of Example 3.6.7.
It is tempting to think that Equation 3.6.8 immediately implies that
θ = tan−1 12 , however Definition 3.6.5 requires a little bit more. If
f is any generic invertible function and f(x) = y then we know that
f−1 (y) = x but the tangent function isn’t actually invertible except on
a restricted domain and the tan−1 function does not always work as
an inverse of tan.
The moral of the story here is that tan(θ) = 12 implies that θ =
1
tan−1 2 only if we already know that 0° < θ < 90°. In Example 3.6.7
10
8
3.6 inverse trig functions 181
Solution:
Observe that we are given the lengths of the side opposite
to θ and the length of the hypotenuse of the triangle and we
are asked to find θ. The trigonometric function which relates
these three things is the cosine function. Hence
8 4
cos(θ) = = .
10 5
Since θ is an angle in a right triangle we have that
−1 4
θ = cos = 36.87°.
5
Answer: θ = 36.87°
16 20
Solution:
From the diagram we see that
16 4
sin(θ) = =
20 5
and, since θ is an angle in a right triangle, we have
−1 4
θ = sin = 53.13°.
5
Answer: θ = 53.13°
θ
10
Applications
Solution:
The geometry of the situation is shown below.
11.5 ft
t
12 f
Answer: θ = 73.4°
Solution:
As always, we draw a picture.
quarterback ll
otba
of fo
path 10 yd
30 yd
The angle θ in the diagram is the one for which we are look-
ing. From the diagram we see that
10 1
tan(θ) = =
30 3
and, since θ is an angle in a right triangle,
−1 1
θ = tan = 18.43°.
3
Answer: θ = 18.43°
Make sure that you are careful in the setup of your picture and the
triangle that you use. Remember that if you find yourself trying to
evaluate cos−1 (x) or sin−1 (x) for a value of x which is bigger than 1
then you’ve made a mistake somewhere. It is, however, perfectly ac-
ceptable to evaluate tan−1 (x) when x is bigger than 1. And, as always,
check to see if the answer that you got makes sense in the context of
the problem.
184 trigonometry in circles and triangles
Homework Assignment
3.6.1. Compute the following and leave your 3.6.6. Find θ below. Round to two decimal places.
answers in exact form.
a.) sin−1 12
√
b.) sin−1 23 13
5
√
c.) cos−1 22 θ
√
d.) tan−1 ( 3)
3.6.7. The basepaths on a baseball diamond are
e.) tan−1 (1) 90 ft. On a particular pitch, a baserunner
3.6.2. Compute the following and leave your tries to steal second base. The runner is
answers in exact form. 40 ft away from first base when the catcher
catches the pitch. At this moment what
a.) cos−1 (sin(60°))
√ angle is the line between the catcher and
b.) tan sin−1 22 the baserunner making with the first base
line? Assume that the catcher is exactly on
c.) sin(sin−1 (0.34))
the intersection of the first and third base
d.) sin−1 (sin(120°)) lines and assume that the baserunner is
e.) cos−1 (cos(−63°)) exactly on the line between first and
second base. Round your answer to two
3.6.3. Find θ below. Round your answer to two decimal places. Hint: It is less than 45°.
decimal places.
3.6.8. The grade of a road is calculated from its
θ vertical rise per 100 ft. For example, if a
2 road is sloped such that it climbs 5 ft for
every 100 ft of horizontal distance traveled
5 5
then its grade is calculated to be 100 = 0.05.
If a particular road has a grade of 0.09,
3.6.4. Find θ below. Round your answer to two what is its angle of incline? Round your
decimal places. answer to two decimal places.
θ
186 trigonometry in circles and triangles
3.6.10. A rope helps anchor a flag pole. The rope a.) How far will Dave need to fly? Round
is tied to the top of the flagpole at one end your answer to two decimal places.
and is anchored into the ground at the b.) Dave needs to fly roughly northeast to
other end. The flag pole is 100 ft tall and get to Jonas. At what angle north of
the rope is 125 ft long. What angle does the east does he need to fly? Round your
rope make with the flag pole? Round to answer to two decimal places. (This
two decimal places. angle is shown as θ below.)
3.6.11. Stevie’s kite has a string which is 100 m nest
7 mi Jonas
long and, at a particular moment, it is 70 m E
4 mi
string make with the ground? Round to
two decimal places.
θ
Dave
3.6.12. Two birds - Dave and Jonas - fly out of
S
their nest in a tree. Dave flies 4 mi south
and Jonas flies 7 mi east. Later, Dave wants
3.6.13. Find the (acute) angle that the function
to fly to Jonas.
f(x) = 2x + 3 makes with the horizontal.
Round to two decimal places.
Challenge Problems
a. sin(cos−1 (x))
b. tan(cos−1 (x))
c. sin(tan−1 (x))
d. cos(tan−1 (x))
e. cos(sin−1 (x))
f. tan(sin−1 (x))
4
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
187
188 trigonometric functions
Motivation
For now, there is one place where we can see the benefit of radians.
The circumference of Lemma 4.1.1 reminds us how to find the circumference and area of a
a circle is its circle.
perimeter.
120°
80 m
Well, a complete lap around the track would be 360°, so 120° around
the track would be 120
360 of the way around the circle and hence
120 120π
S= (2π · 80) = (80).
360 180
Similarly, if we travel θ◦ around the track then we have gone a dis-
tance of
θ◦ π
S= (80).
180
4.1 radians and arc length 189
S = rθ,
Theory
180
3 = 171.89
π
degrees. No units are used when describing radian measure. That is,
to say that an angle θ has a measure of 1 degree we write θ = 1°, but
to say that an angle of θ has a measure of 1 radian we write θ = 1.
From this point forward, any time the degree symbol is left off of
an angle it should be assumed that the angle is being measured in
radians. Example 4.1.4 is meant to help you practice converting from
degrees to radians and from radians to degrees.
190 trigonometric functions
(4.1.4) Example .
Solution:
These are straightforward using Definition 4.1.3.
a. An angle of 60° is
π π
60 = = 1.05
180 3
radians.
π
Answer: 3
b. An angle of 100° is
π 5π
100 = = 1.75
180 9
radians.
5π
Answer: 9
c. An angle of 135° is
π 3π
135 = = 2.36
180 4
radians.
3π
Answer: 4
d. An angle of 5 radians is
180 900
5 = = 286.48
π π
degrees.
Answer: 286.48°
7π
e. An angle of 9 radians is
7π 180
· = 140
9 π
degrees.
Answer: 140°
4.1 radians and arc length 191
For the rest of this section we will focus on examples from other
sections but with radians instead of degrees. Example 4.1.6 demon-
strates how angles still add in radians as we would expect.
π 2π
6 3
Solution:
We know that the interior angles of a triangle sum to 180°.
In radians, 180° is an angle of π. Hence, in radians, the interior
angles of a triangle sum to π. Hence
π 2π
+ +θ = π
6 3
and
π 2π 6π π 4π π
θ = π− − = − − =
6 3 6 6 6 6
π
Answer: θ = 6
192 trigonometric functions
a. cos(π/3)
b. sin(3π/4)
c. tan(3π/2)
d. cos(−π/6)
e. sin(35π/6)
Solution:
These can be calculated by drawing reference triangles as
done in Section 3.3 if you’d like. However, we will calculate
them by looking at the same angle in degrees.
1
a. cos(π/3) = cos(60°) = 2
1
Answer: 2
√
2
b. sin(3π/4) = sin(135°) = 2
√
2
Answer: 2
e. sin(35π/6) = sin(1050°) = − 12
Answer: − 12
a. sin(0.4)
b. cos(8)
c. tan(3.5)
Solution:
You should keep your calculator in radian mode. From this point
forward, all angles will be measured in radians. Every example and
exercise that asks for an angle will want an answer in radians unless
otherwise specified.
Of course, trigonometric functions still define the same relation-
ships in right triangles.
5 h
4π
15
Solution:
Since the triangle is a right triangle, we have
h
sin(4π/15) =
5
so that
h = 5 sin(4π/15) = 3.72.
194 trigonometric functions
Answer: h = 3.72
x
−π −π π π 3π 2π 5π 3π 7π 4π
2 2 2 2 2
-1
x
−π −π π π 3π 2π 5π 3π 7π 4π
2 2 2 2 2
-1
Figure 4.1.10: The graphs of the sine and cosine functions with inputs in
radians.
5
3
θ
x
S = rθ,
200°
35
Solution:
An angle of 200° has a radian measure of
π 10π
200 = .
180 9
196 trigonometric functions
Hence
10π
S = 35 = 122.17
9
from Lemma 4.1.11.
Answer: S = 122.17
Certainly the usage of the arc length formula can be more involved,
as shown in Example 4.1.13.
p
20
w
y 10
Solution:
Answer: x = 4.16
4.1 radians and arc length 197
Answer: y = 9.09
w2 = y2 + (x + 10)2
p
w = 9.092 + 14.162
w = 16.83
Answer: w = 16.83
Applications
Solution:
The fence is circular and the area of the circle that it en-
closes is 30,000 ft2 . If the radius of this circle is r then
30000 = πr2
so that r
30000
r= = 97.72
π
and the radius of the circle is 97.72 ft. The damaged area tra-
verses an angle of 125° around the circle. An angle of 125°
is
π
125 = 2.18
180
radians so that if the length of fence is ` then
` = (97.72)(2.18) = 213.18.
Thus the farmer needs 213.18 ft of fence.
Answer: 213.18 ft
198 trigonometric functions
Solution:
750 = 80θ
so that
750
θ= = 8.375
80
Answer: 8.375
S = (80)(10.47) = 837.76.
π/7
x
(1, 0)
Solution:
The desired line has the form y = mx + b. The slope of this
line is given by
m = tan(π/7) = 0.48.
Since the line goes through the point (1, 0) we have that
0 = 0.48 + b
Solution:
If the altitude of the kite is A then we have the following
triangle:
m
A
100
1.2
Homework Assignment
4.1.1. Convert the following angles from degrees a.) Find the arc length traversed by φ if
to radians. Give both an exact answer and φ = 5π
6 . Round your answer to two
an answer rounded to two decimal places. decimal places.
a.) 225° b.) Find the arc length traversed by φ if
b.) 300° φ = 145°. Round your answer to two
decimal places.
c.) 810°
d.) 10° 4.1.5. A perfectly circular lake has a diameter of
1000 m. If I walk 400° around the lake, how
e.) 60° far have I walked? Round your answer to
f.) 231° two decimal places.
g.) 4370° 4.1.6. A lake is perfectly circular with a radius of
4.1.2. Convert the following from radians to 200 m.
degrees: a.) On Monday I walked around the lake
a.) 7π for 500 m. What angle did I traverse
6
7π during that walk?
b.) 4
b.) During a walk around the lake on
c.) 5 (Round to two decimal places.)
Tuesday I traversed an angle of 450°.
d.) π How far did I walk on Tuesday?
5π
e.) 6 4.1.7. If I drive 10.5 laps around a circular race
f.) 2 (Round to two decimal places.) track and during that drive I go 37 mi,
g.) 17
(Round to two decimal places.) what is the radius of the track? Round to
5
two decimal places.
4.1.3. Compute the following and leave your
answers in exact form. 4.1.8. Elmer is on a Ferris wheel which has a
diameter of 140 ft and whose center is 80 ft
a.) sin( 3π
4 ) off the ground. If the angle that Elmer
b.) cos(− π
4) traverses over the course of the ride is
c.) tan( 5π 1500°, what total distance did he travel
6 )
around the edge of the Ferris wheel?
4.1.4. Consider the following circle of radius
6 cm. 4.1.9. Find θ below.
10
φ θ
14
y
circle). Round your answer to two decimal
5
places. Hint: The triangle is not a right
4
triangle but it is an isosceles triangle. Try
3 drawing a height.
2
1
θ
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
10
-2
135° 10
-3
-4
10
-5
10
Challenge Problems
want to compute the sum of h(k) where k ranges over the integers
from 0 to 4. This is a natural thing to do which has a complicated
notation. Mathematicians would write
X
k=4
h(k) = h(0) + h(1) + h(2) + h(3) + h(4).
k=0
P
The symbol means that things are going to be added. Whatever
P
comes after the symbol is the thing that we will be adding (in this
case h(k)). The k = 0 at the bottom and the k = 4 at the top means
start with h(k) when k = 0 and keep adding until you get to h(k)
when k = 4. This notation is not terribly helpful in this case, but
when we are adding a lot of terms it is nice. For example, if we are
considering the sum
X
k=148
h(k) = h(17) + h(18) + h(19) + . . . + h(147) + h(148)
k=17
then it is nice to be able to use the compact form of the new notation.
It is also nice when we want to be able to vary how many of these
things we want to add, and it is very useful when defining function.
For each integer n with n > 0 define a polynomial pn such that
X
k=n
x(2k+1)
pn (x) = (−1)k .
(2k + 1)!
k=0
x (2k+1)
In this case, h(k) = (−1)k (2k+1)! . This is confusing. To help demon-
strate, the polynomials p0 , p1 , p2 , and p3 are shown below.
p0 (x) = x
x3
p1 (x) = x −
3!
x3 x5
p2 (x) = x − +
3! 5!
x3 x5 x7
p3 (x) = x − + −
3! 5! 7!
Hopefully you can see the pattern. You can see that pn+1 (x) is the
same as pn (x) except that there is one extra term. The idea here is
if we could imagine something like p∞ (x) where we add up all of
the terms, then this crazy infinite polynomial would actually equal
sin(x).
For the entirety of this problem, assume that x is in radians when
computing sin(x). Note that most scientific (or higher) calculators and
mathematics-oriented computer software can compute factorials for
you. The TI-83 has a function for factorials even though it does not
have a factorial button.
4.1 radians and arc length 203
Motivation
The motivation to study triangles which are not right triangles should
be clear. We’ve developed a mastery of right triangles. If a right tri-
angle provides enough information to determine it uniquely we can
find the rest of its information. We would like to be able to do the
same with other types of triangles.
It is important to understand what information is involved in a
right triangle. Consider the right triangle shown in Figure 4.2.1. We
know how to find the lengths of a and c using a combination of the
Pythagorean Theorem and a trigonometric function.
φ c
2
π/9
a
Theory
b c
C
a
There are two ways that Theorem 4.2.2 can be applied to determine
information about a triangle. The Law of Cosines relates the three
sides of a triangle and one of its angles, so if we know three of those
things we can find the fourth. Hence we can apply it in the following
two situations:
6
4
7
4.2 non-right triangles 207
Solution:
Any time we use the Law of Cosines we need to involve
all three sides of the triangle and one of the triangle’s interior
angles. We first assign the quantities in our triangle to the
variables involved in Theorem 4.2.2. Note that in Figure 4.2.4
the side c is opposite to the angle C. When we assign our vari-
ables it is important that we observe this convention. Since
our problem involves the angle θ we are forced to let C = θ.
Since c needs to be opposite to C we are forced to let c = 4.
Once we’ve assigned c and C, the other two sides of the tri-
angle can be assigned to a and b arbitrarily. We let a = 6 and
b = 7.
Now that we’ve assigned values to a, b, c, and C we can
relate them with Equation 4.2.3. Hence
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos(A).
42 = 62 + 72 − 2(6)(7) cos(θ)
16 = 36 + 49 − 84 cos(θ)
−69 = −84 cos(θ)
23
= cos(θ).
28
Remember from Section 3.6 that in order to find θ using the
inverse cosine function we need to know that 0° < θ < 90°.
Since the problem dictates that θ is an acute angle, it follows
that
−1 23
θ = cos = 0.61.
28
Answer: θ = 0.61
Cosines always involves all of the sides of the triangle and one of its
angles. As mentioned in Example 4.2.5, it is important that the side
we choose to be c is opposite to the angle C. Once those two things
are chosen, the sides which are chosen to be b and c are irrelevant.
In Example 4.2.5 we carefully labeled the sides of the triangle so
that we could use the equation in Theorem 4.2.2. In future examples,
though, we won’t use those labels and will simply use the quantities
in the given triangle directly.
`
10
7π
18
14
Solution:
Notice that we are given the length of two sides, the mea-
sure of one angle, and we are asked to find the length of the
third side. The Law of Cosines is applicable in this situation
because we are relating the three sides of the triangle to one
of its angles. The angle involved is 7π18 and ` is the side oppo-
site to the angle of 18 . (Thus, in this case, c = ` and C = 7π
7π
18 .)
Hence, after applying Theorem 4.2.2 and simplifying, we see
16 `
5π
12
13
6
5
2π
9
x
Solution:
Since this problem involves all of the sides of the triangle
and one of its angles, the Law of Cosines is appropriate. The
angle involved is 2π
9 and the side opposite to the angle of 9
2π
52 = 62 + x2 − 2(6)(x) cos(2π/9)
(4.2.8)
25 = 36 + x2 − 12 cos(2π/9)x
We see that Equation 4.2.9 asks for the roots of a second de-
gree polynomial which we can find with the quadratic for-
mula. Hence
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
p 2a
−(−12 cos(2π/9)) ± (−12 cos(2π/9))2 − 4(1)(11)
x=
2(1)
x = 1.414 or x = 7.778.
6 6
2π 5 5
9
2π
9
x = 1.414 x = 7.778
(a) The triangle with (b) The triangle with
x = 1.414. x = 7.778.
You can see in Example 4.2.7 that the angle at the top of the triangle
was not specified so there is no reason that it needs to be an obtuse
angle. The two values of x were obtained by solving Equation 4.2.9.
Remember that an equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 sometimes
has two solutions, sometimes it has one solution, and sometimes it
has no solution at all. Getting two solutions means that there are
two possible triangles like the two in Figure 4.2.10. If, in a different
4.2 non-right triangles 211
example, you find that the Law of Cosines yields no solution, then
there is simply no triangle possible with the dimensions stated. Any
negative solutions can be ignored, as usual, since a negative number
cannot be the length of a side of a triangle.
The other tool that we have in this section is the Law of Sines in
Theorem 4.2.11.
sin(A) sin(B)
= (4.2.12)
a b
b a
A B
Observe that the Law of Sines involves two of the three sides of the
triangle and two of the three angles in the triangle. It follows that the
Law of Sines can be used in two situations:
These two situations are different from those where we use the Law
of Cosines. We explore the Law of Sines in Example 4.2.14 through
Example 4.2.17.
4
2
16π
45 θ
212 trigonometric functions
Solution:
We are given the lengths of two of the sides of this triangle
and the measure of one of its angles. Since we’re looking for
a second angle, the Law of Sines is appropriate. We will start
by assigning the variables in Theorem 4.2.11 to our triangle.
In Figure 4.2.13 we have that the side a is opposite to the
angle A and that the side b is opposite to the angle B. It is,
again, important that we observe this convention whenever
we apply the Law of Sines. We will let a = 4 and b = 2 which
forces A = 16π
45 and B = θ (compare the triangle in this ex-
ample with Figure 4.2.13). Note that it is perfectly acceptable
to swap a and b as long as you also swap A and B so that
the appropriate sides are opposite to the appropriate angles.
Then, using Theorem 4.2.11,
sin(A) sin(B)
= .
a b
After plugging in the variables and simplifying we have
sin( 16π
45 ) sin(θ)
=
4 2
1
sin(θ) = sin(64°)
2
sin(θ) = 0.45.
Answer: θ = 0.47
One must be very careful with examples like Example 4.2.14. Com-
pare it with Example 4.2.5. Notice that in both of these examples we
were given the length of two sides and the measure of one angle.
However, in Example 4.2.5 we were asked to find the length of the
third side which required the Law of Cosines while in Example 4.2.14
we were asked to find the measure of a second angle which required
the Law of Sines. When deciding between these two laws it is not suf-
ficient to consider only the information which is given, but instead we
need to consider all of the information involved in the problem. When
we include the thing for which we are trying to solve, Example 4.2.5
4.2 non-right triangles 213
involves three sides and an angle while Example 4.2.14 involves two
sides and two angles.
Just like with the Law of Cosines, the equation involved in The-
orem 4.2.11 is very picky about the assignment of the variables. In
Example 4.2.14 we were precise about using the same variables used
in Equation 4.2.12 but we will not do that in the future. When using
the Law of Sines we will simply have two fractions of the form sin(θ)
`
which are equal and it is important that the angle in the numerator is
opposite to the side in the denominator.
7
`
2 0.54
Solution:
Since the problem involves two angles and two sides, the
Law of Sines is the correct choice. Observe that the angle of
0.54 is opposite to the side of length ` and the angle of 2 is
opposite to the side of length 7. Hence from Theorem 4.2.11
we have
sin(0.54) sin(2)
=
` 7
7 sin(0.54)
`=
sin(2)
` = 3.98
Answer: ` = 3.98
There is one tricky thing that can happen when using the Law of
Sines. We can be given two angles and two sides, but it could be
that they are not appropriately opposite one another. We explore this
possibility in the next three examples.
3π/20 5π/18
14
214 trigonometric functions
Solution:
This problem involves two angles and two sides, which
means that we will be using the Law of Sines. Note that the
angle of 3π20 is across from the side of length ` but the angle
of 5π
18 is not across from the side of length 14. Hence it is not
the case that XX 3π 5π
sin(X
20
X) sin(
18 )
.
X=X X
` 14
XX X
The trick is that we know the third angle in the triangle, as
well. The top angle has measure 103π180 and that angle is oppo-
site to the side of length 14 so
sin( 3π
20 ) sin( 103π
180 )
=
` 14
by Theorem 4.2.11, and hence
14 sin( 3π
20 )
`= = 6.52.
sin( 103π
180 )
Answer: ` = 6.52
θ 0.92
10
Solution:
The problem involves two sides and two angles, so the Law
of Sines is the appropriate tool. We see that the angle of 0.92
is opposite to the side of length 9 but the side of length 10 is
not opposite to θ. However, the angle at the top of the triangle
is across from the side of length 10. Call the angle at the top
of the triangle α. Using Theorem 4.2.11 we have
sin(α) sin(0.92)
= .
10 9
4.2 non-right triangles 215
Answer: θ = 1.14
θ
9
0.66
8
Solution:
Since the problem involves two angles and two sides we
will be using the Law of Sines. However, this seems to be the
toughest case of the Law of Sines. Notice that the angle we
know is not opposite to either of the sides we know. Let φ be
the third angle in the triangle and let ` be the length of the
third leg. By choosing different pairs of angles, we can get
three different equations from Theorem 4.2.11:
sin(φ) sin(θ)
= ,
9 8
sin(θ) 0.66)
= , and (4.2.19)
8 `
sin(0.66) sin(φ)
=
` 9
However, each of those three equations have two unknown
quantities in them which means we cannot use any of the
equations to solve for any of the variables at this point. How-
ever, there is one other thing that we can do; using the Law of
Cosines, we can find `. The problem statement did not ask us
216 trigonometric functions
to find ` but we are unable to find any of the angles with the
information given and if we knew ` then the second line in
Equation 4.2.19 will give us θ. Using Theorem 4.2.2 we have
`2 = 92 + 82 − 2(9)(8) cos(0.66)
`2 = 31.24
` = 5.59.
8 sin(0.66) 9 sin(0.66)
sin(θ) = = = 0.99.
` 5.59
Since the side of length 8 is not the shortest side, we know
that θ is an acute angle and hence
Answer: θ = 1.41
11π
30 θ
2
to the acute angle θ = sin−1 (0.77) = 50.47° but we have not yet devel-
oped the techniques to find the other value of θ. We will explore this
situation more in future sections.
6
5
2π
9 θ
The final example that we wish to explore is one where all three of
the sides of a triangle are known and we wish to find all of the angles.
In these examples, always find the angles in order of increasing mea-
sure. That is, find the smallest angles first and find the largest angle
last. The last angle will be the easiest to find, and we’ve seen already
in this section that there can be problems when the Law of Sines and
the Law of Cosines involves angles that are possibly obtuse. The only
angle which can possibly be obtuse is the largest angle, which is why
we find it last.
12 19
α β
23
Solution:
We would like to find the smallest angle first. Recall that
the smallest angle is opposite to the shortest side, hence we
would like to find β first. Since we want to use three sides to
find an angle, we need to use the Law of Cosines. Hence
sin(β) sin(α)
= (4.2.22)
12 19
so that
19 sin(β) 19 sin(0.55)
sin(α) = = = 0.82.
12 12
Again, α was carefully chosen so that it is necessarily acute
and hence
α = sin−1 (0.82) = 0.97°.
When we used the Law of Sines to find Equation 4.2.22 we
could also have written
sin(α) sin(γ)
= . (4.2.23)
19 23
This is certainly valid mathematics and accurately relates the
variables. However, in Equation 4.2.23 there are two unknowns
- namely α and γ - so it cannot be used to solve for anything.
There is only one unknown in Equation 4.2.22, though, which
allowed us to solve for α, thus making it more valuable than
Equation 4.2.23 in this case.
Now that we know two of the angles in the triangle, we can
easily find the third since the interior angles of a triangle sum
to π. Finally,
Applications
This whole chapter has dealt with applications which use triangles to
find distances and angles. In Section 3.2 and Section 3.5 we learned
how to use trigonometric functions to find the lengths of the sides of
a right triangle. In Section 3.6 we learned how to use inverse trigono-
metric functions to find the angles in right triangles. In each of those
sections we looked at several applications. The limitation, though,
was that these applications required us to use right triangles. We can
4.2 non-right triangles 219
now handle all of those same applications in the cases which do not
involve right triangles. We will now look at three such examples; the
first of which is the example at the end of Section 3.1.
140 mi
City 2
π
3
100 mi
Airport
Solution:
This application is easily handled with the Law of Cosines.
The line between the two cities forms a triangle; call the length
of this line `. Then, using Theorem 4.2.2, we have
Solution:
As always, we start by drawing the picture. The angle of
interest is θ below.
0.58 θ
6 ft 8 ft
sin(θ) sin(0.58)
=
6 8
so that
6 sin(0.58)
sin(θ) = = 0.41.
8
It seems clear from the picture that θ is an acute angle. How-
ever, just to be sure, the side opposite to θ cannot be the
longest side, so θ must be acute. Hence
Answer: 24.11°
Solution:
The geometry is shown in the triangle below where d is the
distance between the two shots.
21.3
d
π/9
18.1
4.2 non-right triangles 221
Solution:
Let’s start by drawing a picture (which is not drawn to
scale). The desired height is labeled h.
φ θ
1000 ft
We only know one length in the entire picture. Let’s start with
the triangle which contains that length, as shown below.
φ `
α
1000
sin(0.385) sin(0.029)
=
` 1000
and hence
1000 sin(0.385)
`= = 12952.13.
sin(0.029)
It is more important than usual in this example to be care-
ful with rounding. Since sin(0.029) is so small (it is approxi-
mately 0.029), it is important that we do not round until the
very end of the problem. Approximations will be shown at
each step, but in this solution we do not perform any round-
ing until the final answer.
Now that we know `, we can look at the small triangle
which contains ` and h, as shown below.
`
h
Homework Assignment
7π
30
9 4.2.6. Find ` below given that θ = 1.91 and
40 φ = 0.51. Round your answer to two
decimal places.
4.2.2. Find ` below. Round your answer to two
decimal places. Note: This image is not
drawn to scale.
`
θ φ
12 4
0.87 2.04 4.2.7. Find all three angles in the triangle below.
` Round your answers to two decimal places.
θ α
10
63
4.2.8. Find all of the angles in the triangle below.
2π 25π Round your answers to two decimal places.
9 36
y
φ
4.2.4. Find z in the triangle below assuming that
20 13
all of the internal angles of the triangle are
acute. Round your answer to two decimal
places. γ
θ
21
4.2.10. Verify that the triangle below is a right the top of the post, find the angle that the
triangle by finding the missing side and rope will make with the ground. Round to
the two missing angles. two decimal places.
π
4.2.16. A telephone pole is tilted at an angle of 15
π
3 toward the sun. At a particular moment,
6 the post casts a shadow whose length is
3
30 m. The line between the tip of the
shadow and the tip of the pole makes a 2π 9
θ φ
angle with the ground. Find the length of
`
the pole. Round to two decimal places.
4.2.11. A ship leaves the harbor, travels 5 mi north 4.2.17. Consider the diagram below.
and then turns and travels 2 mi north east.
How far is the ship from the harbor at that
point (in a straight line)? Round your θ
answer to two decimal places. Hint: What is
the angle between north and north east?
d
4.2.12. Cindy and Katie both leave school at the
same time on their bikes and they travel in
straight lines which meet at an angle of 7π
9 . 2π 13π
After ten minutes Cindy is 3 mi from 9 45
school and Katie is 2.2 mi from school. 2 `
How far apart are they after ten minutes?
a.) Find θ. Leave your answer in exact
Round your answer to two decimal places.
form.
4.2.13. I set sail from my dock and head in a b.) Find d. Round your answer to two
straight line for 7 mi. The wind then picks decimal places.
up momentarily and I am forced to change c.) Find `. Round your answer to two
direction by 5π36 . I then sail in a straight line decimal places.
for another 4 mi. At this point, how far am
I from the dock? Round to two decimal 4.2.18. Consider the following diagram:
places.
2π
3
4.2.14. A particular clock has an hour hand with a 2.75 φ
length of 5 in and a minute hand with a
length of 8 in. If the two hands are m
currently meeting at 23π 36 , find the distance θ
between their tips. Round to two decimal 3
places. 2 `
c.) Find m and round to two decimal d.) Find φ and round to two decimal
places. places.
Challenge Problems
c
b
θ
a
For the sake of this exercise, pretend that you don’t know anything
about the Pythagorean Theorem and the equations developed in Sec-
tion 3.2 and Section 3.5. Use only the Law of Cosines and the Law of
Sines to show the following relationships:
c2 = a2 + b2
b a b
sin(θ) = cos(θ) = tan(θ) =
c c a
Carefully justify your work.
226 trigonometric functions
Let’s go back, yet again, to the example that we explored in the be-
ginning of Section 2.4 and Section 3.4. Someone is sitting on a Ferris
wheel with a radius of 80 ft, whose center is 100 ft off of the ground.
This is shown again in Figure 4.3.1.
position at an angle of θ
80 ft
θ
40 ft
100 ft
starting point
Ground Level
Theory
5 y = q(x)
4
3
y = f(x)
2
1
y = g(x)
x
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-1
-2
-3 y = p(x)
-4
-5
2π
p= .
B
The value of h is the horizontal shift. That is, the graph of y =
A sin(B(x − h)) + k is the same as the graph of y = A sin(Bx) + k
except shifted to the right by h units (or to the left by |h| units if h is
negative). Figure 4.3.5 shows the graph of y = sin(x) and the graph
of y = sin(x − 1).
We must be very careful about the value of h. Consider the function
y
h=1
1
y =x sin(x − 1)
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
y = sin(x)
-1
Notice the similarities with Equation 4.3.7. This is the form in which
we need the function to be when we’re looking for h. Still, it is tempt-
ing to say that h = −1.5. However, because of the form of Equa-
tion 4.3.7, we actually have that h = 1.5 in this case. The sign on h
is important as h = 1.5 corresponds to a horizontal shift of 1.5 to the
right and h = −1.5 corresponds to a horizontal shift of 1.5 to the left.
Just to reaffirm, Figure 4.3.8 shows the horizontal shift between the
graphs of y = 2 sin(2x) + 1 and y = 2 sin(2x − 3) + 1.
y
1.5
3 y = 2 sin(2x) + 1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1 y = 2 sin(2x − 3) + 1
Amplitude A
Midline y=k
2π
Period B
Horizontal Shift h
Solution:
First, sketch the midline, maximum, and minimum on your
graph. The midline of f is y = −1 (since k = −1) and the
amplitude is A = 3. Hence the maximum of f will be −1 + 3 =
2 and the minimum will be −1 − 3 = −4. Below are the graphs
of the lines y = 2, y = −1, and y = −4.
y
y=2
x
y = −1
y = −4
y=2
x
y = −1
y = 3 sin(x) − 1
y = −4
one period
y=2
x
8
y = −1
y = 3 sin( π
4 x) − 1
y = −4
3
y=2
x
8
y = −1
y = f(x)
y = 3 sin( π
4 x) − 1
y = −4
The real focus of this section will be to use sinusoidal functions for
modeling. That is, if we have some features of the graph of a function,
we want to be able to come up with a sinusoidal function which
reflects those features. For example, suppose that f is a sinusoidal
function with satisfies the following:
• The amplitude of f is 3.
• The midline of f is y = 2.
• The period of f is 4.
• f(2) = 5.
2π
B= p where p is the period of f so that B = 2π
4 =
π
2. So far we have
that
π
f(x) = 3 sin (x − h) + 2.
2
Generally, finding the value of h is the hardest part. It is probably not
the case that h = 0, but let’s look at the graph of y = 3 sin π 2x + 2
in Figure 4.3.12. We know that the graph of y = f(x) should be a
horizontal shift away from this graph. We also know that f(2) = 5. We
can see in Figure 4.3.12 that if we shift the graph of y = 3 sin π2x +2
to the right by 1 unit then we have a graph which contains the point
(2, 5). This graph satisfies all of the requirements and a horizontal
shift to the right by 1 corresponds to h = 1, so we have
π
f(x) = 3 sin (x − 1) + 2.
2
6
1
5
y = 3 sin π
2 2 x +2
x
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-1 y = f(x)
-2
Figure 4.3.12: The graph of the function in Equation 4.3.11 and the graph of
the same function before the horizontal shift.
2
(0.65, 1) (1.65, 1)
1
x
-2 -1 1 2 3
-1
-2
-3
-4 y = f(x)
-5
Solution:
Since f is sinusoidal we have
5 3
f(x) = sin(2π(x − h)) − .
2 2
We are left with the task of finding the value of h. We
first graph the function with h = 0. That is, we graph y =
5 3
2 sin(2πx) − 2 . It is shown below along with the graph of
y = f(x).
y
(0.25, 1)
2
(0.65, 1)
1
x
-1 1 2
-1
5 3
-2
y= 2 sin(2πx) − 2
-3 y = f(x)
-4
-5
• The minimum of f is 2.
• The period of f is 2.
• f(−0.5) = 14.
Solution:
We know that
2 y = 6 sin(πx) + 8
x
-2 2
2 y = 6 sin(πx) + 8
x
-2 2
• The period of f is 3.
• f(1) = −1.
236 trigonometric functions
are the same functions. In these notes we will not use negative values
of A and B.
Lastly, consider an arbitrary sinusoidal function but distribute the
inside of the sine function so that
Applications
Solution:
Since P is sinusoidal, we have
• P(0) = 5000.
y = 5000
y = 2000
π
y = 1500 sin( 45 t) + 3500
t
90
y = 5000
y = P(t)
y = 2000
π
y = 1500 sin( 45 t) + 3500
t
90
π
Answer: P(t) = 1500 sin( 45 (t + 17.5)) + 3500
4.3 sinusoidal functions 239
Solution:
We can write
• P(0) = −155.6.
y = 155.6
t
1
60
y = −155.6
y = 155.6 sin(120πt)
1 3 1
three fourths of the period, or t = 60 · 4 = 80 . Thus the point
1
( 80 , −155.6) appears as a minimum on the above graph. If we
1
shift this graph to the left by 80 units we will have the graph
1
of y = P(t), so h = − 80 = −0.0125 and
y = 155.6 y = P(t)
t
1
1 60
80
y = −155.6
y = 155.6 sin(120πt)
80 ft
−π/6
40 ft
100 ft
starting point
Ground Level
Solution:
We will model H by a sinusoidal function so that
π
− = 2π(0 − h)
6
1
− = −h
12
1
h=
12
and
1
H(t) = 80 sin 2π t − + 100.
12
1
Answer: H(t) = 80 sin(2π(t − 12 )) + 100
40 m
π
4
60 m
Solution:
We know that H is sinusoidal so that
Homework Assignment
4.3.1. Sketch the graph of 4.3.6. Below is the graph of a sinusoidal function,
g(x) = 2 sin( π
3 (x + 1)) + 3. Be sure to y = p(x). Find a formula for p of the form
include at least one entire period, and be p(x) = A sin(B(x − h)) + k.
sure to label the y-intercept, one
y
“maximum,” and one “minimum.”
1
4.3.16. A Ferris wheel has a radius of 50 ft and its of − π3 with the horizontal when the wheel
highest point is 125 ft off the ground. It starts turning. Find a function f such that
takes the Ferris wheel three minutes to f(t) is Dave’s height (in feet) off the ground
complete one rotation. Suppose that the t minutes after the Ferris wheel starts
position of Dave’s carriage makes an angle turning.
Challenge Problems
3
F(x, y) = 2x2 + 3y2 − xy
2
is a function of two variables. If x = 5 and y = 4 then
3
F(5, 4) = 2(5)2 + 3(4)2 − (5)(4) = 50 + 48 − 30 = 68
2
4.3 sinusoidal functions 247
1.5
2
1
1
0.5
0 1
−1 0 0
−0.5 0
0.5 1 −1
φ
50 ft
θ
200 ft
100
50
100
0
0
−50
−100 5
0 −100
−5
0 −5
5
Motivation
We’ve been working up to Ferris wheel functions for the better part
of two chapters now. Someone is sitting on a Ferris wheel with a
radius of 80 ft, whose center is 100 ft off of the ground. He starts the
ride at an angle of − π
6 from the horizontal, as shown in Figure 4.4.1,
and it takes one minute for the Ferris wheel to complete an entire
revolution. During Example 4.3.17 in Section 4.3 we found that if H
is the function such that after t seconds the rider’s height is H(t) (in
ft) then
1
H(t) = 80 sin 2π t − + 100.
12
80 ft
−π/6
40 ft
100 ft
starting point
Ground Level
We are left with the question of finding all of the values of t such that
1
sin(2π(t − 12 )) = 12 . Luckily, 12 is in the interval [−1, 1] so that there
should actually be some value of t. Unfortunately, there will be lots
of them. There are many angles θ such that sin(θ) = 21 so any time
1
2π(t − 12 ) is one of those angles, that will be a value of t such that
H(t) = 140.
Let’s try to find just one of those angles. Since sin−1 ( 21 ) = π 6 , if t is
1 π
a value such that 2π(t − 12 ) = 6 then t should work for us. Hence
1 π
2π t − =
12 6
1 1
t− =
12 12
1
t= .
6
If we’ve worked through things correctly, it should be the case that
H( 16 ) = 140. We can check this:
1 1 1
H = 80 sin 2π − + 100
6 6 12
π
= 80 sin + 100
6
= 80(0.5) + 100
= 140.
We see that H( 16 ) = 140 which is great, but that’s only one of many
values. The solutions to H(t) = 140 are the values of t where the
graphs of y = H(t) and y = 140 intersect. The graphs in Figure 4.4.3
show that there are many more solutions. Remember that H is pe-
riodic with period 1 so H( 61 + n) = 140 for any integer n. Hence
H(t) = 140 any time t is one of the following:
23 17 11 5 1 7 13 19
...,− ,− ,− ,− , , , , ,... (4.4.2)
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
We can see these solutions in Figure 4.4.3.
However, the graph suggests that the solutions we’ve already found
are only some of them. Let’s try to think about what this means on
the Ferris wheel. When the Ferris wheel goes around one complete
revolution, that corresponds to one period of H. In one revolution, the
carriage reaches a height of 140 ft twice; once on the way up and once
1
on the way down. During the process of solving sin(2π(t − 12 )) = 21
1 π
we started by solving 2π(t − 12 ) = 6 . That is, we started by picking
an angle θ such that sin(θ) = 21 and set 2π(t − 12
1
) equal to that angle.
π
The angle we picked was 6 which corresponds to the rider’s angle at
that point during his ride. That means that the value we found, t = 61 ,
corresponds to the part of the revolution where the carriage is on the
way up.
252 trigonometric functions
y = 180
y = H(t)
y = 140
y = 100
y = 20
t
1 1 7 2 13
6 6 6
Figure 4.4.3: The graph of the Ferris wheel function y = H(t) and the line
y = 100. The t values where these graphs intersect are the
solutions to H(t) = 140.
Theory
x
−π −π π π 3π 2π 5π 3π 7π 4π
2 2 2 2 2
-1
Compare this definition with Definition 3.6.5. Note that the new
definition of sin−1 respects the old one. That is, for a value of x in
(0, 1), the two definitions of sin−1 (x) agree with each other. The com-
putations are straightforward, as shown in Example 4.4.7. Note that
your calculator has no problem finding sin−1 for negative values.
a. sin−1 (1)
254 trigonometric functions
b. sin−1 (−1)
c. sin−1 (0)
d. sin−1 (0.3)
e. sin−1 (−0.7)
√
f. sin−1 ( 3
2 )
g. sin−1 (− 12 )
Solution:
Note that all of these answers should be angles in the inter-
val [− π π
2 , 2 ].
Answer: sin−1 (− 12 ) = − π
6
x
−π −π π π 3π 2π 5π 3π 7π 4π
2 2 2 2 2
-1
Definition 4.4.9 below is the analog of Definition 4.4.6 for the cosine
function. It allows us to evaluate cos−1 (x) for negative values of x.
x
−π −π π π 3π 2π 5π 3π 7π 4π
2 2 2 2 2
-1
-2
-3
We can finally redefine tan−1 . Since the tangent function can output
any real number, we need to be able to evaluate tan−1 (x) for any
value of x. Definition 4.4.11 does that for us.
x = −1
2
The angles θ such that cos(θ) = − 21 are precisely the angles with
inscription points of either P or Q in Figure 4.4.12. Of √
course, using
the Pythagorean Theorem we can find that P = (− 2 , 23 ) and Q =
1
√
(− 21 , − 23 ). It is obvious that the angle of 2π
3 has P as an inscription
point, but remember that it is always the case that cos−1 outputs
angles on the top half of the unit circle. Notice that any angle whose
inscription point is P must be a multiple of 2π away from 2π 3 . That is,
√
all of the angles θ such that cos(θ) = − 21 and sin(θ) = 23 are of the
form θ = 2π 3 + 2πn for an integer n.
What about the angles whose inscription point is Q? We can find
them by looking at reference triangles for both angles, which are
show in Figure 4.4.13. Remember that two angles which have the
same value of cosine have the same reference triangle. It follows
that one of the angles with an inscription point of Q is the angle
θ = 2π − 2π 4π
3 = 3 . Again, the rest of the angles whose inscription
points are Q are a multiple of 2π away from 4π 3 . That is, all of the
√
angles θ such that cos(θ) = − 12 and sin(θ) = − 2
3
are of the form
θ = 4π
3 + 2πn for an integer n.
4.4 trigonometric equations 257
√
−1 3
2, 2
2π
3
4π
3
√
−1 3
2,− 2
2π 4π
θ= + 2πn and θ= + 2πn for integers, n.
3 3
This procedure that we used can be generalized to any trigonometric
function and any value in the range of that trigonometric function.
That is, we can find all of the solutions to equations like
using this method. The strategy is to find two values of θ which sat-
isfy the equation but have different inscription points; one of which
comes from an inverse trigonometric function. Once you have those,
to find all of the solutions we simply add 2πn to those two values for
integers n. The process can be somewhat automated. Instead of draw-
ing a unit circle every time and plotting the two inscription points, we
can use Lemma 4.4.14 to find the first two angles.
(4.4.14) Lemma .
• If x is in (−1, 1) then two values of θ which satisfy
cos(θ) = x and have different inscription points are
Solution:
According to Lemma 4.4.14, the first two such values that
we need are
Solution:
According to Lemma 4.4.14, the first two such values that
we need are
Solution:
According to Lemma 4.4.14, the first two such values that
we need are
You might notice that together these solutions are the same
as θ = 1.82 + πn for integers, n. This only happens with so-
lutions to the tangent function. However, it is usually more
convenient to leave the answer as two separate solutions.
Answer: θ = −1.33 + 2πn and θ = 1.82 + 2πn for integers,
n.
Sometimes the equation that we’re trying to solve gets more com-
plicated, but as long the inside of the trigonometric function is just θ,
we can use a similar technique. This is shown in Example 4.4.18.
Solution:
The first thing to do here is to solve for cos(θ):
Hence we only need to figure out which of these solutions fall in the
The table feature of interval [0, 4π]. This can be done by making a table. The table below
graphing calculators shows some of these angles for different values of n.
is very useful in
making these tables.
n −0.58 + 2πn 3.72 + 2πn
−1 −6.87 −2.57
0 −0.58 3.72
1 5.70 10.00
2 11.98 16.29
3 18.27 22.57
To find all values of θ such that sin(θ) = −0.55 and θ is in the interval
[0, 4π] we simply need to find all of the values of θ in the previous
table which lie in that interval. Since 4π = 12.57, we see that the
desired solutions are 3.72, 5.70, 10.00, and 11.98; values larger than
12.57 and smaller than 0 can be discarded since they are outside of
[0, 4π].
Note that only some of the values of n are included in the table.
Our table should, theoretically, include each of the infinite number of
integers, n. It is not possible to make a table with an infinite number
4.4 trigonometric equations 261
Solution:
We know from Example 4.4.15 that all of the angles θ such
that cos(θ) = 0.3 are
Solution:
We know from Example 4.4.17 that all of the angles θ such
that tan(θ) = −4 are
We finally have the tools to solve the types of equations we get from
our Ferris wheel functions. Remember the function
1
H(t) = 80 sin 2π t − + 100
12
from our Ferris wheel in Figure 4.4.1. Suppose we want to find all
values of t such that H(t) = 80. We start with the easy stuff:
1
80 sin 2π t − + 100 = 80
12
1
80 sin 2π t − = −20
12
1
sin 2π t − = −0.25
12
1
Now, this last equation relates that any time 2π(t − 12 ) is an angle θ
such that sin(θ) = −0.25 then t is a solution to H(t) = 80. We know
how to find all of the angles θ such that sin(θ) = −0.25. The first two
solutions are
θ1 = sin−1 (−0.25) = −0.25 and θ2 = π − sin−1 (−0.25) = 3.39
Solution:
We start by solving the equation for sin(3x + 1) as follows:
√ √
2 sin(3x + 1) + 4 3 = 5 3
√
2 sin(3x + 1) = 3
√
3
sin(3x + 1) =
2
We now √ set θ = 3x + 1 and find all values of√θ such that
sin(θ) = 23 . The first two values are θ = sin−1 ( 23 ) = π
3 and
√
θ = π − sin−1 ( 3
= 2π
2 )√ 3 . It follows that all of the values of θ
3
such that sin(θ) = 2 are
π 2π
θ= + 2πn and θ= + 2πn for integers, n.
3 3
264 trigonometric functions
2π
3x + 1 = + 2πn
3
2π
3x = − 1 + 2πn
3
2π 1 2π
x= − + n.
9 3 3
π 1 2π 2π 1 2π
Answer: x = 9 − 3 + 3 n and x = 9 − 3 + 3 n for inte-
gers, n.
8 cos π
4 (t − 5) + 10
=2
3
Solution:
We first solve for cos( π
4 (t − 5)) as follows:
8 cos π
4 (t − 5) + 10
=2
3
π
8 cos (t − 5) + 10 = 6
4
π
8 cos (t − 5) = −4
4
π 1
cos (t − 5) = − .
4 2
We now let θ = π 1
4 (t − 5) and solve cos(θ) = − 2 . The first two
values of θ are θ = cos (− 2 ) = 3 and − cos−1 (− 21 ) = − 2π
−1 1 2π
3 .
1
It follows that all of the values of θ such that cos(θ) = − 2 are
2π 2π
θ= + 2πn and θ = − + 2πn for integers, n.
3 3
4.4 trigonometric equations 265
π 2π
(t − 5) = + 2πn
4 3
8
t − 5 = + 8n
3
23
t= + 8n
3
The second yields
π 2π
(t − 5) = − + 2πn
4 3
8
t − 5 = − + 8n
3
7
t = + 8n
3
23 7
Answer: t = 3 + 8n and t = 3 + 8n for integers, n.
8 cos π
4 (t − 5) + 10
=2
3
for values of t in the interval [−20, 20]. We know that all of the values
of t are t = 23 7
3 + 8n and t = 3 + 8n for integers, n. To find the values
which fall in the interval [−20, 20] we can make a table as we did
before.
23 7
n 3 + 8n 3 + 8n
−4 − 73
3 − 89
3
−3 − 49
3 − 65
3
−2 − 25
3 − 41
3
−1 − 31 − 17
3
23 7
0 3 3
47 31
1 3 3
71 55
2 3 3
95 79
3 3 3
We only have to take the values out of the table that are in the interval
[−20, 20]. Hence the solutions we’re looking for are
49 41 25 17 1 7 23 31 47 55
− , − , − , − , − , , , , , and .
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
266 trigonometric functions
Applications
62
m
0m
0m
20
m
θ
Find all of the angles θ at which the valve stem is 400 mm off
of the ground. Note: This model was developed in an exercise in
Section 3.4.
Solution:
We are looking to find all angles θ such that f(θ) = 400. We
start with
find all of the times between 0 min and 250 min at which the
pressure is 3000 kPa. Note: This model was developed in Exam-
ple 4.3.15.
Solution:
We are looking for values of t in [0, 250] such that P(t) =
3000. We start with
π
1500 sin (t + 17.5) + 3500 = 3000
45
π
1500 sin (t + 17.5) = −500
45
π 1
sin (t + 17.5) = − .
45 3
π
Next, we let θ = 45 (t + 17.5) and solve sin(θ) = − 13 . The
first two values are θ1 = sin−1 (− 31 ) = −0.34 and θ = π −
sin−1 (− 31 ) = 3.48. Then all of the angles θ such that sin(θ) =
− 13 are
Now that we know all of the t such that P(t) = 3000, we need
only find those t in the interval [0, 250]. After making a table,
we find that the values in the interval [0, 250] are 12.63, 67.37,
102.63, 157.37, 192.63, and 247.37 (all unites in minutes).
Answer: 12.63, 67.37, 102.63, 157.37, 192.63, and 247.37 (all
units in minutes)
Homework Assignment
4.4.1. What is the domain and range of sin−1 a.) Find all possible
√
values of θ such that
and cos−1 ? 3
f(θ) = − 2 . Leave your answers in
exact form.
4.4.2. Find all possible solutions to sin(θ) = 94 .
Round to two decimal places. b.) Find all values of θ such √
that
0 6 θ 6 3π and f(θ) = − 23 . Leave
4.4.3. Find all solutions to cos(θ) = − 25 . Round to your answers in exact form.
two decimal places.
4.4.15. a.) Find all the angles θ (in radians) such
4.4.4. Find all solutions to sin(θ) = 13 . Round to that sin(θ) = −2/7 and round to two
two decimal places. decimal places when necessary.
4.4.5. Find all solutions to tan(θ) = −2.5. Round b.) Find all the angles θ (in radians) for
to two decimal places. which sin(θ) = −2/7 and 0 6 θ 6 4π.
√
Round your answers to two decimal
4.4.6. Find all solutions to sin(θ) = − 22 such places.
that π 6 θ 6 4π. Leave your answers in c.) Find the angle θ (in radians) such that
exact form. sin(θ) = −2/7, cos(θ) > 0, and
√ 0 6 θ 6 2π. Round your answer to
4.4.7. Find all of the solutions to tan(θ) = 3
two decimal places.
such that −2π 6 θ 6 2π. Leave your
answers in exact form. 4.4.16. Elmer is on a Ferris wheel which has a
diameter of 140 ft and whose center is 80 ft
4.4.8. Find all of the solutions to cos(θ) = 0.24
off the ground. Find all of the angles θ
such that −5π 6 θ 6 0. Round to two
such that 0 6 θ 6 3π and such that Elmer’s
decimal places.
carriage is at a height of 115 ft when it
4.4.9. Find all values of θ such that makes an angle of θ with the horizontal.
4 sin(θ) + 3 = 1. Leave your answers in Leave your answers in exact form.
exact form. 4.4.17. In a previous exercise we discussed a water
4.4.10. Find all possible solutions to wheel of radius 15 ft which was submerged
2 cos(θ)−1 3 ft in flowing water. A beetle was sitting
3 = −1. Leave your answers in
on the very edge of the water wheel and
exact form.
we found that when the beetle made an
4.4.11. Find all of the solutions to cos2 (θ) = 43 angle of θ with the horizontal when the
such that 0 6 θ 6 2π. Leave your answers beetle was f(θ) ft above the water where
in exact form. f(θ) = 15 sin(θ) + 12. Assuming that θ is in
radians now (the same equation still
4.4.12. Find all solutions to 4 sin(2θ + π
3 ) − 1 = 1. works), find all of the angles at which the
Leave your answers in exact form. beetle is exactly at the surface of the water.
4.4.13. Find all solutions to 3 tan(3x + 5) + 8 = 15. Round to two decimal places when
Round to two decimal places. appropriate. Hint: What is the beetle’s height
at this point?
4.4.14. Consider the function f(θ) = cos(2θ + π
6 ).
4.4.18. A population of a particular town is
modeled by a function P. That is, P(t) is
270 trigonometric functions
approximately the population t years after is, t minutes after the turbine is turned on,
2000. Given that the height of the end of this blade is H(t)
meters where
π
P(t) = 500 sin (t − 3) + 8000,
5 1
H(t) = 40 sin 80π t + + 60.
320
find all of the values of t in the interval
[0, 20] at which the population reaches Find all of the values of t at which the end
8400. Round to two decimal places. of the blade is at a height of 50 m. Round
your answers to five decimal places. This
4.4.19. The height of a particular blade of a wind model was developed in examples in previous
turbine is modeled by the function H. That sections.
Challenge Problems
(4.5.1) Definition .
cos(θ)
cot(θ) = .
sin(θ)
1
Note that, most of the time, cot(θ) = tan(θ) . However, we don’t
π
want to define it like that. Note that tan( 2 ) is undefined which means
that tan(1 π ) is undefined. However,
2
cos π
π 2 0
cot = = =0
2 sin π2
1
and so cot( π2 ) is defined. We have that cot(θ) =
1
tan(θ) whenever
tan(θ) is defined.
272 trigonometric functions
x
−π −π π π 3π 2π 5π 3π 7π 4π
2 2 2 2 2
-1
-2
-3
a. csc( π
4)
b. cot( 7π
6 )
c. sec(0.32)
Solution:
√
Answer: 3
1
sec(0.32) = = 1.05.
cos(0.32)
Answer: 1.05
4.5 relationships and graphs 273
Note that most calculators do not have specific buttons for recipro-
cal trigonometric functions. To calculate them, you should use Defini-
tion 4.5.1 directly.
Lemma 4.5.4 gives the very long list of identities that we’re going
to be using. We have used the trigonometric functions to relate values
before. The Law of Sines and Law of Cosines use the sine and cosine
function to relate quantities in triangles. The identities in Lemma 4.5.4
differ from those things in that they express relationships between the
trigonometric functions themselves.
basic formulas
1. sin2 (θ) + cos2 (θ) = 1
2. cos(−θ) = cos(θ)
3. sin(−θ) = − sin(θ)
4. tan(−θ) = − tan(θ)
5. sin(θ) = cos(θ − π π
2 ) = cos( 2 − θ) = − sin(θ + π)
6. cos(θ) = sin(θ + π π
2 ) = sin( 2 − θ) = − cos(θ + π)
The basic formulas are things that we’ve seen before but the rest of
them are new and exciting. These identities can be used for many
things. The rest of the section gives examples of such applications.
First, we can calculate some exact values of trigonometric functions if
we need to do so.
Solution:
This isn’t one of the special angles but it is half of one of the
special angles. That is, we know everything about the trigono-
metric functions at 45°. Using Equation 11 in Lemma 4.5.4
with θ = 45° we have
sin(22.5°) = sin(45°/2)
r
1 − cos(45°)
=±
2
s √
1 − 2/2
=±
2
s √
2− 2
=±
4
p √
2− 2
=± .
2
Of course, sin(22.5°) cannot be two different values. Since
22.5° has an inscription point in the fist quadrant, we know
that sin(22.5°) must be positive.
√ √
2− 2
Answer: sin(22.5°) = 2
Solution:
Again, this isn’t one of the special angles, but we do know
that 75° = 45° + 30° and 45° and 30° are special angles. Then
4.5 relationships and graphs 275
Solution:
The right side of this function is pretty complicated. We
can sketch the graph of y = (sin(x) + cos(x)) using the tech-
niques in Section 2.1, but then sketching the square of that
will be complicated. Instead of dealing with that mess, we try
to simplify the expression (sin(x) + cos(x))2 . We’ll do this by
distributing and seeing what we get.
Note that we used the fact that sin2 (x) + cos2 (x) = 1 from
Equation 1 in Lemma 4.5.4 and the fact that 2 sin(x) cos(x) =
sin(2x). We now have that f(x) = sin(2x) + 1. This function is
276 trigonometric functions
1
y = f(x)
x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
-1
Solution:
As in Example 4.5.7 we want to start by simplifying the
function as much as possible.
cos4 (x) − sin4 (x) = (cos2 (x) − sin2 (x))(cos2 (x) + sin2 (x))
= (cos2 (x) − sin2 (x))(1)
= cos(2x)
a4 − b4 = (a2 − b2 )(a2 + b2 )
The next two lines use the fact that cos2 (x) + sin2 (x) = 1
from Equation 1 in Lemma 4.5.4 and the fact that cos2 (x) −
sin2 (x) = cos(2x) from Equation 7 in Lemma 4.5.4. We now
have that f(x) = cos(2x), which is simple enough to graph, as
shown below:
4.5 relationships and graphs 277
1 y = f(x)
x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
-1
-2
sin(α + β)
= tan(α) + tan(β) (4.5.10)
cos(α) cos(β)
Solution:
We are going to start with one side of Equation 4.5.10 and
use the equations in Lemma 4.5.4 to see if we can get to
the other side. In general, it is usually a better strategy to
start with the side that “looks more complicated.” If that side
doesn’t work, switch to the other side and start over.
The equality between the first and last step of this equation
show that
sin(α + β)
= tan(α) + tan(β),
cos(α) cos(β)
2 cot(θ)
sin(2θ) = (4.5.12)
1 + cot2 (θ)
Solution:
When these equations involve the reciprocal trigonometric
functions, it is often the best strategy to write them all in
terms of the sine and cosine functions. We are going to start
with the right hand side of Equation 4.5.12.
cos(θ)
2 cot(θ) 2 sin(θ)
2
= 2 (θ)
1 + cot (θ) 1 + cos
sin2 (θ)
2 cos(θ)
sin(θ)
=
sin2 (θ)+cos2 (θ)
sin2 (θ)
1
csc(2θ) = (cot(θ) + tan(θ)). (4.5.14)
2
Solution:
Again, it is usually the best idea to start with the more
complicated side of the identity, which is the right side.
1 1 cos(θ) sin(θ)
(cos(θ) + tan(θ)) = +
2 2 sin(θ) cos(θ)
cos2 (θ) + sin2 (θ)
=
2 sin(θ) cos(θ)
1
=
2 sin(θ) cos(θ)
1
=
sin(2θ)
= csc(2θ).
Solution:
280 trigonometric functions
2 sin(α + β) cos(α − β)
= 2 sin(α) cos(β) + cos(α) sin(β)
cos(α) cos(β) + sin(α) sin(β)
= 2 sin(α) cos(α) cos2 (β) + sin(α) cos(α) sin2 (β)
+ sin(β) cos(β) sin2 (α) + sin(β) cos(β) cos2 (α)
= 2 sin(α) cos(α) sin2 (β) + cos2 (β)
+ sin(β) cos(β) sin2 (α) + cos2 (α)
= 2 sin(α) cos(α) + sin(β) cos(β)
= 2 sin(α) cos(α) + 2 sin(β) cos(β)
= sin(2α) + sin(2β)
4.5 relationships and graphs 281
Homework Assignment
4.5.1. If cos(θ) = 13 and sin(θ) < 0, find the 4.5.5. Find an angle θ such that csc(θ) = 73 and
following and give exact answers: sec(θ) < 0 where 0 6 θ 6 2π. Round your
a.) sin(θ) answer to two decimal places.
Challenge Problems
a. Find an exact value for cos(36°) = cos( π 5 ). Do not use any other
known values of sine and cosine. Note: This is the most difficult
part of this problem. Once you get this part, the rest are easier. There
is a way to do this problem without any of the tools from this section.
That is, it can be done geometrically using only the techniques up to
Section 3.2. I will accept that solution, but it is much more difficult to
do it that way.
283
284 vectors
Motivation
Theory
~v
7
P
attributes of the arrow itself are the direction that it points and its
length. In vector language, the length of the arrow is called its mag-
nitude.
The notation that we use for a vector is a letter with an arrow above
it. That is, instead of writing v to denote a vector we will write ~v.
Then, in order to denote the magnitude of ~v we write k~vk. Remember
that when we draw a vector as an arrow, the length of the arrow is
its magnitude. A vector ~v is shown in Figure 5.1.1. According to the
figure, the magnitude of ~v is 7 so k~vk = 7.
Note that the magnitude of a vector can never be negative under
any circumstances. The length of an arrow can never be negative and
a displacement in a certain direction must be positive; that is, the
distance that something moves cannot be negative.
It is important to understand that a vector has nothing to do with
its starting and ending point. Consider Figure 5.1.3. Each arrow is
a vector, but vectors of the same color are actually the same vector.
Since vectors only encode the their displacement, we can translate a
vector anywhere we’d like without changing the vector. As long as
the direction that the arrow points doesn’t change and the length of
the arrow doesn’t change, the vector doesn’t change.
Since a vector remains unchanged when it is translated, we say that
two vectors are equal if one can be translated to the other.
Now, we think of vectors as displacement. Consider two vectors,
~u and ~v, as shown in Figure 5.1.4. Each of them corresponds to a
displacement. As drawn, if we start at P and then displace by ~u, we
land at Q. If we then displace by ~v, we finally land at the point R. This
idea of performing displacements consecutively like that corresponds
to the notion of adding vectors. That is, when things are set up as in
figure Figure 5.1.4, we say ~u + ~v = w
~.
We make the notion of vector addition precise in Definition 5.1.5.
~v
~
w
~
w ~v
~x ~v
~u
~u
~u
Figure 5.1.3: Vectors of the same color are all the same.
~
w
~v
P ~u Q
It follows that p
k~u + ~vk = 32 + 42 = 5.
5.1 introduction to vectors 287
W E
~v ~
n 4 mi
~e
3 mi
Figure 5.1.6: The total displacement obtained after travelling by ~e and then
~.
n
~u
~v ~v + ~v
~u +
~u
Figure 5.1.7: The vectors ~u + ~v and ~v + ~u for a choice of vectors ~u and ~v.
~
w
~v
Solution:
In order to add vectors we must first draw them in the right
way. That is, we need to draw them so that the beginning of
~ is at the end of ~v. This is shown below:
w
~
w
~v
~v
Answer: Shown in previous diagram.
~ + ~b.
a. Draw a
a + ~bk.
b. Find k~
5.1 introduction to vectors 289
~b
2
4π
9
~
a
3
Solution:
~b
4π
9
~
a
~b
~ + ~b
a
4π
9
~
a
~bk
~+
ka k~bk
5π
9
k~
ak
290 vectors
r 9
5π
k~a + ~bk = 32 + 22 − 2(3)(2) cos
9
k~a + ~bk = 3.88
a + ~bk = 3.88
Answer: k~
~v
2~v
2~v
−~v
−3~v
0.5~v
~v
~u
Solution:
The first thing we need to do is to draw the vector 2.5~v so
that we can add it to ~u. To do this, we draw a vector in the
same direction as ~v which is 2.5 times as long. This is shown
below:
292 vectors
2.5~v
~u
~u
2.5~v
~u + 2.5~v
~u
~v − w w.
~ = ~v + (−1)~
~v
~
w
Solution:
In order to draw ~v − w
~ we will draw ~v + (−1)~
w. To do this,
we first need to draw −~w. This is easy; we simply reverse the
direction of the arrow.
~v
−~
w
~v
−~
w
~v
−~
w
~v − w
~
~v
π
3
~u
• ~u + ~v = ~v + ~u
• (~u + ~v) + w
~ = ~u + (~v + w
~)
• ~u + ~0 = ~u = ~0 + ~u
• −~u + ~u = ~0 = ~u − ~u
• 0~u = ~0
• 1~u = ~u
• (cd)~u = c(d~u)
• kc~uk = |c|k~uk
Note that throughout this whole section so far we’ve been drawing
vectors in the plane. This is unavoidable, as paper is a plane. These
vectors that we’ve been drawing represent two-dimensional displace-
ment. That is, they represent displacements that can be done on a
map. However, it is just as easy to make three-dimensional vectors.
Imagine if you could “draw” a vector in space. For instance, the vec-
tor from a point on the ground to some point on the top of a building
would be a three-dimensional vector. All of the same rules apply to
three-dimensional vectors. The only reason they have not been ad-
dressed until now is that we can’t draw them on paper.
Applications
• Drag
• Weight
• Friction
• Magnetism
296 vectors
• Wind Patterns
• Length
• Area
• Volume
• Mass
• Density
• Pressure
• Temperature
• Energy
~F2
~F1
Figure 5.1.17: A mass and two forces, ~F1 and ~F2 which are acting on it.
You can imagine that as these two people pushing together will re-
sult in the statue moving roughly downward and to the right (relative
to the orientation in the figure). However, it is not exactly that simple.
If one person is pushing much harder than the other person, then
5.1 introduction to vectors 297
that person’s force will dominate the other person’s force. That is, if
the magnitude of ~F2 is much larger than the magnitude of ~F1 then the
statue will move more downward than to the right. The statue will act
as if one large force is pushing on it. This force is called the resultant
force and it is obtained by the sum of the two force vectors acting on
it. The resultant force on our statue is shown in Figure 5.1.18.
~F1
~F2
~FR
Figure 5.1.18: The resultant force, ~FR , from two forces acting on a point.
a. Find k~FR k.
b. Find θ.
298 vectors
π/9
θ ~F1
~F2
~FR
Solution:
θ
~F2
~FR
11π
18
~F1
φ
θ
~F2
~FR
11π
18
~F1
Answer: θ = 0.98
~FT
~d
~r observatory
Solution:
Drawing the vector ~v is simple. It happens to be the same
as ~r + ~d, but we don’t need to think of it that way. It is just
the vector starting at the center of the earth and ending at the
satellite.
satellite
~v ~d
~r observatory
Homework Assignment
y
5.1.1. True or False: ~u − ~v = ~v − ~u for all vectors
~u and ~v.
~u
5.1.2. True or False: 3~v + ~v = 4~v for all vectors ~v.
~
w
~u ~v
~v
5.1.6. Suppose that k~vk = 5 and k~
wk = 12.
Suppose also that, when drawn starting at
the same point, ~v and w
~ make an angle of
Of the following vectors, which one is not π
4.
drawn? This is a multiple choice question; a.) Find k~
w + ~vk and round to two
there is only one correct answer. decimal places.
a.) −2~u b.) Find k~
w − ~vk and round to two
b.) −~v decimal places.
c.) ~u + ~v 5.1.7. The vector ~v represents the displacement
d.) ~u − ~v vector from Portland, Oregon to Houston,
e.) ~v − ~u. Texas. The vector w~ represents the
displacement vector from Houston, Texas
5.1.4. The vectors ~u and ~v are drawn below. to Akron, Ohio. Use the vectors ~v and w
~ to
Sketch ~u + ~v, ~u − ~v, and −3~u. Be sure to answer the following questions:
label your answers. a.) What is the displacement vector of a
y
plane which flies from Akron, Ohio to
Houston, Texas?
b.) In order to fly home from Portland to
Akron I have a layover in Houston.
Find a vector which describes my total
~u
x displacement over the whole trip.
c.) It is approximately 3000 km from
~v Portland to Houston. It is
approximately 5500 km from
Anchorage, Alaska to Houston. A
plane flies in a straight line from
5.1.5. Vectors ~u, ~v, and w~ are shown below. Houston to Anchorage and during the
Sketch ~u + ~v + w~. flight it passes directly over Portland.
Find a vector which describes the
displacement of the plane.
5.1 introduction to vectors 303
~g
Challenge Problems
k~v + w
~ k 6 k~vk + k~
wk.
c. Since k~v + w
~ k is never larger than k~vk + k~
wk we call k~vk + k~wk
an upper bound for k~v + w ~ k. Magnitudes are always positive
so 0 6 k~v + w~ k. For this reason we call 0 a lower bound for
k~v + w
~ k. However, using k~vk and k~ wk, we can actually find a
more useful lower bound for k~v + w ~ k. Use the picture that you
drew earlier in the problem to see if you can determine a lower
bound for k~v + w ~ k. That is, if you know k~vk and k~wk, what is
the smallest that k~v + w
~ k can possibly be?
304 vectors
Motivation
~v
~u B
θ
A
we have ~u = 3~E + N.
~ We should be able to write ~v similarly. City C
is 1 mi east and 4 mi north of city B so ~v = ~E + 4N.
~ This is what we
will come to call the decomposition of ~u and ~v and it is shown in
Figure 5.2.2.
C
N
W E
S
~v ~
4N
B ~E
~u
~
N
A 3~E
When we write the vectors this way, it becomes very easy to add
them using the properties in Lemma 5.1.16.
~u + ~v = (3~E + N)
~ + (~E + 4N)
~
= (3~E + ~E) + (N
~ + 4N)
~ (5.2.3)
= 4~E + 5N.
~
Equation 5.2.3 can also be seen from Figure 5.2.2. The vector 3~E + N
~ +
~E + 4N~ is clearly the displacement from city A to city C. We see that
city C is 4 mi east and 5 mi north of city A.
Writing vectors in this way is extremely convenient. We see that
it makes them easy to add and it also makes it easy to find their
magnitudes. For example, since 3~E has a length of 3 mi and N ~ has a
length of 1 mi we see that
q p √
k~uk = k3~Ek + kNk
~ = 32 + 12 = 10.
This is very similar to the notation that we will use throughout the
rest of the section.
Theory
For the time being we are going to concentrate on vectors in the plane.
It was mentioned at the end of Section 5.1 that we can define vectors
in three dimensions just as easily as we can in two dimensions but
in the beginning of this section we will focus on two dimensional
vectors.
306 vectors
~v
2
x
-1 1 2 3 4 5 6
-1
Like we did with the vectors ~E and N ~ in the beginning of the sec-
tion, it is convenient to have vectors which go horizontally and verti-
cally. Define the vector ~i to be the vector with a length of 1 unit in the
same direction as the positive x-axis and define the vector ~j to be the
vector with a length of 1 unit in the same direction as the positive y-
axis. Using these two vectors we can rewrite the vector in Figure 5.2.4
as 5~i + 2~j. This is shown in Figure 5.2.5.
y
~v
2
~j
1
~j
x
-1 ~i 1 ~i 2 ~i 3 ~i 4 ~i 5 6
-1
2~j 5
−3~i 3~j
4
−3~i
3
2~i
−4~j 2
5~i
1
x
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6
-1 −4~j
2~j -2
-3
−2~i
-4
2~j
-5
8~i
-6
Figure 5.2.6: Some examples of plane vectors and their unit vector
decompositions.
It should be clear from the examples above that a unit vector de-
composition is unique. That is, you cannot find two different unit
308 vectors
vector decompositions for the same vector. It follows that two vectors
are equal when they have the same unit vector decomposition.
When we write vectors in this manner, it becomes straightforward
to perform operations on them using the properties in Lemma 5.1.16.
For example, suppose ~u = 3~i + 2~j and ~v = −4~i + 6~j and suppose that
we want to find ~u + ~v.
You can see what happened there. The unit vector decomposition for
~u + ~v was just obtained by adding the ~i-components together and
adding the ~j-components together. Now suppose we want to find 7~u.
a. ~u + ~v
b. ~v − w
~
c. ~u + ~v + w
~
d. 3~
w
e. 6~u − 2~v
Solution:
a. We have
b. We have
c. We have
d. We have
e. We have
a. ~u = 3~i + 4~j
b. ~v = −7~i + 3~j
~ = −2~i − 13~j
c. w
Solution:
Answer: k~uk = 5
√
Answer: k~
wk = 173
~v
y~i
θ
x~i
Figure 5.2.11: Some examples of plane vectors and their unit vector
decompositions.
~
w
2π
3
Solution:
The angle 2π
3 is measured clockwise from the x-axis so we
can apply Lemma 5.2.12 with θ = 2π
3 . We have
wk cos(θ))~i + (k~
~ = (k~
w wk sin(θ))~j
2π
~i + 4 sin 2π ~j
= 4 cos
3 3
1 √3
= 4 − ~i + 4 ~j
2√ 2
= −2~i + 2 3~j.
√
~ = −2~i + 2 3~j
Answer: w
~u
π
3
Solution:
It is tempting to use Lemma 5.2.12 with θ = π 3 , but that
isn’t going to work. The angle used in Lemma 5.2.12 needs
to be the angle between ~u and the positive x-axis measured
counterclockwise. That is, we nee the angle θ shown below:
y
~u
π
3 θ
x
π
It is clear from the diagram that θ = 3 +π
2 =
5π
6 . Then, using
Lemma 5.2.12, we have
~u = (k~uk cos(θ))~i + (k~uk sin(θ))~j
5π 5π
= 5 cos ~i + 5 sin ~j
6 6
√3
~i + 5 1 ~j
= 5 −
√ 2 2
5 3~ 5~
=− i + j.
2 2
√
Answer: ~u = − 5 2 3~i + 52~j
314 vectors
(3, 3)
~v
2~i
(−2, 1)
5~i
x
Figure 5.2.15: The unit vector decomposition of the vector from (−2, 1) to
(3, 3).
x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
~v -2
-3
Solution:
We see that ~v is the vector drawn between two points. In the
language of Lemma 5.2.16 write P = (3, 5) and Q = (−4, −2).
−→
Then ~v = PQ since ~v starts at P and ends at Q. Then, using
Lemma 5.2.16, we have
−→
~v = PQ = (−4 − 3)~i + (−2 − 5)~j = −7~i − 7~j.
~u 3
π
41
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
~v -3
-4
316 vectors
Solution:
We want to find a displacement vector, ~d, for the balloon’s
journey. In order to do this, we must implement a coordinate
system. Let ~i be the vector pointing 1 mi east, let ~j be the vec-
tor pointing 1 mi north, and let ~k be the vector which points
1 mi upward. According to this coordinate system we have
Answer: 9.43 mi
The last thing to discuss is the coordinate system that we’ve been
using. Each time we implement coordinate so that we can use a unit
vector decomposition, this coordinate system involves a choice. We’ve
always drawn the x-axis horizontally and the y-axis vertically, but
there is no need to do that. As long as they meet at a right angle,
there is no reason we can’t rotate the coordinates and shift the ori-
gin. Changing the coordinate system does not change the vectors,
5.2 components of a vector 317
Applications
y y
~F2 ~F2
5π 5π
18 18
x x
~j
~F1 ~F1 ~i
~F3
3π
4
~F1
~j
~i
~F2
Solution:
√ 4 √ 4
300 2~ 300 2~
=− i+ j
2 2
= −212.13~i + 212.13~j.
~F1
~j
π
~i 10
~F2
~i
~rm
Mars
5.2 components of a vector 321
Solution:
~re + ~u = ~rm
and hence
~u = ~rm −~re
= (96.3~i − 206.6~j) − (114.6~i + 96.2~j)
= −18.3~i − 302.8~j.
Answer: 303.35 Gm
~rm + ~v = ~rv
and hence
~v = ~rv −~rm
= (−101.7~i + 37~j) − (96.3~i − 206.6~j)
= −198~i + 243.6~j.
Answer: 260.71 Gm
c. Let w
~ be the vector from Venus to Earth. This vector is
shown in the diagram at the end of the solution. From
the diagram we have
~rv + w
~ = ~re
and hence
~ = ~re −~rv
w
= (114.6~i + 96.2~j) − (−101.7~i + 37~j)
= 216.3~i + 59.2~j.
322 vectors
Answer: 224.26 Gm
Earth
~
w
~i
~u
~v
~rm
Mars
5.2 components of a vector 323
Homework Assignment
~ = −6~i − 5~j
w 6
5
~v
a.) Find w
~ − 3~v. 4
3
b.) Find 3 ~u + ~j + ~v.
~u 2
c.) Find ~u + ~v − w
~. 1
x
5.2.2. Let ~u = 3~i + ~j and let ~v = −~i + 4~j. Find a -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
-1
1 2 3 4 5
-3
5.2.3. Let ~u = 4~j, let ~v = −6~i + 7~j, and let ~ -4
w
~ = 2~i − 5~j.
w
a.) Find ~u + ~v. 5.2.7. The vectors ~u and ~v are drawn below.
b.) Find 2~
w − 3~v.
y
y y
~v
~v
~u θ
θ x
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6
x ~j ~FL
-1
~i
~v -2
-3
-4
~FW
-5
-6
the incline) and the force of gravity on the b.) If k~FG k = 40 N and k~FT k = 100 N, find
box is 50 N (gravity acts straight k~Fk and round to two decimal places.
downward). Find the magnitude of the
resultant force and round to two decimal 5.2.16. The circle below is an object on which
places. three forces are acting as shown:
~i
~FG
~FT
Given that k~FL k = 300 N, that
k~FG k = 100 N, and that k~FW k = 50 N, find
~FG the resultant force vector, ~F, which is acting
on the object. Round to two decimals when
a.) Sketch ~F in the diagram. necessary.
Challenge Problems
~v = x~i + y~j
for unique real numbers x and y. Because of this, we call the set {~i,~j}
a basis. However, these are not the only pair of vectors for which this
is true. Assume that ~i and ~j are fixed.
a. Explain how the vectors a~ 1 = ~i +~j and ~b1 = −~i +~j form a basis.
To do this, explain how a vector of the form ~v = x~i + y~j can be
written as
~v = α~ a1 + β~b1
for real numbers α and β. That is, find these numbers in terms
of x and y.
b. Explain why the vectors a~ 2 = ~i and ~b2 = 2~i do not form a basis.
What sorts of vectors cannot be written as
a2 + β~b2
α~
Motivation
y y
~
w
θ
φ ~v
x
~u x
(a) An arbitrary vector in the plane. (b) Two vectors and the angle between
them.
w − ~vk2 = k~
k~ wk2 + k~vk2 − 2k~
wkk~vk cos(φ). (5.3.2)
w
~−
~
w
~v
φ
~v
x
Theory
~u · ~v = u1 v1 + u2 v2
(5.3.5) Example .
~ · ~b where a
c. Find a ~ = 4~i + 5~j and ~b = 2~i.
d. Find ~i · ~j.
Solution:
Answer: ~u · ~v = −1
~v · w
~ = (−4)(2) + (−9)(−2) = 10.
Answer: ~v · w
~ = 10
~ · ~b = 8
Answer: a
~i · ~j = (1)(0) + (0)(1) = 0
Answer: ~i · ~j = 0.
Combining these two things, we see that ~u · ~u = k~uk2 . The rest of the
properties are verified similarly.
• ~0 · ~u = 0
• ~u · ~v = ~v · ~u
• ~u · (~v + w
~ ) = ~u · ~v + ~u · w
~
• (~u + ~v) · w
~ = ~u · w
~ + ~u · w
~
• ~u · ~u = k~uk2
~u · ~v = k~ukk~vk cos(θ).
~u
~v
p
x
φ
Solution:
First we calculate
p
k~uk = 32 + 42 = 5
p √ √
k~vk = 12 + 72 = 50 = 5 2
~u · ~v = (3)(1) + (4)(7) = 31.
5.3 the dot product 331
k~ukk~vk cos(θ) = ~u · ~v
√
(5)(5 2) cos(θ) = 31
31
cos(θ) = √
25 2
−1 31
θ = cos √
25 2
θ = 0.50.
Solution:
First we calculate
q √
k~
ak = (−2)2 + 92 = 85
q √
k~bk = 52 + (−1)2 = 26
~ · ~b = (−2)(5) + (9)(−1) = −19.
a
akk~bk cos(θ) = a
k~ ~ · ~b
√ √
( 85)( 26) cos(θ) = −19
−19
cos(θ) = √ √
85 26
−1 −19
θ = cos √ √
85 26
θ = 1.99.
Answer: θ = 1.99
(ii) Find the angle θ between ~u and ~v. Round to two decimal
places.
Examples like Example 5.3.10 and Example 5.3.11 are pretty pre-
dictable. If you are given a unit vector decomposition for two vectors,
the process used in these two examples will find the angle between
them. Example 5.3.12 adds a small complication but it is roughly the
same type of problem.
~v 2
1 θ ~u
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
Solution:
We first must find a unit vector decomposition for ~u and ~v.
Using Lemma 5.2.16 we have
Now the process becomes just like Example 5.3.10 and Exam-
ple 5.3.11. First we calculate
p √
k~uk = 42 + 12 = 17
q √
k~vk = (−3)2 + 22 = 13
~u · ~v = (4)(−3) + (1)(2) = −10.
5.3 the dot product 333
k~ukk~vk cos(θ) = ~u · ~v
√ √
( 17)( 13) cos(θ) = −10
−10
cos(θ) = √ √
17 13
−1 −10
θ = cos √ √
17 13
θ = 2.31.
Answer: θ = 2.31
There is one time where this procedure fails. If we’re looking for
the angle between ~u and ~v and one of these vectors is ~0 then things be-
come complicated. It makes no sense to talk about the angle between
the zero vector and another vector. The reason that ~u and ~v need to
be non-zero in Corollary 5.3.9 is because that would force k~ukk~vk to
~ ·~
be zero which means that k~uu v
kk~vk would be undefined. The moral of
the story is that we will ignore the concept of the angle between a
vector and the zero vector.
The equation in Theorem 5.3.7 can be quite enlightening. If ~u and
~v are two non-zero vectors then
~u · ~v = k~ukk~vk cos(θ)
where θ is the angle between them. Notice that k~uk and k~vk are both
positive. It follows that ~u · ~v = 0 exactly when cos(θ) = 0. Otherwise,
~u · ~v and cos(θ) have the same sign.
Think about what it means when cos(θ) = 0. We know that θ is
in the interval [0, π] and the only angle in that interval whose cosine
is zero is π 2 . It follows that the vectors ~u and ~v are perpendicular Recall that
exactly when their dot product is zero. What about when cos(θ) 6= 0? “perpendicular”
means to meet at a
If cos(θ) > 0 then 0 6 θ < π π
2 and if cos(θ) < 0 then 2 < θ 6 π. right angle.
Hence if ~u · ~v > 0 then ~u and ~v meet at an acute angle whereas if
~u · ~v < 0 then ~u and ~v meet at an obtuse angle. This is summarized in
Lemma 5.3.13.
Solution:
According to Lemma 5.3.13, all we need to check is the dot
product. Observe that
~u · ~v = (2)(−4) + (1)(8) = 0.
Solution:
The only way that we know how to check if something is
perpendicular to ~u is by using Lemma 5.3.13. Let’s assume
that ~v is an arbitrary vector which is perpendicular to ~u and
write ~v = x~i + y~j. Since they are perpendicular, ~u · ~v = 0.
Hence
~u · ~v = 0
(−3~i + 2~j) · (x~i + y~j) = 0
−3x + 2y = 0
3
y = x.
2
Solution:
We know from Lemma 5.3.13 that a ~ and ~b are perpendicu-
lar precisely when their dot product is zero. Hence
~ · ~b = 0
a
(6t)(t) + (t + 6)(−6) = 0
6t2 − 6t − 36 = 0
t2 − t − 6 = 0
(t − 3)(t + 2) = 0.
and
As a last note on the dot product, suppose ~u and ~v are two three
dimensional vectors. Then
We define the dot product in this case similar to the two dimensional
case. That is,
~u · ~v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 .
All of the same properties that we’ve learned still hold. That is, all
of the results in Lemma 5.3.6 and the result in Theorem 5.3.7 are still
valid.
Applications
The first application of the dot product is to large scale travel of things
like boats and planes. We say that something is traveling along a
vector ~p if it is traveling in the direction of ~p. Normally when we use
336 vectors
Solution:
In order to find the angle between the two paths we need
only find the angle between the vectors ~p and ~q. First, we
have
q √
k~pk = (−1)2 + 22 = 5
p
k~qk = 42 + 32 = 5
~p · ~q = (−1)(4) + (2)(3) = 2.
Solution:
All we need to do is find the angle between ~p and a vec-
tor which points due north. It doesn’t matter which of these
angles we pick, so we might as well pick ~j. First, we have
k~jk = 1
p √ √
k~pk = 12 + 72 = 50 = 5 2
~j · ~p = (0)(1) + (1)(7) = 7.
where θ is the angle between ~j and ~p. It follows that the ship’s
path is 0.14 radians away from north.
Answer: 0.14
~i
~F1 ~F2
Figure 5.3.19: The force diagram for two people pushing on a refrigerator
in opposite directions.
Luckily, you are stronger than your friend so that k~F1 k = 400 N and
k~F2 k = 200 N. Since the force being applied on the left is stronger than
the force being applied on the right, the refrigerator is moving from
338 vectors
left to right. Let’s assume that while these forces are being applied
the refrigerator moves 5 m. Now, we said that work is a measure of
how helpful a force is to the motion. In this case, the force on the left
is being very helpful but the force on the other side is just a hindrance
to the motion. According to our work calculation, the work done by
~F1 will be positive which signifies that it is helping and the work done
by ~F2 will be negative which signifies that it is hindering.
Definition 5.3.20 below defines how to calculate work.
Let’s try to calculate the work done on our refrigerator by the two
forces. It is easy to write down the two force vectors since they are
both parallel to ~i. We see from the diagram that
We can now perform a work calculation for each force. Let W1 be the
work done by ~F1 and let W2 be the work done by ~F2 . According to
Definition 5.3.20 we have
Now, the last thing described by Definition 5.3.20 is the units. Since
the units on force are Newtons and the units on distance are meters,
the units on work are simply Newton-meters, which are denoted N m.
Hence the work done by ~F1 is 2000 N m while the work done by ~F2
is −1000 N m. These units seem like nonsense, but in physics this is a
reasonable thing. When calculating work, simply multiply the units
on the force by the units on the distance to obtain the units on the
work.
The force diagram in Figure 5.3.19 used for our refrigerator is obvi-
ously a very simple one. We will explore some more difficult compu-
tations in the remaining examples.
5.3 the dot product 339
~F1 = 500~i
~F2 = −300~i + 50~j
~F3 = 300~i − 700~j.
Solution:
a. By Definition 5.3.20,
Answer: 3500 N m
b. By Definition 5.3.20,
Answer: −1950 N m
c. By Definition 5.3.20,
Answer: 0 N m
Answer: 1550 N m
Let’s look at some things in Example 5.3.21. What does it mean that
W3 = 0? Well, W3 should be a measure of how helpful the force ~F3
340 vectors
~Ff
~j
~i π
9
~Fg
Solution:
Before we handle the desired calculations, we need to find
the box’s displacement vector. Obviously k~dk = 20. To find
~d, though, we need to know it’s angle with the horizontal.
Since the box is sliding down the hill, we know that ~d points
downward and to the left as shown below:
5.3 the dot product 341
π
π+ 9
~Ff
~j
~i
~d
~Fg
We see that
10π 10π
~d = 20 cos ~i + 20 sin ~j = −18.79~i − 6.84~j
9 9
by Lemma 5.2.12.
Answer: 4104.24 N m
and hence
Wf = ~Ff · ~d
= (422.86)(−18.79) + (153.91)(−6.84)
= −9000
Answer: −9000 N m
We will have several examples like the one in Example 5.3.22 where
we deal with something on a hill. The hill in Example 5.3.22 has an in-
cline of π
9 . We can define an incline of any angle similarly. Whenever
we say something goes “up” or “down” a hill, we mean the direction
it would go under the influence of gravity.
342 vectors
~Fp
~j
~i
π
5
~Ff
~Fg
Solution:
We first need to find the displacement vector, ~d. Since the
wagon moves 100 m to the right, ~d = 100~i.
Wg = ~Fg · ~d = 0.
Answer: 0 N m
Answer: −20,000 N m
5.3 the dot product 343
Then
Answer: 32,360.7 N m
hence
W = ~F · ~d = (123.61)(100) = 12360.7.
W = Wg + Wf + Wp = 12360.7.
Solution:
The first thing we should do is draw a force diagram. The
force of gravity always points straight downward and the dis-
placement force points down the hill. If ~F is the force of grav-
ity and ~d is the displacement then we get the following force
diagram:
π/7
~d
~F
We can see from the force diagram that the angle between ~F
and ~d is π π 5π ~
2 − 7 = 14 . It was given in the problem that kFk = 30
and k~dk = 20, hence, using Theorem 5.3.7, we have
5π 5π
W = ~F · ~d = k~Fkk~dk cos = (30)(20) cos = 260.33.
14 14
Answer: 260.33 N m
~F3
π ~F2
6
π
~j 4
~i
~F1
346 vectors
Homework Assignment
5.3.1. Let ~u = −5~i + 3~j, let ~v = 4~i + ~j, and let 5.3.8. Let ~u = (t − 6)~i + t2~j and ~v = ~i + ~j. For
~ = 2~i − 8~j.
w what values of t are ~u and ~v
a.) Calculate ~u · ~v. perpendicular?
b.) Calculate ~v · w
~. 5.3.9. Find all possible values of t (if any) such
that ~u = 4t~i − 6~j and ~v = −t~i + 10t~j are
~ · ~u.
c.) Calculate w
perpendicular.
5.3.2. Let ~u = 3~i − 4~j and let ~v = −~i − 5~j.
5.3.10. Let ~u = (t + 4)~i + ~j and ~v = −2~i + t2~j. For
Calculate the following:
what values of t (if any) are ~u and ~v
a.) ~u · ~v perpendicular?
b.) k~uk 5.3.11. Consider the vectors ~u = 2~i + 4~j and
c.) 2~v − 5~u ~v = −3~i + t~j. If the angle between ~u and ~v
is π/3 and kvk > 5, find ~v. Round to two
5.3.3. Consider the vectors ~u = 3~i + 5~j and decimal places.
~v = −6~i + ~j.
5.3.12. Find any vector which is perpendicular to
a.) Compute ~u · ~v.
−2~i + ~j. Justify your answer.
b.) Find the angle between ~u and ~v.
Round your answer to two decimal 5.3.13. Find θ below. Round to two decimal places.
places. y
(−1, 4) 4
5.3.4. Let ~u = 3~i − 4~j, let ~v = −2~i + 7~j, and let
~ = ~j − ~i. Leave your answers in exact
3
w (−5, 2)
form. 2
x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1
b.) Calculate 5~
w − 2~v. -6
-1
1
4
f.) Calculate k~vk (~u + w
~) Q
3
2
5.3.5. Find the angle between the vectors 1
5.3.15. Two boats leave port at the same time. The of these two forces, the box moves up the
first boat travels along the vector ~v = 3~i + ~j hill (i. e. up and to the right) a total of 50 m.
and the second boat travels along the Note: Vectors are not necessarily drawn to
vector ~u = −~i + 5~j. Find the angle between scale.
their paths. Round your answer to two
~j
decimal places. ~
G
~i
5.3.16. John and Amy leave their house by bike at
the same time. John is traveling along a
vector of ~u = 2~i + 5~j and Amy is traveling
along a vector of ~v = −~i + 6~j. Find the
angle between their paths. Round to two ~P π
decimal places. 6
~Fg
~F
π/6
a.) Find the resultant force, ~F, that acts on
the above object. Round to two
decimal places when appropriate.
b.) Suppose that the object in part (a) is
moved a distance of 30 meters straight
5.3.20. In the force diagram below, G ~ is the force up in the air (that is, in the ~j direction).
of gravity and ~P is another force pushing What is the work done by the
on the box. You are given that kGk~ = 322 N resultant force (from part (a))? Round
and that k~Pk = 480 N. Under the influence your answer to two decimal places.
348 vectors
Challenge Problems
Motivation
• Gravitation
• Computer Graphics
• Vector-Valued Functions
Theory
b. Find a vector w
~ which is in the same direction as ~v but
with a magnitude of 50.
Solution:
1 1 48 55
~u = = (48~i − 55~j) = ~i − ~j.
k~vk 73 73 73
Answer: ~u = 1
= 1 ~ ~ 48~ 55~
k~
vk 73 (48i − 55j) = 73 i − 73 j
2400~ 2750~
Answer: w
~ = 73 i − 73 j
the angle that it makes with the horizontal. Then, from Lemma 5.2.12,
we know
We’ve left out the case where v1 = 0. This case is easy, though. If
~v = v2~j then ~v points either straight up or straight down. If v2 > 0
then θ = π π
2 and if v2 < 0 then θ = − 2 . Using Lemma 5.4.3 we can
rotate vectors as in Example 5.4.4.
Solution:
We know that ~q has the same magnitude as ~p so
p √
k~qk = k~pk = 42 + 12 = 26.
(−2.87, 2.96)
~q
2π
3 ~p
(4, 1)
0.24 x
We have been talking about the angle that a vector makes with
the horizontal as if it is unique when, of course, it is not unique. If
you start with a vector, ~v, and you rotated it counterclockwise by 2π
then the vector obtained after the rotation is just the same as ~v. In
Lemma 5.2.12 and Lemma 5.4.3 we are not concerned with which of
the many angles the vector in question makes with the horizontal. In
Lemma 5.2.12 it is irrelevant as they all share the same cosine and the
result in Lemma 5.4.3 simply picks one of the many choices.
The last thing to mention before the applications is scientific nota-
tion. Depending on your background in other areas you may or may
not have seen scientific notation before. Suppose that N is the number
of atoms in a person who weighs 70 kg. Well, N is very, very large. In
fact, it is approximately
N ≈ 7,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000.
That is an absurdly large number and it is inconvenient to write out
all 27 zeros every time we want to use N. Scientific notation is a con-
5.4 applications of vectors 353
≈ 0.0000000001.
≈ 1 × 10−10 .
485,748,920,109,289,384,830,294,887.928475932 kg.
485,748,920,109,289,384,830,294,887.93 kg
does not seem any better. However, when we round to two decimal
places in scientific notation this quantity becomes
Applications
m2
~F2
~F1
r
m1
Figure 5.4.6: The force of gravity pulling two objects toward each other.
The way that gravity works is that every mass imparts a force on
every other mass. That is, every two masses are being pulled toward
each other by gravity. This force pulls the centers of the objects to-
gether. The mass of Earth pulls you toward the center of Earth, but
your mass also pulls Earth toward your center.
Consider the two objects of mass m1 and m2 shown in Figure 5.4.6.
Gravity pulls them toward each other so that there is a force pulling
on each object which points toward the center of the other object.
These forces are shown as ~F1 and ~F2 . Both forces have the same mag-
nitude (even if the masses are different) and they point in opposite
direction (that is, they are negatives of each other). Theorem 5.4.5 tells
us that
m1 m2
k~F1 k = k~F2 k = G 2 .
r
The number G is just a constant whose value depends on the units of
m1 , m2 , and r. In this section we will only use kg for mass and km
and Theorem 5.4.5 tells us the value of G in that case.
In many cases it is simply enough to know the magnitude of the
gravitational force. However, if we know the position of the two ob-
jects then we can do better. Let ~d1 be the displacement vector from
5.4 applications of vectors 355
~
~F1 = kF1 k ~d1 .
k~d1 k
Multiplying ~d1 by kd 1
~ 1 k gives it a length of 1 and then multiplying by
k~F1 k gives it a length of k~F1 k. Then, of course, ~F2 = −~F1 as we see in
Figure 5.4.6.
~rE
Earth Moon
~d
a. Find ~FE .
b. Find ~FL .
Solution:
356 vectors
Then we have
m S mE
k~FE k = G
k~rE k2
(100000)(5.98 × 1024 )
= (6.6738 × 10−17 )
294108.822
= 461.38.
Satellite
~rE ~rL
Earth Moon
~d
~rL = ~rE + ~d
= (−280000~i − 90000~j) + (384000~i)
= 104000~i − 90000~j.
By Theorem 5.4.5,
mS mL
k~FL k = G
k~rL k
(100000)(7.34 × 1022 )
= (6.6738 × 10−17 )
137535.452
= 25.90.
that the video processor doesn’t need to render the scene completely
every time the character moves, but instead uses previous frames and
small shifts to make new frames.
The types of shifts which correspond to these small movements
are called linear transformations. In general these transformations are
complicated but we already understand two of them. We know how
to rotate a pixel (using Lemma 5.4.3) and we know how to translate
a pixel (by adding a vector). This is explored in Example 5.4.8.
Solution:
800
~q
~p
0.4
1280
5.4 applications of vectors 359
800
600~i
~r
200~j
~q
~p
0.4
1280
It follows that
~r = ~q + 600~i + 200~j
= 402~i + 333~j + 600~i + 200~j
= 802~i + 533~j
b. How long does it take for the ball to reach its highest
point?
c. When the ball hits the ground, how far away is it from
the point from the fixed point?
Solution:
Before we handle the questions, let’s sketch a picture of this
ball’s path:
5.4 applications of vectors 361
t=2
~j
~i
t=1 t=3
t=0 t=4
fixed point
c. The ball hits the ground when its height is zero. The
height is the ~j-component of the position vector, so we
first need to know when
−5t2 + 20t + 3 = 0.
~F = m~
a.
Homework Assignment
5.4.1. Consider the vector ~u = 8~i − 15~j. Suppose that the earth is at point E, the
a.) Find a vector ~v which is in the same sun is at point S, and jupiter is at point J.
−
→
direction as ~u and has a magnitude of Also suppose that SE = 149600000~i and
−
→ →
−
1. Leave your answer in exact form. that EJ = −538850000 i + 674200777~j (all
b.) Find a vector w~ which is in the same of these units are in kilometers). Compute
direction as ~u and has a magnitude of the values below and round your answer
100. Leave your answer in exact form. to two decimal places (two decimal places
in scientific notation):
c.) Find a vector ~x which results from
rotating the vector ~u counterclockwise a.) Find the magnitude of the
by an angle of π gravitational force between the sun
3 . Round to two
decimal places. and the earth.
b.) Find the magnitude of the
5.4.2. Two tugboats are pulling a larger boat
gravitational force between the sun
according to the diagram below where the
and jupiter.
filled circles are the tugboats and the
rectangle is the larger boat. c.) Find the magnitude of the
gravitational force between the earth
A and jupiter.
c.) Suppose the person in part (a) has a position when t = 4 to its position
mass of 70 kg. First find the when t = 8.
magnitude of the gravitational force
between her and the earth. Next find 5.4.6. A triangle is displayed on a computer
the force vector imparted on the screen. The pixels at its corners are
center of the earth by gravity. Round described by vectors ~p, ~q, and ~r where
to two decimal places when necessary.
~p = 50~i + 100~j
Hint: The force vector has the same
direction as the person’s position vector. ~q = 50~i + 50~j
~r = 200~i + 50~j.
5.4.5. A small military ship is parked in a river
which flows directly north and south. A Recall that these position vectors describe
coordinate system is implemented such each pixel’s displacement from the bottom
that ~i points directly east and has a length left corner of the screen (in pixels).
of 1 mi while the vector ~j points directly
a.) It is easy to see that this triangle is a
north and has a length of 1 mi. The ship’s
right triangle. Find the length of its
radar detects a helicopter as it flies near the
hypotenuse (in pixels). Round to the
ship. The ship then tracks the helicopter’s
nearest pixel (no decimal places).
movements and finds that t hours after it
passes the ship its displacement vector b.) This triangle is shifted up by 100
from the ship is given by pixels. Find vectors ~p1 , ~q1 , and ~r1
which describe the corners of the
(10t2 − 70t)~i + (t2 − 4)~j.
triangle after it is shifted.
a.) How far from the ship is the
c.) After the shift in the previous part,
helicopter after five hours? Round to
the entire triangle is rotated about the
two decimal places.
origin by an angle of π 6 . Find vectors
b.) How long is it after the ship starts ~p2 , ~q2 , and ~r2 which describe the
tracking the helicopter that the corners of the triangle after this
helicopter passes the river for the rotation. Round to the nearest pixel.
second time? Hint: Do this by rotating each of the
c.) Find a vector ~d which describes the individual vectors.
helicopter’s displacement from its
Challenge Problems
on how you do it, you may need to use inverse trig functions
along the way).
Motivation
To this point we have only defined two dimensional and three di-
mensional vectors, and for seemingly good reasons. Vectors include
a “direction,” which needs to point somewhere. The space in which
we live is three dimensional so it seems like the idea of direction
shouldn’t need more than three dimensions. The idea of direction
doesn’t always transfer, but higher dimensional vectors have their
uses.
For example, the space in which we live isn’t actually three dimen-
Pysicists today seem sional; it is four dimensional. There are three dimensions of space and
to think that the one dimension of time. Using three dimensions you can describe any
universe actually
place in the universe. Adding a fourth dimension, however, allows us
has more than four
dimensions. to describe any time and place in the universe.
We defined vectors by defining their magnitude and their direc-
tion. We then developed the notion of a unit vector decomposition by
defining special vectors called ~i, ~j, and ~k. We can’t really define the
direction of a four dimensional vector, but we can add a vector ~` and
define four dimensional vectors to be things which look like
Theory
You can see how this gets unruly very quickly. If you ever wanted a
78 dimensional vector you would run out of letters.
Notice that we don’t really need the vectors ~i, ~j, and etc. for any-
thing; they are just placeholders. There is an alternate notation which
can be more convenient at times. We can write vectors as follows:
The danger in this is that it makes vectors look like points which is
misleading. This notation can be easier when there is no confusion.
With the new notation we perform all operations on the components.
For example,
~v = (v1 , v2 ) when n = 2,
~v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) when n = 3,
~v = (v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 ) when n = 4,
and so on.
368 vectors
~v = (v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ).
(v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ) · (w1 , w2 , . . . , wn )
= v1 w1 + v2 w2 + . . . + vn wn .
a. Find ~v + w
~.
b. Find −3~v.
c. Find ~v · w
~.
d. Find k~vk.
Solution:
a. We have
~v + w
~ = (3, 2, −5, 1) + (7, 0, 1, −3)
= (3 + 7, 2 + 0, −5 + 1, 1 − 3)
= (10, 2, −4, −2).
Answer: ~v + w
~ = (10, 2, −4, −2)
b. We have
c. We have
~v · w
~ = (3, 2, −5, 1) · (7, 0, 1, −3)
= (3)(7) + (2)(0) + (−5)(1) + (1)(−3)
= 13.
Answer: ~v · w
~ = 13
d. We have
√ q √
k~vk = ~v · ~v = 32 + 22 + (−5)2 + 12 = 39.
√
Answer: k~vk = 39
Applications
We can list these two pieces of data in a vector. That is, define
~ and ~R such that
vectors C
~ = (0.06, 0.04, 0.45, 0)
C
~R = (0.5, 0.5, 1, 0.25).
Recall from Section 2.1 that profit is the revenue minus the cost. If
I want to know the profit that Timmy makes from the sale of one
lemonade I simply subtract the cost from the revenue. Timmy makes
a profit of $0.50 − $0.06 = $0.44. We can do the same thing with
each of the other beverages, but that corresponds to subtracting the
components of the vectors ~R and C~ which, of course, corresponds to
the difference of the vectors.
The table shows the profit from each beverage. We can also calcu-
late
~P = ~R − C
~ = (0.44, 0.46, 0.55, 0.25).
The vectors ~R and C~ expressed the revenue of the four beverages and
~
the vector P expresses the profit of each of the four beverages. We
were able to find the profit by the vector operation ~R − C ~ because
profit is calculated at each component and that’s what vector subtrac-
tion does.
At the end of the day Timmy is tallying his sales. The table below
shows the number of each beverage that he purchased at the begin-
ning of the day and the number of each beverage that he sold by the
end of the day.
Observe that in each of the vectors here the 1st component holds infor-
mation about lemonade, the 2nd component holds information about
5.5 abstract vectors 371
iced tea, and so on. Let ~L be a vector which stores the number of each
beverage that Timmy had leftover at the end of the day. The way that
we calculate the amount of lemonade that was leftover is to subtract
the number that he sold from the number that he purchased, which
is 30 − 28 = 2. Of course, we can do the same on each component, so
What if Timmy wants to know his total revenue for the day? His
revenue from selling lemonade is the number of glasses of lemonade
he sold times the price of each glass, or 28 · 0.50 = 14. That is, he
made $14 in revenue from selling lemonade. We can calculate the
revenue from each of the other products in the same way. If r is the
total revenue then we have
so that his total revenue is $50.50. Look at this last calculation, though.
We took the vectors ~S and ~R, multiplied pairs of their components
together, and then added them up, which is precisely the dot product.
Hence r = ~S · ~R. Using a similar method, try to convince yourself that
~P · C~ is Timmy’s total costs.
Would it make a difference if the vectors were longer? Suppose that
Timmy’s Lemonade Stand was actually a store selling 100 different
flavors of ice cream. Suppose ~R and C ~ were still the revenue and cost
vectors and if ~P and ~S are the vectors containing purchase and sales
information for a day. These vectors are now 100-dimensional vectors,
but it is still the case that ~R − C
~ contains the profit of each item and
~S · ~R is still the total revenue.
The key to this process is that in each of the vectors involved the
i-th component of the vector always corresponds to the same flavor of
ice cream (or type of beverage, or whatever the case may be). This pro-
cess of using vector operations to perform these computations may
seem like overkill, but when computers are using large lists of things
it is convenient to store them as vectors. The remainder of this section
is dedicated to more examples of using vectors in this manner.
• The sales vector, ~S, stores the number of each car that
that the dealership sold during the month.
• The revenue vector, ~R, stores the revenue that the deal-
ership makes from selling one of each model of car. All
of the units are in dollars.
Solution:
This example is intentionally designed to work a lot like
the example of Timmy’s lemonade stand.
~L = ~P − ~S = (2, 1, 3, 1, 2).
~P = ~R − C
~ = (10000, 14000, 20000, 16000, 53000).
~S · ~R = 3,533,000
~
where each component is in millions of people. The vector Q
stores the population of these six states in 2005 and
Solution:
~R = Q
~ − ~P = (0.23, 0.08, 0.33, 0.16, 0.09, 0.03)
~S = 1.08Q
~ = (3.79, 1.43, 6.91, 1.41, 1.17, 0.67)
Example 5.5.3 and Example 5.5.4 give concrete vectors with given
values. However, we can perform the same calculations in theory even
if we don’t know the values of the vectors. Even if the vectors ~R and
~ were not given in Timmy’s Lemonade Stand we would still know
C
that the profit vector is ~P = ~R − C.
~
5.5 abstract vectors 375
Solution:
Imagine a single student with four test scores. To find the
average of those four test scores we would add them up and
divide them by four. To do this on each component of the four
test vectors we can add the four vectors and then multiply
that sum by 41 . Hence
Solution:
To calculate the amount he spent at each stop we multiply
the number of gallons he bought by the price per gallon. To
figure out the total amount of money he spent over the course
of all of those stops we add up the amount he spent at each
~ and ~P.
stop. This is the dot product of G
~
Answer: G · P ~
Solution:
Answer: 0.95(~P · Q)
~
5.5 abstract vectors 377
Homework Assignment
5.5.5. A grocery store uses vectors to store data b.) Find a vector for the number of each
about the products that they carry. These product that is leftover at the end of
vectors have 1047 components; each of each week.
which corresponds to a unique product. c.) Find the amount of money that the
Some of the vectors that they use are as store spends on inventory that is
follows: wasted.
• ~I stores the number of each product
d.) What is the store’s costs for the week?
purchased in a particular week.
Assume that the only costs incurred
• ~S stores the number of each product are from purchasing their inventory.
sold in a particular week.
e.) What is the most amount of revenue
• ~P stores the price at which the store that the store could possibly make in
sells each item. a week? That is, what is their revenue
• W~ stores the price for which the store if they sell their entire inventory?
purchases each item from their f.) What is the maximum profit that the
supplier. store could possibly make in a week?
Because the food spoils, the store must g.) What is the actual revenue that the
dispose of all of its leftover inventory at the store makes in a week?
end of each week.
h.) What is the actual profit that the store
a.) Find a vector which describes the
makes in a week?
amount above wholesale that the store
charges for each item.
Challenge Problems
f(x) = ax2 + bx + c
d. What are the polynomial equivalents to ~i, ~j, and ~k? There are a
lot of correct answers to this question, but there is one “good”
choice.
5.5 abstract vectors 379
381
A
ANSWERS TO PRACTICE
EXERCISES
2
(i) (f − g)(x) = x2 +4x+3
(ii) (f/h)(x) = x − 1
(ii) 27 min
383
384 answers to practice exercises
(i) tan(45°) = 1
√
(ii) tan(120°) = − 3
(iii) tan(900°) = 0
√
3
(iv) tan(−570°) = − 3
~v
~u + ~v
π
3
~u
~u + ~v
~FL
~FL
~FT
Practice Exercise
√ 5.2.b:
√
~u = −2 2i + 2 2~j and ~v = −7~i − 3~j
~
(i) ~u · ~v = 32
(ii) θ = 0.6
answers to practice exercises 387
(i) W1 = −300 N
(ii) W2 = 169.71 N
(iii) W3 = 311.77 N
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[5] Dr. Seuss (Theodor Geisel). The Lorax. Random House, New york,
1971. ISBN 0394823370.
389
INDEX
391
392 index
scalar, 288
scientific notation, 350
secant, 270
similar triangles, 92
sine, 100
supplementary angles, 81
tangent, 160
tangent line, 173
Taylor Expansion, 201
terminal leg, 85
traveling along a vector, 333
triangle, 84
triangle inequality, 301
trigonometric functions, 159
trigonometry, 77
unit circle, 85
unit vector, 305
unit vector decomposition, 305
upper bound, 301
vector, 283
vector valued functions, 360
vertex, 79, 84
work, 336