Types of Irony

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SHORT STORY ELEMENTS

SETTING PLOT
CONFLICT CHARACTER
POINT OF VIEW THEME

SETTING -- The time and location in which a story takes place is called the
setting. For some stories the setting is very important, while for others it is
not. There are several aspects of a story's setting to consider when
examining how setting contributes to a story (some, or all, may be present in a
story):

a) place - geographical location. Where is the action of the story taking


place?
b) time - When is the story taking place? (historical period, time of day, year,
etc)
c) weather conditions - Is it rainy, sunny, stormy, etc?
d) social conditions - What is the daily life of the characters like? Does the
story contain local colour (writing that focuses on the speech, dress,
mannerisms, customs, etc. of a particular place)?
e) mood or atmosphere - What feeling is created at the beginning of the
story? Is it bright and cheerful or dark and frightening?
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PLOT -- The plot is how the author arranges events to develop his basic
idea; It is the sequence of events in a story or play. The plot is a planned,
logical series of events having a beginning, middle, and end. The short story
usually has one plot so it can be read in one sitting. There are five essential
parts of plot:

a) Introduction - The beginning of the story where the characters and the
setting is revealed.

b) Rising Action - This is where the events in the story become complicated
and the conflict in the story is revealed (events between the introduction and
climax).

c) Climax - This is the highest point of interest and the turning point of the
story. The reader wonders what will happen next; will the conflict be resolved
or not?

d) Falling action - The events and complications begin to resolve


themselves. The reader knows what has happened next and if the conflict
was resolved or not (events between climax and denouement).

e) Denouement - This is the final outcome or untangling of events in the


story.

It is helpful to consider climax as a three-fold phenomenon: 1) the main


character receives new information 2) accepts this information (realizes it but
does not necessarily agree with it) 3) acts on this information (makes a
choice that will determine whether or not he/she gains his objective).
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CONFLICT-- Conflict is essential to plot. Without conflict there is no plot. It


is the opposition of forces which ties one incident to another and makes the
plot move. Conflict is not merely limited to open arguments, rather it is any
form of opposition that faces the main character. Within a short story there
may be only one central struggle, or there may be one dominant struggle with
many minor ones.

There are two types of conflict:


1) External - A struggle with a force outside one's self.
2) Internal - A struggle within one's self; a person must make some decision,
overcome pain, quiet their temper, resist an urge, etc.
There are four kinds of conflict:
1) Man vs. Man (physical) - The leading character struggles with his physical
strength against other men, forces of nature, or animals.

2) Man vs. Circumstances (classical) - The leading character struggles


against fate, or the circumstances of life facing him/her.

3) Man vs. Society (social) - The leading character struggles against ideas,
practices, or customs of other people.

4) Man vs. Himself/Herself (psychological) - The leading character


struggles with himself/herself; with his/her own soul, ideas of right or wrong,
physical limitations, choices, etc.
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CHARACTER -- There are two meanings for the word character:


1) The person in a work of fiction.
2) The characteristics of a person.

Persons in a work of fiction - Antagonist and Protagonist


Short stories use few characters. One character is clearly central to the story
with all major events having some importance to this character - he/she is the
PROTAGONIST. The opposer of the main character is called the
ANTAGONIST.

The Characteristics of a Person -


In order for a story to seem real to the reader its characters must seem
real. Characterization is the information the author gives the reader about the
characters themselves. The author may reveal a character in several ways:
a) his/her physical appearance
b) what he/she says, thinks, feels and dreams
c) what he/she does or does not do
d) what others say about him/her and how others react to him/her

Characters are convincing if they are: consistent, motivated, and life-like


(resemble real people)

Characters are...
1. Individual - round, many sided and complex personalities.
2. Developing - dynamic, many sided personalities that change, for better or
worse, by the end of the story.
3. Static - Stereotype, have one or two characteristics that never change and
are emphasized e.g. brilliant detective, drunk, scrooge, cruel stepmother, etc.
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POINT OF VIEW

Point of view, or p.o.v., is defined as the angle from which the story is told.

1. Innocent Eye - The story is told through the eyes of a child (his/her
judgment being different from that of an adult) .

2. Stream of Consciousness - The story is told so that the reader feels as if


they are inside the head of one character and knows all their thoughts and
reactions.

3. First Person - The story is told by the protagonist or one of the characters
who interacts closely with the protagonist or other characters (using pronouns
I, me, we, etc). The reader sees the story through this person's eyes as
he/she experiences it and only knows what he/she knows or feels.

4. Omniscient- The author can narrate the story using the omniscient point
of view. He can move from character to character, event to event, having free
access to the thoughts, feelings and motivations of his characters and he
introduces information where and when he chooses. There are two main
types of omniscient point of view:

a) Omniscient Limited - The author tells the story in third person (using
pronouns they, she, he, it, etc). We know only what the character knows and
what the author allows him/her to tell us. We can see the thoughts and
feelings of characters if the author chooses to reveal them to us.

b) Omniscient Objective – The author tells the story in the third person. It
appears as though a camera is following the characters, going anywhere, and
recording only what is seen and heard. There is no comment on the
characters or their thoughts. No interpretations are offered. The reader is
placed in the position of spectator without the author there to explain. The
reader has to interpret events on his own.
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THEME -- The theme in a piece of fiction is its controlling idea or its central
insight. It is the author's underlying meaning or main idea that he is trying to
convey. The theme may be the author's thoughts about a topic or view of
human nature. The title of the short story usually points to what the writer is
saying and he may use various figures of speech to emphasize his theme,
such as: symbol, allusion, simile, metaphor, hyperbole, or irony.

Some simple examples of common themes from literature, TV, and film are:
- things are not always as they appear to be
- Love is blind
- Believe in yourself
- People are afraid of change
- Don't judge a book by its cover
Irony
Definition of Irony
Irony is a figure of speech in which words are used in such a way that their
intended meaning is different from the actual meaning of the words. It may
also be a situation that ends up in quite a different way than what is generally
anticipated. In simple words, it is a difference between appearance and
reality.

Types of Irony
On the grounds of the above definition, we distinguish two basic types of
irony: (1) verbal irony, and (2) situational irony. Verbal irony involves what one
does not mean. For example, when in response to a foolish idea, we say,
“What a great idea!” This is verbal irony. Situational irony occurs when, for
instance, a man is chuckling at the misfortune of another, even when the
same misfortune is, unbeknownst to him, befalling him.

Difference Between Dramatic Irony and Situational Irony


Dramatic irony is frequently employed by writers in their works. In situational
irony, both the characters and the audience are fully unaware of the
implications of the real situation. In dramatic irony, the characters are
oblivious of the situation, but the audience is not. For example, in
Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, we know well before the characters that
they are going to die. In real life circumstances, irony may be comical, bitter,
or sometimes unbearably offensive.

Common Examples of Irony


Let us analyze some interesting examples of irony from our daily life:

 I posted a video on YouTube about how boring and useless YouTube is.
 The name of Britain’s biggest dog was “Tiny.”
 You laugh at a person who slipped stepping on a banana peel, and the
next thing you know, you’ve slipped too.
 The butter is as soft as a slab of marble.
 “Oh great! Now you have broken my new camera.”

Short Examples of Verbal Irony


1. The doctor is as kind hearted as a wolf.
2. He took a much-needed vacation, backpacking in the mountains.
Unfortunately, he came back dead tired.
3. His friend’s hand was as soft as a rock.
4. The desert was as cool as a bed of burning coals.
5. The student was given ‘excellent’ on getting zero in the exam.
6. The roasted chicken was as tender as a leather boot.
7. He was in such a harried state that he drove the entire way at 20 miles
per hour.
8. He enjoyed his job about as much as a root canal.
9. My friend’s kids get along like cats and dogs.
10. Their new boss was as civilized as a shark.
11. The new manager is as friendly as a rattlesnake.
12. The weather was as balmy as a winter day in Siberia.
13. A vehicle was parked right in front of the no-parking sign.
14. The CEO of a big tobacco company said he did not smoke.
15. The fear of long words is called “Hippopotomonstrosesquippedalio
phobia.”

Irony Examples in Literature


Example #1: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare)

We come across the following lines in Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, Act I,
Scene V:

“Go ask his name: if he be married.


My grave is like to be my wedding bed.”

Juliet commands her nurse to find out who Romeo was, and says if he were
married, then her wedding bed would be her grave. It is a verbal irony
because the audience knows that she is going to die on her wedding bed.

Example #2: Julius Caesar (By William Shakespeare)

Shakespeare employs this verbal irony in Julius Caesar, Act I, Scene II:

CASSIUS: ” ‘Tis true this god did shake.”

Cassius, despite knowing the mortal flaws of Caesar, calls him “this god”.

Example #3: Oedipus Rex (By Sophocles)


In the Greek drama Oedipus Rex, written by Sophocles:

“Upon the murderer I invoke this curse – whether he is one man and all
unknown,
Or one of many – may he wear out his life in misery to miserable doom!”

The above lines are an illustration of verbal and dramatic irony. It was
predicted that a man guilty of killing his father and marrying his own mother
brought A curse on the city and its people. In the above-mentioned lines,
Oedipus curses the man who is the cause of the curse. He is ignorant of the
fact that he himself is that man, and thus he is cursing himself. The audience,
on the other hand, knows the situation.

Example #4: The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (By Samuel Coleridge)

Irony examples are not only found in stage plays, but in poems too. In his
poem The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, Coleridge wrote:

“Water, water, everywhere,


And all the boards did shrink;
Water, water, everywhere,
Nor any drop to drink.”

In the above-stated lines, the ship – blown by the south wind – is stranded in
the uncharted sea. Ironically, there is water everywhere, but they do not have
a single drop of drinkable water.

Example #5: The Gift of the Magi (By W.H. Auden)


This is an example of situational irony, in which the wife sells her most prized
possession – her hair – to get her husband a Christmas present; and the
husband sells his most dear possession – the gold watch – to get his wife a
Christmas present. By the end, it is revealed that neither has the utility of the
present bought by the other, as both sell their best things to give the other one
a gift. Combs, the gift for the wife, is useless because she has sold her hair.
The gold watch chain, the gift for the husband, is useless because he has sold
the watch to get the combs. The situation becomes ironic for such an incident.

Example #6: Othello (By William Shakespeare)

There are many examples of verbal irony, in which the speaker means the
opposite of what he says, in Othello by Shakespeare, as given below:
OTHELLO: “O, thou art wise! ‘Tis certain” (IV.I.87), “Honest Iago . . . ”
(V.II.88), (II.III.179) & (I.III.319), “I know, Iago, Thy honesty and love doth
mince this matter” (II.III.251-52).

These few lines tell us how Othello uses irony to talk about Iago.

IAGO: “My lord, you know I love you.” (III.III.136)

This shows that Iago only uses this phrase superficially, with quite the
opposite meaning.

Example #7: The Tell-Tale Heart (By Edgar Allan Poe)

In the short story The Tell-Tale Heart, by Edgar Allan Poe, there are many
instances of irony as given below:

1. The murderer poses that he is a wise and intelligent person, who takes
each step very carefully to kill the victim. However, the way the old’s
man eye prompts him to murder the victim is very ironic. He behaves
absolutely insanely throughout the story.
2. Another instance of irony in the same story is that the killer himself
confesses his crime without being asked by the police. The police are
there just to investigate the shriek some neighbor has reported.
However, their delayed stay makes the killer very nervous, and he
confesses his crime of murder in their presence. He even tells where he
has buried the dead body.

Function of Irony
Like all other figures of speech, irony brings about some added meanings to a
situation. Ironical statements and situations in literature develop readers’
interest. Irony makes a work of literature more intriguing, and forces the
readers to use their imaginations to comprehend the underlying meanings of
the texts. Moreover, real life is full of ironical expressions and situations.
Therefore, the use of irony brings a work of literature to the life.

Situational Irony
Definition of Situational Irony
Situational irony is a literary device that you can easily identify in literary
works. Simply, it occurs when incongruity appears between expectations of
something to happen, and what actually happens instead. Thus, something
entirely different happens from what audience may be expecting, or the final
outcome is opposite to what the audience is expecting. Situational irony
generally includes sharp contrasts and contradictions. The purpose of ironic
situations is to allow the readers to make a distinction between appearances
and realities, and eventually associate them to the theme of a story.

Examples of Situational Irony from Literature


Example #1: Harry Potter (By J. K. Rowling)

The Harry Potter series is one of the most popular novel series having
employed situational irony. Through seven novels, the audience believes that
Harry can kill Voldemort, the evil lord. However, the audience is thrown off
guard near the end of this series when it becomes clear that Harry must allow
the evil lord to kill him, so that Voldemort’s soul could become mortal once
again. Hence, Harry allows himself to be killed in order to defeat Voldemort,
which is exactly the opposite of the audience’s expectations. By using
situational irony, Rowling has done a great job of adding a twist to the story to
further a complex conflict.

Example #2: The Story of an Hour (By Kate Chopin)

A very famous example of this form of irony occurs toward the end of the short
story, The story of an Hour, by Kate Chopin. In this story, the wife of Mr.
Brently comes to know that he is no more alive and has died from an accident,
so she feels contended to live a long life of freedom with no restrictions.
However, at the end of the tale, her husband comes back unexpectedly and,
upon seeing him, instantly she dies from shock.

Example #3: The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (By L. Frank Baum)

The whole story of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz presents a case of situational


irony. Dorothy goes to the wizard in order to find a way home, only to learn
that she is capable of doing so herself. Scarecrow wished to become
intelligent, but he discovers himself a perfect genius. Woodsman considers
himself as not capable of love; nevertheless he learns that he has a good
heart. Lion appears as a coward, and turns out to be extremely fearless and
courageous.

Example #4: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare)


Romeo strives to bring out peace between Tybalt and Mercutio, and
eventually between the Capulets and the Montagues. However, Mercutio’s
death, and subsequently Romeo’s pledge to kill Tybalt, escalate a situation
leading to his banishment, and finally to the death of both Romeo and Juliet.

Example #5: The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock (By T. S. Eliot)

Eliot makes comparison between an evening with “a patient etherized upon a


table.” By portraying a beautiful natural image, and comparing it with a painful
and difficult medical procedure of the modern world, the poet makes use of
situational irony for depicting a natural beauty’s loss in the corrupted world.

Example #6 The Necklace (By Guy de Maupassant)

The plot of de Maupassant’s entire short story The Necklace is an example of


situational irony. For keeping up appearances, the leading character,
Mathilda, borrows a necklace from a wealthy friend but loses it. In order to
return her friend’s necklace, Mathilda and her husband replace this jewel with
another expensive one, however due to this replacement they went through a
serious financial crisis. Years later, Mathilda meets this friend again, and
learns that the jewelry she replaced with real and costly gemstones was
merely a costume and artificial piece of jewelry.

Function of Situational Irony


The function of situational irony is to lay emphasis on important scenes and
make strange and unusual images vivid. It creates an unexpected turn at the
end of a story, and makes audience laugh or cry. Therefore, situational irony
could be tragic or funny. Usually writers employ strong word connections with
situational irony and add fresh thoughts, variations, and embellishments to
their works. It may range from the most comic to the most tragic situations. Its
comical use usually creates an unexpected turnaround in a plot for the
betterment. Sometimes, these forms of irony occur because people identify
certain events and situations as unfair or odd.

Dramatic Irony
Definition of Dramatic Irony
Dramatic irony is an important stylistic device that is commonly found in plays,
movies, theaters, and sometimes in poetry. Storytellers use this irony as a
useful plot device for creating situations in which the audience knows more
about the situations, the causes of conflicts, and their resolutions before the
leading characters or actors. That is why readers observe that the speech of
actors takes on unusual meanings.

For instance, the audience knows that a character is going to be murdered, or


will make a decision to commit suicide; however, one particular character or
others may not be aware of these facts. Hence, the words and actions of
characters would suggest a different meaning to the audience from what they
indicate to the characters and the story. Thus, it creates
intense suspense and humor. This speech device also emphasizes,
embellishes, and conveys emotions and moods more effectively.

Examples of Dramatic Irony from Literature


Example #1: Macbeth (By J William Shakespeare)

“There’s no art
To find the mind’s construction in the face:
He was a gentleman on whom I built
An absolute trust.”

This is one of the best examples of dramatic irony. In this case, Duncan says
that he trusts Macbeth, not knowing about the prophecy of witches that
Macbeth is going to be the king, and that he would kill him. The audience, on
the other hand, knows about the prophecy. This demonstrates dramatic irony.

Example #2: There’s Something About Mary (By Jonathan Richman)

“I’ve done it several times before.”

“It’s no big deal.”

Jonathan Richman’s comedy movie, There’s Something About Mary, contains


several instances of dramatic irony. For instance, when Ted thinks that the
police have arrested him for picking up a hitchhiker, the audience knows that
the police are actually interrogating him about a murder. Therefore, when Ted
delivers these seemingly-innocuous lines, it is comedic to the audience.

Example #3: Othello (By William Shakespeare)


“Othello: I think thou dost.
And for I know thou ‘rt full of love and honesty
And weigh’st thy words before thou giv’st them breath…”

This is another very good example of dramatic irony, when Iago manipulates
Othello, and Othello puts his faith in Iago as an honest man. However, Iago is
plotting against him without his knowledge. Again, the audience knows that
Iago is deceiving, but Othello does not.

Example #4: Oedipus Rex (By Sophocles)

“If someone knows the killer is a stranger,


from some other state, let him not stay mute…
I pray, too,
that, if he should become an honoured guest
in my own home and with my knowledge,
I may suffer all those things I’ve just called down
upon the killers.”

Oedipus Rex presents one of the best examples of dramatic irony of all time.
In the play, Oedipus seeks to expose the murderer of King Laius to solve
a riddle; nonetheless, he himself is the murderer. Here, he declares that the
murderer, who has killed Laius, might also kill him, not realizing the fact that
he himself is the murderer.

Example #5: A Doll’s House (By Henrik Ibsen)

“To be able to be free from care, quite free from care; to be able to play and
romp with the children; to be able to keep the house beautifully and have
everything just as Torvald likes it!”

Nora is delightedly looking forward to those moments when she would be able
to pay off her debts to Krogstad. This reflects that she would be free.
However, her speech shows the use of dramatic irony when the readers know
that her freedom is, in fact, bondage, which she comes to realize by the end of
the story.

Function of Dramatic Irony


Many writers use dramatic irony as an effective tool to sustain and excite the
readers’ interest. Since this form of irony creates a contrast between situation
of characters and the episodes that unfold, it generates curiosity. By allowing
the audience to know important facts ahead of the leading characters,
dramatic irony puts the audience and readers above the characters, and also
encourages them to anticipate, hope, and fear the moment when a character
would learn the truth behind events and situations of the story.

More often, this irony occurs in tragedies, where readers are lead to
sympathize with leading characters Thus, this irony emphasizes the fatality of
incomplete understanding on honest and innocent people, and demonstrates
the painful consequences of misunderstandings.

Verbal Irony
Definition of Verbal Irony
Verbal irony occurs when a speaker speaks something contradictory to what
he intends to say. It is an intentional product of the speaker, and is
contradictory to his/her emotions and actions. To define it simply, it occurs
when a character uses a statement with underlying meanings
that contrast with its literal meaning; it shows that the writer has used verbal
irony. Writers rely on the audience’s intelligence for discerning the hidden
meanings they intend to convey. Writers also use ironic similes to convey
exactly the opposite of what they intend to say, such as “soft as concrete.”

Types of Verbal Irony


 Sarcasm
 Exaggeration or Overstatement
 Understatement

Examples of Verbal Irony from Literature


Example #1: Romeo & Juliet (By William Shakespeare)

“Again and again he tried after the tempting morsel, but at last had to give it
up, and walked away with his nose in the air, saying: ‘I am sure they are sour.’

“I will not marry yet; and, when I do, I swear it shall be Romeo, whom you
know I hate, rather than Paris.”
Juliet does not like the decision of her father to marry with Paris, whom she
dislikes and instead adores Romeo. Hence, she makes a decision to marry
Romeo and tells her mother about it ironically that whenever she would marry,
it would be Romeo – whom she dislikes – and not Paris, thus confusing her
mother.

Example #2: Pride & Prejudice (By Jane Austen)

“She is tolerable but not handsome enough to tempt me.”

We can find many fine examples of verbal irony in Pride and Prejudice. In this
example, we relish ironic flavor of Darcy’s statement, as we later find out that
the woman he found unsuitable to dance with, ends up taking a place in his
heart.

Example #3: The Unknown Citizen (By W. H. Auden)

The title of the poem, The Unknown Citizen, employs verbal irony, as the poet
describes a person whom everyone knows, yet he is still unknown. Also, by
deliberately capitalizing common words, the speaker makes them sound
meaningless, ironic, and sarcastic: “the Greater Community,” “Social
Psychology,” “Union,” “Public Opinion,” and “High Grade Living.” All of these
terms sound formal, pompous, bureaucratic, and arrogant. Simply, through
verbal irony, the poet shows how governmental agencies, which should serve
human beings, have rather enslaved them.

Example #4: Oedipus Rex (By Sophocles)

TIRESIAS:
“You are all ignorant. I will not reveal the troubling things inside me, which I
can call your grief as well.”

OEDIPUS:
“Do you intend to betray me and destroy the city?”

All types of ironies are prevalent throughout the entire play, Oedipus Rex. One
fine example of verbal irony occurs when Tiresias refuses to reveal the
prophecy to Oedipus.

In fact, Oedipus has misunderstood Tiresias’ statement, “… which I can call


your grief as well.” By this, Tiresias means that, if he reveals the truth, it would
become Oedipus’ grief that he is the murderer of his king, Laius. This is a
verbal irony which Oedipus fails to realize that this “grief” is going to be an
impending fate for him.

Example #5: A Modest Proposal (By Jonathan Swift)

“I rather recommend buying the children alive and dressing them hot from the
knife, as we do roasting pigs.”

Verbal irony is a dominant literary device in this novel by Swift. For instance,
in the above statement the author intends to point out that the government
should not treat Irish people like animals. In irony, he compares the Irish to
animals.

Example #6: Lemony Snicket: The Unauthorized Autobiography (By Lemony


Snicket)

“Today was a very cold and bitter day, as cold and bitter as a cup of hot
chocolate; if the cup of hot chocolate had vinegar added to it and were placed
in a refrigerator for several hours.”

Snicket uses verbal irony by employing ironic simile. Then, he proceeds to


break down this simile, by overturning its meaning. By making a complex
structure, the author creates verbal irony to let readers enjoy.

Functions of Verbal Irony


Verbal irony is very common in everyday speech, plays, novels, and poetry,
and usually occurs in the form of sarcasm. It depends upon timing and
suitable circumstances to achieve its effect. Verbal irony develops funny and
dramatic situations. Through verbal irony, writers and poets can convey their
bitter messages indirectly, in a less bitter and more effective way. It makes a
literary piece more effective by provoking readers into analyzing and thinking
harder about a situation. By contrasting and comparing suppositions with
reality, the readers can better understand the writer’s intent.
Atmosphere
Definition of Atmosphere
A literary technique, atmosphere is a type of feeling that readers get from
a narrative, based on details such as setting, background, objects,
and foreshadowing. A mood can serve as a vehicle for establishing
atmosphere. In literary works, atmosphere refers to emotions or feelings an
author conveys to his readers through description of objects and settings,
such as in J. K. Rowling’s Harry Potter tales, in which she spins a whimsical
and enthralling atmosphere. Bear in mind that atmosphere may vary
throughout a literary piece.

Difference Between Atmosphere and Mood


Many people use both terms interchangeably, as there is no concrete
difference between them. However, in literature we find a mild difference. This
is because atmosphere is a broader term, and may be set by a certain venue,
such as a theater.

However, mood is a more specific and narrow term, concerning emotions of a


certain individual or group of individuals, and it does not incorporate the
emotions or feelings radiating throughout a venue. Simply, mood is about
internal feelings, while atmosphere exists at a particular spot. Besides, a
mood contributes for building up the entire atmosphere of a narrative.

Examples of Atmosphere in Literature


Example #1: An Unspoken Hunger (By Terry Tempest Williams)

“It is an unspoken hunger we deflect with knives – one avocado between us,
cut neatly in half, twisted then separated from the large wooden pit. With the
green fleshy boats in hand, we slice vertical strips from one end to the other.
Vegetable planks. We smother the avocado with salsa, hot chiles at noon in
the desert. We look at each other and smile, eating avocados with sharp silver
blades, risking the blood of our tongues repeatedly.”

Here, Williams creates a dangerous atmosphere, where she presents the


hazards of knives and avocados. In fact, when an author tries to establish
atmosphere by using objects, these objects represent unspoken reality.
Besides, appearance of two characters also adds to a sexually charged
atmosphere.
Example #2: The Vision (By Dean Koontz)

“The woman raised her hands and stared at them; stared through them.
Her voice was soft but tense. ‘Blood on his hands.’ Her own hands were clean
and pale.”

When we read these lines, they immediately bring to our mind an emotional
response, and draw our attention. This is exactly what atmosphere does in a
literary work.

Example #3: The Raven (By Edgar Allen Poe)

“Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary,


Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore –
While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping,
As of someone gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door –
“Tis some visitor,” I muttered, “tapping at my chamber door –
Only this and nothing more.”

In this excerpt, the experience of readers is suspenseful and exciting, as they


anticipate horror due to feelings within the narrative. As we see,
this character hears tapping on the door and, when opens it, he finds nobody
there, only darkness; making the atmosphere fearful and tense.

Example #4: A Tale of Two Cities (By Charles Dickens)

Charles Dickens, in A Tale of Two Cities, creates an important atmosphere


whenever a major event occurs in a plot. For instance, we see a ghostly mood
of a messenger’s entrance in Dover mail, which indicates things of the future.
Then, Dickens builds up an atmosphere through the actions of his characters
in the room of Dr. Manetas.

Within this, the author gives attributes to these places with different concepts
and ideas. For instance, when Jerry goes to find Dover mail, to convey a
message to Mr. Lorry, Dickens creates a gloomy and mysterious atmosphere,
alluding to the darker end. Another type of atmosphere we see in the
courtroom towards the end. During the scene, you would notice the public is
searching and buzzing for victim after victim. Thus Dickens links the
atmosphere of this place with death.

Function of Atmosphere
The purpose of establishing atmosphere is to create emotional effect. It
makes a literary work lively, fascinating, and interesting by keeping
the audience more engaged. It appeals to the readers’ senses by making the
story more real, allowing them to comprehend the idea easily. Since
atmosphere makes the audience feel in an indirect way, writers can convey
harsh feelings with less severity. Writers control the impact of prevailing
atmosphere by changing the description of settings and objects.
Setting and Atmosphere, Part 1: How Setting and Atmosphere
Change a Story

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Setting and Atmosphere


PART 1

By the time I turned fourteen, my family and I had lived in six different houses, in three
different states. Like many kids whose families move frequently, I failed to develop a
strong attachment to or sense of place. This never bothered me-until I began to write
fiction.

Setting and atmosphere are central to your story

My characters lived and breathed in the netherworld, an unidentifiable time and place, a
sort of white space in the fictional world. While I wouldn’t call the lack of tangible
setting a story killer, necessarily, it certainly detracted from my work. Setting and
atmosphere evoke an emotional response. Consider how you emotionally different you
feel on a dazzling May morning and a dismal day in November. You may feel terrific on
both (my husband loves November days), but the specific emotions each atmosphere
evokes-hopeful vs. reflective, perhaps?-likely differ.
Carefully written, setting and atmosphere have a similar effect on your characters, and
also on plot.

Although they work together, setting and atmosphere are not interchangeable. Before
we go further, let’s take a moment to define the terms:

Setting: specific place, time period, and weather and time of day in which the story
takes place.

Atmosphere: refers to the surrounding mood, generally established through setting

Setting and atmosphere are central to your story: they both rely on and influence the
plot. In a romance set in the protagonist’s hometown, for instance, her familiarity will
affect her behavior. If your parents still live in your childhood home, consider the
changes in you when you walk in the front door. When your protagonist drives through
her hometown, she’ll recognize people and places. She may feel safe, protected, or
childlike; if she grew up in a hostile place, she may feel threatened. If her love interest
grew up in the same town, they’ll share a bond-they may have attended the same high
school, know the same people; they’ll be accustomed to local traditions.

Now imagine: at the annual Fourth of July celebration in her hometown, Anna meets a
handsome young man from Mumbai, on his first trip to the U.S. To Anna, the town is
familiar, comfortable. For her, the child of a Vietnam veteran, the celebration evokes
deep national pride-or shame; or maybe the picnic on the common is a time for
gathering with family and friends, celebrating summer. For the young man, in town on
a short job assignment, his surroundings are unfamiliar, alien. These differences may
draw them together-she introduces him to family and friends, explains customs, pulls
him into her circle. Or create conflict-he’s bored, finds the pie-eating contest silly, feels
out of place with the people. Either way, the setting sets the story in motion.

What if, instead of a hometown celebration, Anna meets the same young man at night,
in a bar in downtown L.A.? At a professional conference in Vegas? On a scotch tour in
Edinburgh? On a plane, during a turbulent cross-country flight? In a hotel lobby during
a category 4 hurricane?

Each setting would create a particular atmosphere, and from each a different story
would emerge.

Consider the novel The Kite Runner or the memoir Under the Tuscan Sun. Could the
same stories be set in the U.S.? If so, in what way or ways might the plots have to
change? How does a thief who breaks into homes at night, when the occupants are
asleep, differ from one who enters in broad daylight, when he knows the homeowners
are gone? How might their motives differ?

Again, these choices make an enormous difference to the outcome of your story.
Depending on your preference and goals, you may choose setting based on plot, or you
might put characters in a particular setting and let the story play out. In a book,
settings are likely to change. As you write, try to be aware of this and consider the
behaviors and emotional responses settings evoke.
Exercises

Rewrite an important scene from your novel or memoir or the opening pages of a story
or essay.

Each exercise below asks you to change a particular aspect of setting. Note: drastic
changes will produce the greatest emotional responses in your characters and have the
most influence on plot. Don’t worry about the veracity of setting details. Focus on your
characters and their behavior.

1) Change location-set your story in a dramatic or unfamiliar place. Bring an inside


story outdoors. Put students who have never traveled outside the U.S. in Asia or Africa;
an elderly man or woman in a frat house; a teenager in a nursing home; a young
mother and her three young children in a crowded amusement park; a city-dweller on a
mountain or in a tiny town in the middle of nowhere; instead of a peaceful beach,
create a mudslide.

2) Change the historical time period-set your story 50 years before or after it currently
takes place; 100 years; 250 years; 1000 years

3) Change the weather-put your characters in a tornado or hurricane; turn a light


snowfall into a blizzard; a stormy night to a bright sunny morning; make calm weather
threatening.

4) Change the time of day-again, create drama; move from afternoon to predawn; late
night to midday; early morning to midnight; mid-morning to the witching hour, in late
afternoon.

After you complete these exercises, assess the changes to your characters and story.
How did these changes influence the ways your characters behaved? How does this
influence your plot?
Symbolism
Definition of Symbolism
Symbolism is the use of symbols to signify ideas and qualities, by giving them
symbolic meanings that are different from their literal sense.

Symbolism can take different forms. Generally, it is an object representing


another, to give an entirely different meaning that is much deeper and more
significant. Sometimes, however, an action, an event or a word spoken by
someone may have a symbolic value. For instance, “smile” is a symbol of
friendship. Similarly, the action of someone smiling at you may stand as a
symbol of the feeling of affection which that person has for you.

Symbols do shift their meanings depending on the context they are used in. “A
chain,” for example, may stand for “union” as well as “imprisonment”. Thus,
symbolic meaning of an object or an action is understood by when, where,
and how it is used. It also depends on who reads the work.

Common Examples of Symbolism in Everyday Life


In our daily life, we can easily identify objects that can be taken as examples
of symbolism, such as the following:

 The dove is a symbol of peace.


 A red rose, or the color red, stands for love or romance.
 Black is a symbol that represents evil or death.
 A ladder may stand as a symbol for a connection between heaven and
earth.
 A broken mirror may symbolize separation.

Short Examples of Symbolism in Sentences


1. Ching Chua gave his wife a red rose. (In Chinese culture, the color red
symbolizes property and happiness.)
2. David stopped his car at the red signal. (In other cultures, the color red
is symbol of blood, passion, and danger.)
3. Rebels raised a white flag to negotiate. (During war, the color white
symbolizes making peace with the enemy. Otherwise, it represents
purity and life.)
4. The Red Cross is working around the world. (The symbol of the cross
represents Christianity, and the red cross in particular represents aid in
times of need.)
5. The Muslim forces raised their flag with a crescent on it. (The crescent
moon represents Islam.)
6. He turned green when found a wallet. (Green color is often associated
with greed, jealousy, and monetary affairs.)
7. They dressed in black to the funeral of their friend. (The color black is
associated with death.)
8. The yellow boat turned into the channel, to make the tourists happy.
The color yellow color is the symbol of deterioration and infidelity, as
well as the symbol of freshness and happiness.)
9. He was disappointed when the mirror broke. (Broken mirror is an
symbol of separation.)
10. He gave a red rose to his wife on Valentine Day. (Red rose is a
symbol for love.)
11. He, after a long time, saw a silver lining in the shape of the arrival
of his brother. (Silver edge/lining of clouds symbolize hope and
optimism.)
12. You have a sixth sense like an owl. (Owl symbolizes wisdom.)
13. You work like an ox. (The ox symbolizes hard work and stamina.)
14. When he saw a bat in dream, he grew white with fear. (Bats are
the symbol of death.)

Examples of Symbolism in Literature


To develop symbolism in his work, a writer utilizes other figures of speech, like
metaphors, similes, and allegory, as tools. Some symbolism examples in
literature are listed below with brief analysis:

Example #1: As you Like It (By William Shakespeare)

We find symbolic value in Shakespeare’s famous monologue in his play As


you Like It:

“All the world’s a stage,


And all the men and women merely players;
they have their exits and their entrances;
And one man in his time plays many parts,”
These lines are symbolic of the fact that men and women, in the course of
their lives, perform different roles. “A stage” here symbolizes the world, and
“players” is a symbol for human beings.

Example #2: Ah Sunflower (By William Blake)

William Blake goes symbolic in his poem Ah Sunflower. He says:

“Ah Sunflower, weary of time,


Who countest the steps of the sun;
Seeking after that sweet golden clime
Where the traveler’s journey is done;”

Blake uses a sunflower as a symbol for human beings, and “the sun”
symbolizes life. Therefore, these lines symbolically refer to their life cycle and
their yearning for a never-ending life.

Example #3: Wuthering Heights (By Emily Bronte)

Emily Bronte’s Wuthering Heights presents almost every character, house,


surroundings, and events in a symbolic perspective. The word “Wuthering,”
which means “stormy,” represents the wild nature of inhabitants. The following
lines allow us to look into the symbolic nature of two characters:

“My love for Linton is like the foliage in the woods. Time will change it; I’m well
aware, as winter changes the trees. My love for Heathcliff resembles the
eternal rocks beneath a source of little visible delight, but necessary.”

The phrase “foliage of leaves” for is a symbol for Linton’s fertile and civilized
nature. On the contrary, Heathcliff is likened to an “eternal rock,” which
symbolizes his crude and unbendable nature.

Example #4: Wild Asters (By Sara Teasdale)

Sara Teasdale in her poem Wild Asters develops a number of striking


symbols:

“In the spring, I asked the daisies


If his words were true,
And the clever, clear-eyed daisies
Always knew.
Now the fields are brown and barren,
Bitter autumn blows,
And of all the stupid asters
Not one knows.”

In the above lines, “spring” and “daisies” are symbols of youth. “Brown and
barren” are symbols of transition from youth to old age. Moreover, “Bitter
autumn” symbolizes death.

Example #5: The Rain (By William H. Davies)

“I hear leaves drinking rain;


I hear rich leaves on top
Giving the poor beneath
Drop after drop;
Tis a sweet noise to hear
These green leaves drinking near.”

In this beautiful poem, William Davies who has used the symbol of rain to
show the different classes of society. He does this by describing the way the
upper leaves benefit from the rain first, and then hand down the rest to the
lower leaves. The same way, rich people pass on the leftover benefits to the
poor people.

Example #6: My Heart Leaps Up When I Behold (By William Wordsworth)

“My heart leaps up when I behold


A rainbow in the sky:
So was it when my life began;
So is it now I am a man;
So be it when I shall grow old, …”

In this poem, the poet uses rainbow as a symbol of hope and general
wellbeing throughout his life.

Example #7: XXIII, Crossing Alone the Nighted Ferry (By A. E. Housman)

“Crossing alone the nighted ferry


With the one coin for fee,
Whom, on the wharf of Lethe waiting,
Count you to find? Not me.”
The poet has used the symbol of a river to represent life and the past
memories associated with it.

Function of Symbolism
Symbolism gives a writer freedom to add double levels of meanings to his
work: a literal one that is self-evident, and the symbolic one whose meaning is
far more profound than the literal. Symbolism, therefore, gives universality to
the characters and the themes of a piece of literature. Symbolism in literature
evokes interest in readers as they find an opportunity to get an insight into the
writer’s mind on how he views the world, and how he thinks of common
objects and actions, having broader implications.
Conflict
Conflict Definition
In literature, conflict is a literary element that involves a struggle between two
opposing forces, usually a protagonist and an antagonist.

Internal and External Conflicts


Careful examination of some conflict examples will help us realize that
conflicts may be internal or external. An internal or psychological conflict
arises as soon as a character experiences two opposite emotions or desires –
usually virtue and vice, or good and evil – inside him. This disagreement
causes the character to suffer mental agony. Internal conflict develops a
unique tension in a storyline, marked by a lack of action.

External conflict, on the other hand, is marked by a characteristic involvement


of an action wherein a character finds himself in struggle with those outside
forces that hamper his progress. The most common type of external conflict is
where a protagonist fights back against the antagonist’s tactics that impede
his or her advancement.

Examples of Conflict in Literature


Example #1: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare)

Hamlet’s internal conflict is the main conflict in William Shakespeare’s


play Hamlet.” This internal conflict decides his tragic downfall. He reveals his
state of mind in the following lines from Act 3, Scene 1 of the play:

“To be, or not to be – that is the question:


Whether ’tis nobler in the mind to suffer
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune
Or to take arms against a sea of troubles
And by opposing end them. To die, to sleep…”

The conflict here is that Hamlet wants to kill his father’s murderer, Claudius,
but he also looks for proof to justify his action. This ultimately ruins his life,
and the lives of his loved ones. Due to his internal conflict, Hamlet spoils his
relationship with his mother, and sends Ophelia (Hamlet’s love interest) into
such a state of despair that she commits suicide.
Hamlet’s internal conflict, which is regarded as indecisiveness, almost got
everyone killed at the end of the play. The resolution to the conflict came
when he killed Claudius by assuming fake madness so that he would not be
asked for any justification. In the same play, we find Hamlet engaged in an
external conflict with his uncle Claudius.

Example #2: Doctor Faustus (By Christopher Marlowe)

Another example of an internal conflict is found in the character of Doctor


Faustus in Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus. Faustus has an ambitious nature. In
spite of being a respected scholar, he sold his soul to Lucifer by signing a
contract with his blood, in order to achieve ultimate power and limitless
pleasure in this world. He learns the art of black magic, and defies
Christianity.

After the aforementioned action, we see Faustus suffering from an internal


conflict where he thinks honestly about repenting, acting upon the advice of
“the good angel,” but “the bad angel” or the evil inside him distracts him by
saying it is all too late. In conclusion, the conflict is resolved when devils take
his soul away to Hell, and he suffers eternal damnation because of his over-
ambition.

Example #3: The Lord of the Flies Farm (By William Golding)

The most straightforward type of external conflict is when a character in a


story struggles against another character physically. In William Golding’s
novel The Lord of the Flies, for example, Ralph (the leader of the “good guys”)
steadily comes into conflict with Jack – a bully who later forms a “tribe” of
hunters. Jack and his tribe give in to their savage instinct, and make attempts
to hunt or kill the civilized batch of boys led by Ralph.

Example #4: To Kill a Mockingbird (By Harper Lee)

Another kind of external conflict sets a character against the evil that
dominates a society. In this type of conflict, a character may confront a
dominant group with opposing priorities. For instance, in Harper Lee’s
novel To Kill a Mockingbird, an honest lawyer, Atticus Finch, goes up against
the racist society in which he lives. Atticus has the courage to defend a black
man, Tom Robinson, who has been falsely accused of a rape. Though Atticus
has the support of a few like-minded people, most of the townspeople express
their disapproval of his defense of a black man.
Function of Conflict
Both internal and external conflicts are essential elements of a storyline. It is
essential for a writer to introduce and develop conflict, whether internal,
external, or both, in his storyline in order to achieve the story’s goal.
Resolution of the conflict entertains the readers.

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