Experiment 7 AC Circuits

"Look for knowledge not in books but in things themselves."

W. Gilbert (1540-1603)

OBJECTIVES
To study some circuit elements and a simple AC circuit.

THEORY
All useful circu its use varying voltages, changing magnitude or even completely
reversing polarity. In the present exercise we will study the behavior of some basic components
and an elementary electrical filter, of the sort that might be used in audio equipment, when
stimulated with a varying voltage. To keep things simple, we will consider only a sinusoidal
voltage which oscillates at a steady frequency.
For purposes of analysis, circuits are usually considered to be made from resistors,
capacitors and inductors. The components themselves are frequently characterized by the current
that flows through them in response to a sinusoidal voltage at angular frequency
. As shown in
your text, the current will then also be sinusoidal, with the ratio of peak voltage to peak current,
the reactance, depending on frequency. There may also be a phase shift between the current and
voltage, so that they peak at different times. The ideal relationships are given by

Component Reactance Relative Phase

resistor XR = R in phase (7-1)
capacitor X C = 1/
C current leads by 90 degrees (7-2)
inductor X L =
L current lags by 90 degrees (7-3)

Verifying the relations requires measuring the instantaneous amplitudes of current and voltage to
determine the reactance and phase shift. A method for doing this will be described later.
As you might expect, real components are more complicated, but it is often possible to
manufacture a reasonable approximation to these ideals. In fact, commercial resistors and
capacitors are rather good, but inductors are not. The resistance of the coil turns out to be
significant in most practical cases (superconductors are not practical), so we need to consider a
more complex model for inductors. One approximation is to assume that the coil resistance is
effectively in series with an ideal inductor, as shown in Fig. 7-1. Using the fact that the current
flow through both components is the same, we can draw a phasor diagram showing the voltage

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 RL VLm

IpωL
φLm
L
Ip RL

Fig. 7-1 Model of a real inductor and corresponding phasor diagram used to obtain reactance.

drop across the resistor and across the ideal inductor. The total voltage drop across the model
inductor is then the vector sum

VLm = I p (
2 L2 + RL2 )1/ 2 (7-4)

from which it is easy to get the reactance and relative phase predicted for this model inductor

L
X Lm = (
2 L2 + RL2 )1/ 2 tan
Lm = (7-5)
RL

Later we will see if this accounts for the properties of a real inductor.
The circuit example is an RC filter, shown in Fig. 7-2. We are interested in finding the
fraction of the input signal voltage Vs that appears across the resistor or the capacitor as a
function of frequency. The phase could also be calculated, but it is not as important in the usual
applications. Figure 7-2 provides the phasor diagram for the circuit, from which we see

1/ 2
 1 
Vs = I p  R 2 + 2 2  (7-6)

C 

Ip R
R VR
φ
Vs Ip
ωC Vs
C VC

Fig.7-2 Circuit and phasor diagram of an RC filter.

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Solving for the current and substituting into the expressions for VC and VR, we get

1
VC = Vs (7-7)
(1+  2
2 )1/ 2



VR = Vs (7-8)
(1+  2
2 )1/ 2

where
= RC is the time constant of the circuit.

The circuit in Fig. 7-2 is called a filter because the output signal is a modified version of
the input, as graphed in Fig. 7-3. If we choose VC as our output, then low input frequencies are
essentially unaffected, but high frequencies are strongly attenuated. This is called a low-pass
filter, meaning the low frequencies are passed through but high frequencies are removed. Low-
pass filters are often used in audio CD players to remove high-frequency digital artifacts from
the desired audio signal. Conversely, if we choose VR as the output, we get a high-pass filter
which is used, among other places, for the AC input setting of the oscilloscope. It lets us display
small high-frequency signals that might be superimposed on a large DC component.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The experimental work will consist of measuring the current-voltage characteristic of a
typical commercial capacitor and an inductor, and observing the filtering action of an RC low-

1.0
V
R
Vs
voltage ratio

0.5

V
C
Vs

0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
ωτ
Fig. 7-3 Ratio of output to input voltage for low and high-pass RC filters, as a function of scaled
frequency.

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pass. The required procedures are presented separately.

A. Component characteristics
Figure 7-4 specifies the circuit used to measure the current and voltage for the
component, Z, to be tested. The voltage across Z is measured with channel 1 of the oscilloscope.
The current is found by measuring the voltage across R with channel 2, and then applying Ohm’s
Law to deduce the current. We use the scope as a voltmeter because a DMM can’t measure phase
and is inaccurate at frequencies above about a hundred Hertz. The voltage source is a function
generator, set to a convenient amplitude and the desired frequency.
The oscilloscope causes some complications because, for safety reasons, it measures
voltages with respect to the ground wire of the electric power system. The black terminal of the
function generator is usually also connected to the power line ground, so we would not be able to
measure both voltages in our circuit. The problem is circumvented by disconnecting the function
generator from ground with a special plug. Both VR and VZ are then accessible, if the scope
ground is connected between components as shown.
Wire the circuit as shown, using R = 150
, and another resistor for Z. (For later
reference, use the DMM to get the exact value of the 150
resistor before you connect it into
the circuit.) Set the scope for AC input coupling, triggering on channel 1. Invert channel 2, so
that positive voltages on R and Z will both result in upward deflections of the scope trace.
Temporarily switch the inputs to ground and center the traces so both have the same zero point.
Set the function generator for a reasonable amplitude and vary the frequency over the range 100
– 5000 Hz. You should see two sine waves, in phase, with a constant amplitude ratio. If not, you
have probably made a wiring error.
When you are sure the circuit is correctly wired and the instruments are properly
adjusted, replace the test resistor at Z with a 0.47 µF capacitor. Using the oscilloscope, measure
the peak voltages across the resistor and capacitor and the phase shift between them at several
frequencies from 20 Hz to 5 kHz. Use Ohm’s law and the previously measured resistance of the
nominal 150
resistor to get the peak current at each frequency. Use these data to estimate the

CH 1

red Z
Function
Generator GND
black
R
CH 2
Fig. 7-4 Circuit for measuring I-V characteristic of component Z.

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 ∆t

Fig. 7-5 Typical scope plot showing time interval used to measure phase shift.

reactance and plot it vs inverse frequency. Is the graph a straight line with slope 1/2
C, as
expected for an ideal capacitor? (The factor 2
comes from converting frequency to angular
frequency. The manufacturer claims the marked capacitance value is accurate to ±20%.) Is the
phase shift approximately constant at
/2 radians?
Note: To measure the relative phase of two sine waves on the scope screen, use the scope
scales to determine t, as defined in Fig. 7-5. The phase difference is then

 = 2
ft (7-9)

in radians. It is essential that the both sine waves have the same zero on the scope screen. You
can achieve this by putting the traces on the middle line when the inputs are switched to ground.
Repeat the measurements of reactance and phase for the 10 mH inductor. The
150
 resistor is again suitable for current sensing. Plot the measured reactance vs frequency,
and use the Graphical Analysis program to fit the model expression, Eq. 7-5 to your data. A
convenient expression for the automatic curve fit is

(R^2 + (6.28*x*L)^2)^0.5 (7-10)

Are the fitted parameters reasonable? The inductance value should be within ±20%, and you can
check the DC resistance of the inductor with the DMM.
To analyze the phase shift for the inductor, plot tan vs frequency, which should yield a
straight line with slope 2
L/RL. In fact, the tangent function becomes extremely sensitive as the

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 CH 1

red R
Function
Generator CH 2
black
C
GND
Fig. 7-6 Demonstration circuit for low-pass filter.

argument approaches
/2, so it is difficult to find a good line from the data. An alternative
approach is to use the parameters found before to draw a line of slope 2
L/RL, through the origin,
on the plot and see if the data fall reasonably close to it. You can also verify directly that the
phase shift approaches
/2 as the frequency increases.

B. RC Filter Circuit
The last exercise is to study the frequency response of an RC filter circuit, shown in
Fig.
7-6. Component values of R = 1 k and C = 0.47 µF will give a convenient time constant.
You should measure and plot the amplitude ratio VC/Vs over the range 20 Hz – 5
kHz. Compare
your results with the theoretical expectation, Eq. 7-7, using a fitting function like

(1 + (6.28*x*T)^2)^-0.5 (7-11)

Does our model accurately describe this low-pass filter?

REPORT
This exercise involves a lot of data. Be sure it is all clearly presented in labeled tables or
graphs, as appropriate, and that your stated conclusions are clearly supported by your
measurements.

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