AIR CONDITIONING ENGINEERING

HEATING / COOLING LOAD CALCULATIONS

JD. Ang, J. Duyan, JI. Cuenca
Department of Mechanical Engineering and Engineering Sciences, College of Engineering and Technology
Mindanao State University Iligan Institute of Technology, Tibanga, Iligan City, 9200, Philippines

Executive Summary

The load calculation of room or building, or any type of structure made for occupancy human or otherwise is very
important. Load calculations require time and attention to detail, so most HVAC installations rely on rules of thumb
to determine the sizes of the cooling systems they install Usually it's based on square footage of conditioned floor
area, and contractors in many areas generally use 400 to 600 square feet per ton as their rule. However, these types
of ‘calculations’ more often than not have cumulated a high safety factor- a safety factor no longer reasonable
economically and practically. Think of it this way, would you buy clothing twice your size so you have that extra
capacity just in case you might need it when you put on weight? It is by this logic that most homes and building have
a similarly ridiculous case of oversizing.

The reader may think that having a bigger system is better, but this train of thought does not always prevail. In the
case of air conditioning, oversized cooling systems result in a number of ways such as:

o Damp rooms because the air-conditioning doesn’t run long enough to dehumidify the air
o Shorter lifetime for the system because it turns on and off frequently (also called short cycling). Since it's
so big, it doesn't take long to cool off the room.
o More expensive to install. The extra size isn't free.

Another reason to install right-sized HVAC systems is that the ENERGY STAR program requires no more than 15%
oversizing of cooling systems. Which means the AC unit itself is already oversized (albeit slightly). The correct way
to size an air conditioning system is through load calculations hence its importance. Load calculations in the HVAC
industry is a designing process. The process, depending on the method used, involves a lot of variables that are
dependent on the specificity of the room or the discretion of the room designer/engineer. The load calculation process
is simply the calculation of the variable conditions the air-conditioning system is required to overcome or maintain
in order to control the system accurately. An air-conditioning Unit is designed for only a specific range of load
capacity.

In theory, one generalized HVAC load calculation procedure should work for all types of buildings. There would be
no need for separate procedures for different types of structures, either residential or commercial in nature. In fact,
such a generalized method has been developed in recent years, and it is called the Heat Balance method. And it can
be used on buildings of all types. However, there are various issues with heat balance, discussed in the paper, that
make it less popular to use for peak load calculations than many of the less sophisticated methods that are designed
only for residential or commercial buildings.
In the calculation of commercial building peak heating and cooling loads, many methods have been developed over
the years. ASHRAE has Total Equivalent Temperature Difference, Cooling Load Temperature Difference, Transfer
Function Method, Heat Balance and Radiant Time Series. ACCA has the Manual N method, an updated variation of
the ASHRAE CLTD method – unfortunately not applicable in the Philippines.

There are two other calculation methods in the US primarily used for 8,760 hour-by-hour annual energy analysis that
are also sometimes used for peak load calculations. All the various computer programs such as EnergyPro, eQUEST,
EnergyGauge USA, REM/Rate, and others that are based on the United States Department of Energy 2.1e program
use what is known as a weighting factor (WF) method. The most current and sophisticated energy analysis program
was developed by the U.S. government, and is called EnergyPlus. It uses the Heat Balance (HB) method.

In general, the energy analysis methods, WF and HB, are more sophisticated than most of the methods used just for
peak heating and cooling loads, such as TETD and CLTD. Although the WF and HB methods were primarily intended
for 8,760 hourly analysis, they can also find peak heating and cooling loads during the course of a year for all types
of buildings, both commercial and residential.

In this paper, the method being used was the Radiant Time Series load calculation. The Radiant Time Series (RTS)
method is a new method, derived directly from the heat balance method, for performing design cooling load
calculations. It effectively replaces all other simplified (non-heat-balance) methods such as the cooling load
temperature difference/solar cooling load/cooling load factor method, the total equivalent temperature
difference/time aver- aging method, and the transfer function method. The reader might well ask why yet another
load calculation method is necessary. This method was developed in response to the desire of ASHRAE TC 4.1, the
design load calculations technical committee, for a method that is rigorous yet does not require the user to perform
the iterative calculations required by the transfer function method. In addition, for various reasons, it is desirable for
the user to be able to inspect and compare the coefficients for different zone types. In all other simplified methods,
the physical processes are obscured by the procedure. In the radiant time series method, it is easy to compare the
radiant time factors between zone types and understand the relative zone responses.

For this paper’s purpose the COE Building, Rm 101 (equipped an old 90’s Carrier Window-type air-conditioning
unit) was selected as the subject of a load calculation. Since the renovation of the old building the air-conditioning
unit was displaced from its original position and now the entire window-type unit is functioned entirely in the room
i.e. the condenser is now technically in the room. To manage the condenser being inside the room, the lab technician
has opted to open the windows where the condenser is directly facing.

This paper will describe the methodology and then explain the results in the load calculation performed. It should
also be noted at the outset that this paper concerns a work in progress--it is anticipated that further refinements will
be made to the method. The design room is nowhere near fully optimized and this load calculation will by necessity
need refinement by another more detailed calculation or another method used entirely.

The study has found evidence to show that the present situation of the Rm.101 albeit a temporary condition due to
plans of replacing the window-type with a split type unit, has a very high thermal load gain even discounting the peak
load. The average load of the room would be around 15 kW. The load of the air-conditioner at maximum setting is
around 6.8 kW as mentioned in the previous study. The main cause of this high load is the wanton infiltration due to
the opened winds in the room. The air-conditioner even in the later part of the day does not shut-off its compressor,
therefore needs to draw a lot of energy from the outlet, in short, the open window and the condenser location is
causing the high thermal gain that the air-conditioning unit is not qualified to counter-act. By this knowledge, it is
highly compelling to suggest that the air-conditioning unit in Rm 101 is being overworked and that its service life
will be significantly shortened, and the room itself would be sub-standard to occupy if not uncomfortable to be in
entirely.
 AIR CONDITIONING ENGINEERING

HEATING / COOLING LOAD CALCULATIONS

JD. Ang, J. Duyan, JI. Cuenca
Department of Mechanical Engineering and Engineering Sciences, College of Engineering and Technology
Mindanao State University Iligan Institute of Technology, Tibanga, Iligan City, 9200, Philippines

Article Info Abstract

Keywords
An air-conditioning system is designed to possess the capability to
➢ Air-Conditioning overcome the fluctuation of cooling/heating power required by the
➢ ACCA room or as it was set in the thermostat. However, all such
➢ ASHRAE adaptability is limited by the design of is capability and its capacity.
➢ Atmospheric Clearness An air-conditioning unit is typically installed by requirement of the
index latter and then usually differentiated by the former. Capacity of an
➢ Building envelope air-conditioning system is defined as the amount of heat the unit is
➢ Cooling Load able to routinely remove. Load calculation is the process in which
➢ Cooling Load Factor the heat removed/added can be quantified through various means
➢ Cooling Load depending on the method chosen. The ASHRAE handbook has
Temperature Difference recommended or discussed however 3 standard calculation
➢ Fenestration methods that are typically employed due to their accuracy or
➢ Heat Balance adaptability. The load calculation involves the complex process of
➢ Heat Transfer meticulously determining the correct factors if convention or
➢ Heating Ventilating Air situation dictates - leave some variable to engineering assumptions.
Conditioning (HVAC) The reader is however regrettably informed that due to time
➢ Human Occupancy constrains, the paper only performed one method of load
➢ Humidity Ratio calculation as opposed to performing all 3. The method used was
➢ Infiltration the Radiant Time Series Method – a method that is modelled
➢ Latent Load around the Heat balance method. The Radiant Method is set to a
➢ Lighting model of the room for a 24-hour period due to the effect of the sun
➢ Load Calculation on the room itself. The calculation is very heavy that it has been
➢ Peak Calculation established by the ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals itself
➢ Philippines using a spreadsheet to solve for the Load calculation when using
➢ Radiant Heat Gain Radiant Time Series.
➢ Radiant Time Series
➢ Room Designing
➢ Sensible Load
➢ Solar Heat Gain
➢ Steady state calculation
➢ Thermal Comfort
➢ Thermal Systems
➢ Thermodynamic Process
➢ Tropical Climate
0

AIR CONDITIONING ENGINEERING

HEATING / COOLING LOAD CALCULATIONS

JD. Ang, J. Duyan, JI. Cuenca
Department of Mechanical Engineering and Engineering Sciences, College of Engineering and Technology
Mindanao State University Iligan Institute of Technology, Tibanga, Iligan City, 9200, Philippines

Table of Contents
1.Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Load Definition ................................................................................................. 1 1.6 PAC Selection ................................................................................................... 2

1.2 Air-Conditioning Sizing .................................................................................... 1 1.7 Load Calculation Methods ............................................................................... 2

1.3 Load Calculation ............................................................................................... 1 1.8 Residential and Commercial Buildings ........................................................... 3

1.4 Load Parameters and Variables....................................................................... 1 1.9 Result Accuracy and Run Time ....................................................................... 3

1.5 Rated Capacity and PACs ................................................................................ 2

2.Background .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
2.1 Design Room Condition .................................................................................... 4 2.2 Assumption Limitations ................................................................................... 4

3.Methodology .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 5
3.1 RTS PROCEDURE .......................................................................................... 6 3.4 Heat Gain Through Interior Surfaces ............................................................. 7

3.2 Heat Gain Through Exterior Surfaces ............................................................ 6 3.5 Calculating Cooling Load ................................................................................ 8

3.3 Calculating Conductive Heat Gain Using CTS ............................................... 7

4.Analysis of Results ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9

4.1 Initial/Set Room Conditions/Variables ............................................................ 9 4.5 Conduction Heat Gains .................................................................................. 10

4.2 Solar Fluxes ....................................................................................................... 9 4.6 Cooling load Calculation ................................................................................ 11

4.3 Solar Heat Gain............................................................................................... 10 4.7 Peak Loads ...................................................................................................... 12

4.4 Periodic Response Factors .............................................................................. 10

5.Conclusions .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 12
5.1 Latent Load ..................................................................................................... 13 5.3 Lighting and Other Sensible Loads ............................................................... 13

5.2 Infiltration Load ............................................................................................. 13 5.4 Total Load Impact .......................................................................................... 13

5.3 Occupancy Load ............................................................................................. 13

6.Recommendations ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
6.1 Calculation Method Optimization ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
References ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
APPENDIX A-1 .............................................. 15 APPENDIX B-5 .............................................. 15 APPENDIX B-11 ............................................15
APPENDIX A-2 .............................................. 15 APPENDIX B-6 .............................................. 15 APPENDIX C .................................................15
APPENDIX B-1 .............................................. 15 APPENDIX B-7 .............................................. 15 APPENDIX D-2 ..............................................15
APPENDIX B-2 .............................................. 15 APPENDIX B-8 .............................................. 15 APPENDIX D-1 ..............................................15
APPENDIX B-3 .............................................. 15 APPENDIX B-9 .............................................. 15 APPENDIX E ..................................................15
APPENDIX B-4 .............................................. 15 APPENDIX B-10 ............................................ 15

J.D. Ang J.I. Cuanca

Tel: +639369085980 Tel: +6399272289238
E-mail address: [email protected] E-mail address: [email protected]

J. Duyan
Tel: +639466777331
E-mail address: [email protected]
1

1.Introduction

1.2 Air-Conditioning Sizing

When people hear the word "load" they would
naturally think of a load as in a mobile cellphone’s credit It is important to know the peak heating and cooling
standing* be that as it may this paper would like to direct the loads on a building so that the air-conditioning unit can be
thought towards a load considered of a load of dirt in a dump adequately sized. An undersized air-conditioning system will
truck, or maybe even a load held up by a beam or structural not be able to maintain the desired indoor temperatures. An
member. All of those loads connotate a "weight" to be carried oversized air-conditioning system will be inefficient, and
or supported in some way. Such loads are measured struggle to maintain comfort conditions, particularly with
commonly in pounds or kilograms, depending on the units humidity control during summer months.
involved for the Philippines’ case more so the latter than the
former however it is still a matter of preference. 1.3 Load Calculation

1.1 Load Definition Load calculations in the HVAC industry is a

designing process. The process, depending on the method
So how are heating and cooling loads termed loads? used, involves a lot of variables that are dependent on the
To stretch the imagination a bit further, heating and coaling specificity of the room or the discretion of the room
loads are still likened to weights just as the load in the name designer/engineer. The load calculation process is simply the
implies, yet the weight this load is talking about is the weight calculation of the variable conditions the air-conditioning
of the energy present. Pertaining to heating and cooling system is required to overcome or maintain in order to control
equipment or simply a Heating Ventilation and Air the system accurately. An air-conditioning Unit (AC) is
Conditioning (HVAC) System (in this paper’s context an air- designed for only a specific range of Load Capacity, in
conditioning system), a load is merely the rate of heat transfer consequence an Air-Conditioned Systems can have 3
of the indoor unto the outdoor. Not just a single quantity of outcomes, it can be under-designed where the AC selected is
heat, but an amount of heat that must be continually (for the incapacitated to handle the loads in the system, over-designed
worst-case designed), or periodically removed or added to where the AC is given a very high factor of safety that it
maintain the desired indoor condition usually defined by the consumes more energy (as opposed to others) to perform as
indoor temperature. For colder regions such as temperate intended, and lastly the goldilocks region of the AC designs-
climates or boreal climates, in the coldest time of winter, the the aptly-designed it serves to perform under the required
peak heating load is the amount of heat that must be added circumstances unlike the under-designed but is expected to
over an hour’s time to keep the space warm. not consume as much energy as the overdesigned AC.

In the past, the. Imperial unit’s system was re 1.4 Load Parameters and Variables
premier system of all engineering aspect (before the
standardization of units), this rate of heat transfer is in Btu’s A load of a system is dependent on many varying
per hour which is commonly abbreviated as Btuh. In the variables that stems from the building material and the
metric system the equivalent unit is a watt and one watt (W) location of the room to the applications and the usage of the
is equal to 3.41 Btuh. In the hottest time of summer, the peak room. The frequency of the usage of the room is also a
cooling load is the amount of heat that must be removed in an considerable variable depending on the designed room. For
hour to maintain a comfortable room temperature. Again, the example, a mall is designed to have door but the foot traffic
cooling load unit is either Btuh or watts. coming and entering may be enough to consider that the door
is replaced entirely with an entry way that allows a large
These heating and cooling loads could be caused by amount of infiltration, hence the AC design is again changed
a number of factors. A summer cooling load is a heat gain to by this simple change in the system. With all this specialized
the building. The sun provides all of the heat that comes in consideration, experience-laden decisions- a novice engineer
through the exterior of the building. And within the building or designer would be having a hard time considering a single
itself, heat is generated by people, lights, equipment, and design be it a residential or non-residential much more so for
appliances. A winter heating load is a heat loss that is caused specialized applications. Accordingly, this would make the
by loss of heat from the warm physical mass of the building market for AC system only available to the field practitioners.
to the cold air surrounding the building. Heat is lost through Yet for its many complications Air-conditioning is still a
the walls, windows, roof, and through cracks and crevices desirable quality of a room – a quality people would pay good
where cold air could enter into the building. money for. For this reason, the Rated Capacity (RdC) was
born.

*
a term used in the Philippines, for some countries the term “tap up” would
be equivalent to the local term “load up”
2

1.5 Rated Capacity and PACs

The selection of PACs and the designing of
The rated capacity is the capacity of the AC in a specialized ACs require the capacity (estimated or calculated)
controlled testing room where it is tested to perform under to maintain the temperature given the load it has to overcome.
laboratory conditions. The RdC is set by at the discretion of The process of determining the load is called the load
the manufacturing company themselves as they are at their calculation. For AC with heating the calculation is called the
expense to find the nearest to perfect operating conditioned to heat calculation and for the cooling AC is called cooling load
maximized the capacity (rated) of their AC. These AC calculation. In tropical climates, the Philippines in particular
systems are usually referred to as Packaged Air-Conditioning does not require heating application in its AC systems. To that
Units (PAC). Many of these company is believed to be end this paper only deals with load calculations with cooling
familiar to the reader, these manufacturers of PAC include application although the equations would still be applicable
Carrier, Panasonic† , Lennox, Hitachi, Samsung, and LG, for however many practices specific to heating will be omitted
the Philippines some local manufacturers include Koppel and for the sake of straightforwardness.
Kelvinator‡.
1.7 Load Calculation Methods
For none centralized applications PACs offer a
quick and easy solution in deciding and installation for Air- The American Society of Heating Refrigerating and
conditioning systems. PACs now comes in many varieties, Air-conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) handbook -
common today include window-types, split-types, cassette- Fundamentals (HOF) have in the past recommended using the
types these are generally what people choose for reasons of Cooling Load Temperature Difference (CLTD) / Cooling
simplicity, familiarity, and reliability. They will function Load Factor (CLF) / Solar Cooling Load Factor (SCL)§
without any prior knowledge of the inner workings of the whereupon these methods have a clearance of 10 – 20 %
appliance just like a household switch doesn’t need an error. This method was first developed around the 80s to
electrician to be turned on or off. Most of these brands are provide an alternative to the load calculation methods used at
even already found not just at home but at the school, work that time such as the transfer function method which proved
place, in government building, etc. PACs for the most part are to be very cumbersome, especially since it was next to
very practical in terms of time, and money since they can be impossible to perform without aid from computers at that
purchased and used without hiring a designer for its time. In that time where computers unlike today were hard to
application. A PAC in theory could be placed anywhere and come by, and more so expensive that a designer would still
with just proper installation and electricity it will function as consider it a risky investment. The transfer function method
intended. This is of course a very broad simplicity of Air- would include the entire mathematical expression/ definition
conditioning applications. The PACs RdC is determined by of the entire room.
laboratory conditions but is now set to perform on household
or workplace environments then the actual capacity would In the calculation of building peak heating and cooling loads,
become very different from the RdC. many methods have been developed over the years. The
ASHRAE has Total Equivalent Temperature Difference
1.6 PAC Selection (TETD), CLTD, Transfer Function Method (TFM), HB and
Radiant Time Series (RTS). The Air Conditioning
A typical PAC is selected based on its RdC and Contractors of America (ACCA) has the Manual N method,
Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) rating for other countries which is an updated variation of the ASHRAE CLTD method.
where it is applicable a Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio
(SEER) is also included due to the changing seasons. For To explain better, the physics involved in the
tropical climates like the Philippines where it is hot all-year- transfer of heat and energy between buildings, occupants, and
round then an EER is already enough. Although it serves the the environment is a very complex process -of course to any
companies’ interest to label their products with an scientist this is of course an obvious understatement. The
embellished EER and RdC to numbers less than accurate the current math models of this problem require significant input
government itself conducts its own validation study to curtail data and thousands of calculations in a tedious iterative
any such practice of corporation ‘shenanigan’ these process. The calculations are so involved that researchers
companies are predisposition to. The Philippine Department have been forced for years to create various simplified
of Energy (DOE) is the government agency that holds an procedures that can be done by hand or within reasonable
annual inspection of PACs available in the market. They calculation time on a personal computer. The cost of these
typically release a full listing of PACs approved by the simplifications from the theoretical best math models is
government through the acknowledgement of the department consequently – accuracy; another point to consider for any
secretary. designer is the value of time over accuracy.

† §
formerly named “National” – a brand owned by Panasonic The CLTD itself was derived from the transfer function method
‡
a company of British origin however now defunct but the brand is still
being produced in the Philippines by a local manufacturer named
Concepcion Industries
3

For in theory, a generalized HVAC load calculation For example, the CLTD procedure offers only seven types of
procedure should work impeccably for all types of buildings. walls in categories A-G. The designer may assign whatever
There would be no need for separate procedures for different U-factor they like to a wall, but every wall in the world must
types of structures, either residential or commercial in nature. fall into one of the seven categories that is primarily
In fact, such a generalized method has been developed in distinguished by the thermal mass of the wall. Other methods
recent years, and it is called the Heat Balance (HB) method. like HB, allow for smooth and infinite variations of wall types
And it can be used on buildings of all types. However, there with different thermal mass.
are various issues with HB that make it less popular to use for
peak load calculations than many of the less sophisticated This brings the question many people often ask,
methods that are designed only for residential or commercial which HVAC load calculation method is most accurate?
buildings. Although its sophisticated character already gives There is unanimous agreement that the HB method most
an inkling why that is so. accurately reflects the true physics involved in heat gains and
losses to buildings. And yet at this time, there is no dedicated
1.8 Residential and Commercial Buildings residential or commercial peak load computer program that
uses the HB method. Only the EnergyPlus software uses the
Residential buildings, in particular, are far simpler Heat Balance method and EnergyPlus is used primarily for
in construction and usage. Home owners are traditionally building energy analysis, not peak load analysis. There are
considered to be less demanding than commercial building two main reasons HB is not yet widely used in HVAC peak
owners, especially since commercial buildings usually cost load calculation software. First, there is the complexity of the
far more than houses. For these reasons, residential HVAC HB method. The designer must be prepared to enter more data
load calculations procedures have traditionally been much and more details for all the load components (a cumbersome
less sophisticated than commercial procedures. task). This is time consuming, requiring more thought and
engineering judgment. Second, and most importantly, is that
Besides separate methods for commercial and the HB procedures "balances" all the component loads (roofs
residential buildings, another major factor that has influenced wall, glass, etc.) together during the calculation process. At
load calculation methods over the years is the use of the end of the calculation process, only a single number as a
computers (as mentioned before). Before personal computers gain or loss in heat results. There is no way to see how much
were widely available, simple procedures were even more effect there was from the windows or the people or the lights,
important to have, as doing calculations by hand is slow and etc. Everything is "balanced," before a final result is obtained
tedious. As a remnant of the past, many procedures to this day hence the name.
still have simplifications for the reason of making hand
calculations possible. Since there are so many economic not to mention practical
decisions are made whether to use certain building materials
ASHRAE has offered residential load calculation or not, AC designers often find it imperative to be able to
procedures for many years as well. Unlike the ACCA**, review component details of an AC load calculation. All non-
ASHRAE by practice creates a new name for a procedure HB load calculation methods preserve this ability. The RTS
when it undergoes a major change or replaces an earlier method is the closest in accuracy to the HB method while still
procedure. In 1985, ASHRAE used the Design Equivalent providing component load details. In fact, the RTS was
Temperature Difference (DETD) approach, and from 1989 derived as a simplified version of the HB method. The RTS
through 2001 the procedures were called the residential method is only suggested for non-residential buildings but the
CLTD method. In 2005, ASHRAE introduced both the RTS method is robust enough that, like the HB method, it
Residential Load Factor (RLF) method and the Residential could theoretically be used on both commercial and
Heat Balance (RHB) method the former however is not residential buildings. However, the RTS method relies
applicable in the Philippines due to its low latitude setting heavily on the conduction time series (CTS) concept, which
(less than 20 degrees north or south)- a requirement of the helps to model the time lag of heat transfer for various
RLF. building materials. Very light poorly insulated materials can
transfer all the heat from a test heat "pulse" in as few as four
1.9 Result Accuracy and Run Time hours, whereas well insulated heavy materials might need a
full 24 hours to transfer all the heat from a test pulse. The CTS
Once you realize that significant simplifications series for a material describes that reaction to heat. While the
have been made in all the popular HVAC load calculation HB method is the most accurate method, the drawbacks
methods, it is easy to understand why there will often be mentioned above make it so rarely used for peak load
significant differences in results from those procedures. Over calculations.
time, these various methods have been applied to the same
buildings, with results sometimes differing by as much as So, for commercial buildings the ASHRAE RTS
40%. These difference stem from the varied assumptions their method is arguably the best overall method, as high accuracy
respective methods have taken into simplification. is obtained while also preserving the details of load

**
The ACCA has developed the Manual J & N from the CLTD hence being
omitted from the list
4

contributions from all the various internal and external The writers originally wanted to perform an HB method
components. Good results can be obtained from older and however, the time constrains as well as the schedule would
simpler methods such as the ASHRAE CLTD and TFM not allow such method, however the RTS is still doable given
methods, as well as the ACCA Manual N commercial that the modelling of the room can still be done using only a
method††. A preference for the RTS method is in no way spreadsheet whilst retaining the high accuracy expected from
conclusive that the other methods should be avoided. An the HB method.
experienced designer using those methods may very likely
calculate more accurate results with those methods than a
Another method not used by the author is the CLTD
novice using the RTS method.
method.§§ The CLTD is by far one of the most popular
2.Background method used throughout the Philippine islands due to its
versatility and its reliability but most importantly its hand-
tractable quality makes it an obvious choice.
2.1 Design Room Condition
The RTS method was developed to offer an
This technical report deals with the peculiar approach that is rigorous, yet does not require iterative
condition of the College of Engineering (COE) Building Rm. calculations, and that quantifies each component’s
101 of sharing the function of an ad hoc storage room and contribution to the total cooling load. In addition, it is
classroom. Both of which have different operating standards, desirable for the user to be able to inspect and compare the
a storage room is meant to preserve equipment from coefficients for different construction and zone types in a
deterioration effects of air/moisture while a classroom is form showing their relative effect on the result. These
supposed to be maintained for lecture and so must contribute characteristics of the RTS method make it easier to apply
to an environment suitable for learning. engineering judgment during cooling load calculation. The
Until recently, the College of Engineering and RTS method is suitable for peak design load calculations, but
Technology. (COET) during the construction of the right it should not be used for annual energy simulations because
wing of the COE Building ‡‡have decided to undergo of its inherent limiting assumptions. Although simple in
renovations of the original building. The renovation included concept, RTS involves too many calculations for practical use
a plethora of changes such as the transition of the iron-sided as a manual method, although it can easily be implemented in
frosted glass to the more modern aluminum-sided clear glass a simple computerized spreadsheet, as mentioned before. For
windows. The doors have also fitted with rubber sidings to a manual cooling load calculation method, refer to the
produce a tighter fit. In the process of renovation, the CLTD/CLF method in Chapter 28 of the 1997 ASHRAE
replacement of the aluminum sidings the window receptacle HOF.
for the window PAC was covered up as is the case of Rm.
101. To enable the room to be still “air-conditioned,” the PAC 2.2 Assumption Limitations
is is made to function with the entire unit inside the room (i.e.
the condenser is also located inside the room Design cooling loads are based on the assumption of
steady periodic conditions (i.e., the design day’s weather,
The activity involves the load calculation method occupancy, and heat gain conditions are identical to those for
using the Radiant Time Series method as produced in the preceding days such that the loads repeat on an identical 24 h
ASHRAE HOF 2017 edition. The RTS method would be cyclical basis). Thus, the heat gain for a particular component
sufficiently accurate to be performed in lieu of the time at a particular hour is the same as 24 h prior, which is the same
constrains aforementioned. The HB method is still the most as 48 h prior, etc. This assumption is the basis for the RTS
accurate method for any such calculations of HVAC loads yet derivation from the HB method.
even for designers the HB is never seen as the “go-to”
method. On the contrary any experienced designer would Exterior walls and roofs conduct heat because of
recommend a method based on the room itself and/or its temperature differences between outdoor and indoor air. In
application; some factors also include the employer’s direct addition, solar energy on exterior surfaces is absorbed, then
preference but generally the designer is given the degree of transferred by conduction to the building interior. Because of
freedom to choose which method would be appropriate. the mass and thermal capacity of the wall or roof construction
materials, there is a substantial time delay in heat input at the
Appropriate is the term used since the designer is exterior surface becoming heat gain at the interior surface. As
also tasked with balancing the value of time over accuracy. described in the section on Cooling Load Principles, most

†† ‡‡
This paper did not consider using ACCA methods due to them being the COE building is under the COET but this is to differentiate the two
tailored to the US geographic regions where the Latitude does not go buildings under the COET the other being the SET building
lower than 20 an exception for the state of Hawaii as Honolulu is at 19.56° §§
provided by the ASHRAE HOF 1997 edition
N
5

heat sources transfer energy to a room by a combination of The RTS method accounts for both conduction time delay and
convection and radiation. The convective part of heat gain radiant time delay effects by multiplying hourly heat gains by
immediately becomes cooling load. The radiative part must 24 time series. The time series multiplication, in effect,
first be absorbed by the finishes and mass of the interior room distributes heat gains over time. Series coefficients, which are
surfaces and becomes cooling load only when it is later called radiant time factors and conduction time factors, are
transferred by convection from those surfaces to the room air. derived using the Method. Radiant time factors reflect the
Thus, radiant heat gains become cooling loads over a delayed percentage of an earlier radiant heat gain that becomes
period of time. cooling load during the current hour.
Likewise, these conduction time factors reflect the
The rest of the details shall be discussed further in percentage of an earlier heat gain at the exterior of a wall or
the methodology. roof that becomes heat gain indoors during the current hour.
By definition, each radiant or conduction time series must
3.Methodology total 100%. These series can be used to easily compare the
time-delay effect of one construction versus another. This
Note to the Reader: The following details is taken directly from ability to compare choices is of particular benefit during
the ASHRAE definition of the methodology of the RTS method;
it is to the authors’ judgement that it is beyond the scope of the design, when all construction details may not have been
papers discussion to provide or develop an entirely new load decided. Comparison can show the magnitude of difference
calculation method nor is it good practice to omit entirely the between the choices, allowing the engineer to apply judgment
source(s) of the RTS methodology. The methodology below is
merely the rephrasing (shortened to keep the paper prompt) and make more informed assumptions in estimating the load.
borrowed from the actual text found in the ASHRAE Handbook Figure 2 shows conduction time series (CTS) values for three
– Fundamentals (2017). For more details please refer to the walls with similar U-factors but with light to heavy
handbook.
construction.

Figure 1 (from the ASHRAE HOF) gives an

overview of the RTS method. When calculating solar
radiation, transmitted solar heat gain through windows, sol-
air temperature, and infiltration, RTS is exactly the same as
previous simplified methods like the CLTD. Important areas
that differ from previous simplified methods include:

• Computation of conductive heat gain

• Splitting of all heat gains into radiant and convective

portions

• Conversion of radiant heat gains into cooling loads

Figure 2: CTS value for Light to Heavy Walls

Figure 1: Overview of Radiant Time Series Method

6

Figure 3 shows CTS for three walls with similar each hour and select the hour with the peak load for design of
construction but with different amounts of insulation, thus the air conditioning system. Repeat this process for multiple
with significantly different U-factors. Figure 4 shows RTS design months to determine the month when the peak load
values for zones varying from light to heavy construction. occurs. For the Philippines the variation is very low that a
designer may estimate the minute changes of the conditions.

3.2 Heat Gain Through Exterior Surfaces

Heat gain through exterior opaque surfaces is derived

from the same elements of solar radiation and thermal
gradient as that for fenestration areas. It differs primarily as a
function of the mass and nature of the wall or roof
construction, because those elements affect the rate of
conductive heat transfer through the composite assembly to
the interior surface.

Sol-Air Temperature is the outdoor air temperature that,

in the absence of all radiation changes gives the same rate of
heat entry into the surface as would the combination of
Figure 3: CTS value for Walls with Similar Mass and incident solar radiation, radiant energy exchange with the sky
Increasing Insulation and other outdoor surroundings, and convective heat
exchange with outdoor air.
Heat Flux into Exterior Sunlit Surfaces. The heat balance
at a sunlit surface gives the heat flux into the surface q/A as

𝑞
= 𝛼𝐸𝑡 + ℎ𝑜 (𝑡𝑜 – 𝑡𝑠 ) – 𝜀𝛥𝑅
𝐴

where,

α = absorptance of surface for solar radiation

Et = total solar radiation incident on surface, W/m2
ho = coefficient of heat transfer by long-wave radiation and
Figure 4: RTS for Light to Heavy Construction
convection at outer surface, W/(m2·K)
to = outdoor air temperature, °C
3.1 RTS PROCEDURE
ts = surface temperature, °C
The general procedure for calculating cooling load for ε = hemispherical emittance of surface
each load component*** with RTS is as follows: ΔR = difference between long-wave radiation incident on
1. Calculate 24 h profile of component heat gains for surface from sky and surroundings and radiation emitted by
design day (for conduction, account for conduction blackbody at outdoor air temperature, W/m2
time delay by applying conduction time series). Assuming that the rate of heat transfer can be expressed in
terms of the sol-air temperature te,
2. Split heat gains into radiant and convective parts
(see APPENDIX A-1 for radiant and convective 𝑞
fractions). = ℎ𝑜 (𝑡𝑒 – 𝑡𝑠 )
𝐴

3. Apply appropriate radiant time series to radiant part And so,

of heat gains to account for time delay in conversion
to cooling load. 𝛼𝐸𝑡 𝜀𝛥𝑅
𝑡𝑒 = 𝑡𝑜 + –
ℎ𝑜 ℎ𝑜
4. Sum convective part of heat gain and delayed radiant
part of heat gain to determine cooling load for each
hour for each cooling load component. For horizontal surfaces that receive long-wave
radiation from the sky only, an appropriate value of ΔR is
After calculating cooling loads for each component for
each hour, sum those to determine the total cooling load for

***
lights, people, walls, roofs, windows, appliances, etc.
7

about 63 W/m2, so that if ε = 1 and ho = 17 W/(m2·K), the qi,θ = heat input for current hour
long-wave correction term is about 4 K (Bliss 1961).
Because vertical surfaces receive long-wave qi,θ-n = heat input n hours ago
radiation from the ground and surrounding buildings as well c0, c1, etc.=conduction time factors
as from the sky, accurate ΔR values are difficult to determine.
When solar radiation intensity is high, surfaces of terrestrial
Conduction time factors for representative wall and
objects usually have a higher temperature than the outdoor
roof types are included in APPENDICES B. Those values
air; thus, their long-wave radiation compensates to some
were derived by first calculating conduction transfer
extent for the sky’s low emittance. Therefore, it is common
functions for each example wall and roof construction.
practice to assume εΔR = 0 for vertical surfaces.
Assuming steady-periodic heat input conditions for design
Tabulated Temperature Values. The sol-air
load calculations allows conduction transfer functions to be
temperatures have been calculated based on εΔR/ho values of
reformulated into periodic response factors (PRF), as
4 K for horizontal surfaces and 0 K for vertical surfaces.†††
demonstrated by Spitler and Fisher (1999a). The periodic
Surface Colors. Sol-air temperature values are given
response factors were further simplified by dividing the 24
for two values of the parameter α/ho; the value of 0.026 is
periodic response factors by the respective overall wall or
appropriate for a light-colored surface, whereas 0.052
roof U-factor to form the conduction time series. The
represents the usual maximum value for this parameter (i.e.,
conduction time factors can then be used in Equation before
for a dark-colored surface or any surface for which the
and provide a way to compare time delay characteristics
permanent lightness cannot reliably be anticipated). Solar
between different wall and roof constructions. Construction
absorptance values of various surfaces are included in
material data used in the calculations for walls and roofs in
APPENDIX A-2.‡‡‡
APPENDICES B are listed in APPENDIX C. Heat gains
calculated for walls or roofs using periodic response factors
3.3 Calculating Conductive Heat Gain Using CTS
(and thus CTS) are identical to those calculated using
conduction transfer functions for the steady periodic
conditions assumed in design cooling load calculations.
In the RTS method, conduction through exterior
walls and roofs is calculated using CTS values. Wall and roof The methodology for calculating periodic response
conductive heat input at the exterior is defined by the familiar factors from conduction transfer functions was originally
conduction equation as developed as part of ASHRAE research project RP-875
𝑞𝑖,θ−𝑛 = 𝑈𝐴(𝑡𝑒,θ−𝑛 – 𝑡𝑟𝑐) (Spitler and Fisher 1999b; Spitler et al. 1997). For walls and
where roofs that are not reasonably close to the representative
constructions in APPENDICES B, CTS coefficients may be
computed with a computer program such as that described by
qi,θ-n = conductive heat input for surface n hours ago, W
Iu and Fisher (2004). For walls and roofs with thermal
bridges, the procedure described by Karambakkam et al.
U = overall heat transfer coefficient for surface, W/(m2·K) (2005) may be used to determine an equivalent wall
construction, which can then be used as the basis for finding
A = surface area, m2 the CTS coefficients. When considering the level of detail
needed to make an adequate approximation, remember that,
te,θ-n = sol-air temperature n hours ago, °C for buildings with windows and internal heat gains, the
conduction heat gains make up a relatively small part of the
trc = presumed constant room air temperature, °C cooling load. For heating load calculations, the conduction
heat loss may be more significant. The tedious calculations
involved make a simple computer spreadsheet or other
Conductive heat gain through walls or roofs can be computer software a useful labor saver.
calculated
using conductive heat inputs for the current hours and past 3.4 Heat Gain Through Interior Surfaces
23 h and conduction time series: Whenever a conditioned space is adjacent to a space
with a different temperature, heat transfer through the
𝑞𝜃 = 𝑐0 𝑞𝑖,𝜃 + 𝑐1 𝑞𝑖,𝜃−1 + 𝑐2 𝑞𝑖,𝜃−2 + 𝑐3 𝑞𝑖,𝜃−3 + … separating physical section must be considered. The heat
+ 𝑐23 𝑞𝑖,𝜃−23 transfer rate is given by

where 𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴(𝑡𝑏 – 𝑡𝑖 )
qθ = hourly conductive heat gain for surface, W
where

††† ‡‡‡
for the calculation of total solar intensity values please consult Chapter because of the tedious solar angle and intensity calculations, using a
14 of the ASHRAE handbook simple computer spreadsheet or other software for these calculations can
reduce the effort involved
8

q = heat transfer rate, W appliances, and equipment, to the radiant exchange. RTS
U = coefficient of overall heat transfer between further simplifies the HB procedure by also relying on an
estimated radiative/convective split of wall and roof
adjacent and conditioned space, W/(m2·K)
conductive heat gain instead of simultaneously solving for the
A = area of separating section concerned, m2 instantaneous convective and radiative heat transfer from
tb = average air temperature in adjacent space, °C each surface, as in the HB procedure.

ti = air temperature in conditioned space, °C Thus, the cooling load for each load component §§§
for a particular hour is the sum of the convective portion of
U-values can be obtained from Chapter 27 of the the heat gain for that hour plus the time-delayed portion of
ASHRAE handbook. Temperature tb may differ greatly from radiant heat gains for that hour and the previous 23 h. Table
ti. The temperature in a kitchen or boiler room, for example, 14 contains recommendations for splitting each of the heat
may be as much as 8 to 28 K above the outdoor air gain components into convective and radiant portions. RTS
temperature (neither of the 2 are operating near the design converts the radiant portion of hourly heat gains to hourly
room). Actual temperatures in adjoining spaces should be cooling loads using radiant time factors (RTF), the
measured, when possible. Where nothing is known except coefficients of the radiant time series. Radiant time factors are
that the adjacent space is of conventional construction, used to calculate the cooling load for the current hour on the
contains no heat sources, and itself receives no significant basis of current and past heat gains. The radiant time series
solar heat gain, tb – ti may be considered the difference for a particular zone gives the time dependent response of the
between the outdoor air and conditioned space design dry- zone to a single pulse of radiant energy.
bulb temperatures minus 3 K. In some cases, air temperature
in the adjacent space corresponds to the outdoor air The series shows the portion of the radiant pulse that
temperature or higher. is convected to zone air for each hour. Thus, r0 represents the
fraction of the radiant pulse convected to the zone air in the
For floors directly in contact with the ground or over current hour r1 in the previous hour, and so on. The radiant
an underground basement that is neither ventilated nor time series thus generated is used to convert the radiant
conditioned, sensible heat transfer may be neglected for portion of hourly heat gains to hourly cooling loads according
cooling load estimates because usually there is a heat loss to the following equation:
rather than a gain. An exception is in hot climates (i.e., where
average outdoor air temperature exceeds indoor design 𝑄𝑟.𝜃 = 𝑟0 𝑞𝑟.𝜃 + 𝑟1 𝑞𝑟.𝜃−1 + 𝑟2 𝑞𝑟.𝜃−2 + 𝑟3 𝑞𝑟.𝜃−2
condition), where the positive soil-to-indoor temperature + … + 𝑟23 𝑞𝑟.𝜃−23
difference causes sensible heat gains (Rock 2005). In many
climates and for various temperatures and local soil where
conditions, moisture transport up through slabs-on grade and
basement floors is also significant and contributes to the Qr.θ = radiant cooling load Qr for current hour θ, W
latent heat portion of the cooling load.
𝑞𝑟.𝜃 = radiant heat gain for current hour, W
3.5 Calculating Cooling Load 𝑞𝑟.𝜃−𝑛 = radiant heat gain n hours ago, W
r0, r1, etc. = radiant time factors
The instantaneous cooling load is the rate at which
heat energy is convected to the zone air at a given point in
time. Computation of cooling load is complicated by the The radiant cooling load for the current hour, which is
radiant exchange between surfaces, furniture, partitions, and calculated using RTS and equation above, is added to the
other mass in the zone. Most heat gain sources transfer energy convective portion to determine the total cooling load for that
by both convection and radiation. Radiative heat transfer component for that hour. Radiant time factors are generated
introduces a time dependency to the process that is not easily by a heat-balance-based procedure. A separate series of
quantified. Radiation is absorbed by thermal masses in the radiant time factors is theoretically required for each unique
zone and then later transferred by convection into the space. zone and for each unique radiant energy distribution function
This process creates a time lag and dampening effect. The assumption. For most common design applications like the
convective portion, on the other hand, is assumed to design room for instance, RTS variation depends primarily on
immediately become cooling load in the hour in which that the overall massiveness of the construction and the thermal
heat gain occurs. HB procedures calculate the radiant responsiveness of the surfaces the radiant heat gains strike.
exchange between surfaces based on their surface
One goal in developing RTS was to provide a
temperatures and emissivities, but they typically rely on
simplified method based directly on the HB method; thus, it
estimated “radiative/convective splits” to determine the
was deemed desirable to generate RTS coefficients directly
contribution of internal loads, including people, lighting,
from a heat balance.⸮

§§§
lights, people, walls, roofs, windows, appliances, etc. ⸮
A heat balance computer program was developed to do this: Hbfort,
which is included as part of Cooling and Heating Load Calculation
Principles (Pedersen et al. 1998).
9

In the procedure described here, a unit periodic heat Fenestration area: approx. 80 sq. ft [7.5m2]
gain pulse is used to generate loads for a 24 h period. As long
as the heat gain pulse is a unit pulse, the resulting loads are The Design condition are as follows,
equivalent to the RTS coefficients. Two different radiant time
series are used: solar, for direct transmitted solar heat gain Location Iligan
(radiant energy assumed to be distributed to the floor and Latitude 8.25
furnishings only) and nonsolar, for all other types of heat Longitude 124.4
gains (radiant energy assumed to be uniformly distributed on Time Zone 8
all internal surfaces).**** Also, for diffuse solar heat gain and Month 3 March
direct solar heat gain from fenestration with indoor shading Outdoor Design Temperature 91.5°F 33 °C
(blinds, drapes, etc.), the nonsolar RTS should be used. Daily Range 13.5°F ≈10°C
Radiation from those sources is assumed to be more 24°C
Indoor Air Temperature 75°F
uniformly distributed onto all room surfaces.
Clearness Index 0.45
Representative solar and nonsolar RTS data for Ground reflectance 0.2
light, medium, and heavyweight constructions are provided
in APPENDICES D.†††† Customized RTS values may be
The standard practice of load calculations is to
calculated using the HB method where the zone is not
reasonably similar to these typical zones. consider the 21st day of the month. The month consider in this
analysis was the month of March. The design condition is set
In general, total cooling loads calculated using RTS at 24°C likewise as per practice of the AHRAE standard.
closely agreed with or were slightly higher than those of the
HB method with the same inputs. Surface Data
Surface Name W Wall
Surface Number 1
Surface Area (sq. ft.) 295.27575
4.Analysis of Results Facing direction (deg) 85
(0=N,90=E,180=S,270=W)
Tilt (deg – 0=horiz. Up; 90
The ASHRAE HOF obtained by the author was 90=vertical; 180=horiz. Down)
originally wrote with IP units in keeping consistent with the Solar absorptivity 0.6
handbook the units are solved first in IP, SI units will be Outside surface conductance 4
displayed for reference; the appendices tables however were
already converted to SI unit for a better reference to the
reader. The figures of the analysis will show the actual figures 4.2 Solar Fluxes
generated and only the important pointed out values shall be
converted to SI units. For this case, only the West Wall side of Rm 101 is
experiencing Solar effects.
The Calculations was done using an Excel
spreadsheet with functions written in Visual Basic for
Applications by the Montreal ASHRAE chapter. The initial
functions did not calculate the Latent loads and the Incident Solar Irradiation
Infiltration Loads the subsequent calculations have mended
this by consulting the handbook. 50.0
Flux (Btu/hr-sqft)

The PRF and RTF values were obtained using the 40.0
PRF–RTF Generator obtained gratis from the Oklahoma
State University. 30.0
20.0
4.1 Initial/Set Room Conditions/Variables 10.0
0.0
The design room Rm. 101 has the following 1 5 9 13 17 21
dimensions: Time (hr)
W wall Incident Flux (Btu/hr-ft2)
Total conditioned area: approx. 370 sq. ft [34.3m2]

**** ††††
Nonsolar RTS apply to radiant heat gains from people, lights, Those were calculated using the Hbfort computer program (Pedersen et
appliances, walls, roofs, and floors. al. 1998) with zone characteristics listed in APPENDIX E.
10

To clarify the Sol Air temp. is as it is consensually

The peak time where the Solar flux is shown by defined, Sol-air temperature is the temperature of the outdoor
Figure 5 to be around 2 PM. The highest point is around at air which, in the absence of radiative exchanges on the outer
the afternoon due to the west wall will only experience surface of the roof or wall, would give the same rate of heat
intense sunlight after passing through the east. Note that the transfer through the wall or roof as the actual combined heat
analysis did not consider shading to be considerable in transfer mechanism between the sun, the surface of the roof
consequence that analysis have neglected accounting for or wall, the outdoor air and the surroundings.
shading. It is also worth pointing out that after the such time
the new building construction will be established enough to 4.4 Periodic Response Factors
cover the sun as per the left-wing room. So, the data of the
solar flux might be changed entirely.
3.0E-02
4.3 Solar Heat Gain 2.5E-02
Figure 5: Incident Solar Irradiation Flux Walls
2.0E-02
Ceiling
1.5E-02

PRF
2000.0 Floor
1800.0
1600.0
1.0E-02
SHG (Btu/hr)

1400.0 5.0E-03
1200.0
1000.0 0.0E+00
800.0
600.0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
400.0 Hour
200.0
0.0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
Hour Figure 8: Periodic Response Factors
Transmitted SHG Absorbed

Figure 6: Solar Heat Gain The PRF values were taken from the PRF-RTF
Generator from the Oklahoma State University. The
The solar heat gain as shown in Figure 6, the solar generator’s data base itself was given by the ASHRAE HOF.
heat gain was shown to have more heat transmitted directly The PRF Generator uses the same principle as the Hbfert
to the room than being absorbed by the windows. prescribed by ASHRAE albeit in a less powerful manner.
During the peak time for the solar interference the Unfortunately, the authors did not posses the means to
transmitted heat reaches procure the Hbfort to do a comparison between the two
software. So, the data taken for the PRF shall have to suffice.
1890.8 Btuh (Btu/hr) [0.56 kW];
For the Envelope of the design room assumptions
that is as large as 10% of the Peak cooling load. were made for the floor and the Ceiling dimension as there is
no practical way of determining the actual thickness among
To better show the effects of the solar interference Figure 7
others of the ceiling more so the floor.
illustrates the difference of the Air temperature given in
Fahrenheit with the Sol Air temperature.
4.5 Conduction Heat Gains

95.0 The CTS were calculated from and with the PRF series to
90.0 determine the conduction heat gains. The conduction heat
Temperature (F)

gains of the door, ceiling and walls are shown in Figure 9.

85.0
The CTS values was no longer logged into a graph since the
80.0 PRF would be sufficient enough.
75.0
70.0
1 5 9 13 17 21
Hour
Air T (F) Sol-Air T (F)
Figure 7: Air Temperature and Sol-Air Temperatures
11

300.0
250.0
200.0
Heat Gain (Btu/hr)

150.0
100.0
50.0
0.0
-50.0 1 5 9 13 17 21
-100.0
Hour
Wall Ceiling Door

Figure 9: Conduction Heat Gains

4.6 Cooling load Calculation

8000
7000
6000
Wall(all) Btu/hr
5000
Load (Btu/hr)

4000 Ceiling Btu/hr

3000 Lights Btu/hr

2000
Sen. People
1000 Btu/hr
Equip. Btu/hr
0
1 5 9 Hour13 17 21 Sen, Infilt Btu/hr
-1000

Figure 10: Sensible Cooling Loads

The analysis has assumed that the occupancy load is The Figure 10, shows the individual plot of each
from 7 AM to 5 PM. With a working capacity for a class of load separated by the character in which they are classified.
30 plus the Lab technician the total number of occupancy is As the graph clearly shows the greatest load that the room
set at 31 occupancies. The occupants are to engage in no among the others is the human occupancy load. This is may
strenuous behavior and are to remain seated or to be standing become misleading later as the graph does not yet contain the
up in a relaxed manner. Equipment’s include laptops and DLP infiltration of the latent load of the design room.
projectors and the Laboratory technician’s own computer
system. The design room is meant for lecture purposes,
however the equipment inside that do not functional or
actively produce heat are set to be negligible.‡‡‡‡

‡‡‡‡ technology permits replace the calculation with a better/more accurate

With proper time the room’s load may be further analyzed in the
future through refinement of this initial RTS calculation or if the method.
12

90000
80000 Total Sensible
70000 Btu/hr

60000 Total Sensible

Load (Btu/hr)

without
50000 Infiltration Btu/hr
40000 Total Load With
Latent Btu/hr
30000
20000 Total Load
without
10000 Infiltration Btu/hr

0 Hour
1 5 9 13 17 21
Figure 11: Total Load and Peak Load

4.7 Peak Loads requirements due to various factors. Factors that will be
subsequently discussed in the following paragraphs.
The peak time for the design room AC unit to function the
hardest is around 2 PM. The disparage of the loads with
The method used was Radiant Time Series method
infiltration and the one without is staggering. The difference
that determines the instantaneous loads of the design room on
at the peak would be around
a 24-hour basis (a whole day) this is due to the solar
50619.5 Btuh [14.805 kW] movement of the day is never the same as the other. As the
sun travels from the east to the west (geographically not
of cooling. This would also be the amount of energy saved if necessarily according to the room) the amount of radiant
the infiltration problem was fixed. The Peak load without energy or sunlight will vary accordingly. The Radiant Time
considerable infiltration is given a peak load calculation of Series (RTS) method is a simplified method for performing
22549.9 Btuh [6.605 kW]. design cooling load calculations that is derived from the Heat
Balance (HB) method. It effectively replaces all other
The actual peak load the AC unit in the design room may then simplified (non-heat-balance) methods, such as the Transfer
vary but the initial RTS calculation it should be around at Function Method (TFM), the Cooling Load Temperature
Difference/Cooling Load Factor (CLTD/CLF) method, and
73169.36 Btuh [21.41 kW] ≈ 77076 kJ/hr the Total Equivalent Temperature Difference/Time
this is a very high requirement considering the dimensions of Averaging (TETD/TA) method.
the room a peak load of 77076 kJ/hr estimatedly would
require two (2) split-towers PACs or a large ceiling mounted The RTS uses Periodic Response Factors to model
AC. This is primarily due to the large amount of infiltration transient conductive heat transfer. While not a true manual
present. load calculation procedure, it ca be quite feasible to
implement the RTS in a spreadsheet as this paper has done.
To be useful in such an environment, it would be desirable to
have a pre-calculated set of periodic response factors.
5.Conclusions Accordingly, a set of periodic response factors has been
calculated for this paper.

The load calculations on the design room Rm. 101 The Periodic Response Factors which are material
of COE building, have yielded a high amount of cooling specific were determined by the software provided§§§§ (gratis)
by Oklahoma State University with its database grounded on

§§§§
Distributed freely
13

the tables of ASHRAE technical data. The Periodic Response 5.3 Occupancy Load
Factors restricted to calculating the conduction heat gain
through building elements under periodic outdoor conditions, The occupant load of a building is the total number
which simplifies the computational procedure significantly. It of persons that might occupy a building or portion thereof.
is vital to have a reliable method or procedure to accurately The occupants are also a considerable load factor especially
calculate the periodic response factors of various types of when there is a large class (like the one considered) present.
walls and roofs. The calculations performed considered that the occupants
were to start at 8 AM to 5PM neglecting the time in between
The Radiant Time Factors were likewise determined when the class is dismissed or when then room is temporarily
using the software. Radiant Time Factors are used to calculate vacant.
the cooling load for the current hour on the basis of current
and past heat gains. The radiant time series for a particular For the purpose of the calculation, the design room
zone gives the time dependent response of the zone to a single was considered at full capacity from 8 to 5 throughout the
pulse of radiant energy. day. Since it is primarily used for holding classes, the
metabolic rates were estimated as those that sat relaxed or
Note to the Reader: The conclusion of this experiment draws stood up relaxed. The calculation considered 31 persons each
statements and/or data from the conclusion of the previous of the persons size were averaged and only the heat gain per
experiment: Psychrometric Processes and Energy Balance person considered. The occupancy load is seen to be very
high as there was no set variation however for initial peak
load calculations this is by practice the more recommended
5.1 Latent Load
approach. The peak load should always consider the ‘worst-
case’ scenario so when considering the peak load, the
One of the major contributing loads is the latent load occupant variation is usually not considered (that usually
of the air present in the design room. The indoor is kept at a happens at the optimization).
relatively steady quality however any such disturbance to the
room e.g. opening a door too long or opening a window
5.3 Lighting and Other Sensible Loads
would result in a higher instantaneous load gain due to the
high moisture content in the air.
The lighting and equipment loads are unavoidable.
These loads are inherent to a room being used. Even the
For tropical climates such as the Philippines these
transmission gains are unavoidable unless the room can be
factors could largely not be avoided, nothing short of
designed to be very well insulated. These loads are part of the
conditioning the entire outdoor air of the Philippines would
cost of operation for the room and are usually will not be
remedy this problem. The only practical way to cope with this
changed for long periods of time.
dilemma is to be mindful of opening the doors and when the
AC is running is to never open the windows. Another
Other sensible loads include the laptops, the
contributing factor to latent load is the human factor. A
projectors, and other forms of device or equipment that
resting occupant will produce about 15 ml of water per hour
generally function tends to produce heat. The sensible heat of
that will be released into the air. This constitutes a heat gain
the infiltration and the occupancy are also displayed in the
for every person inside both for their sensible and latent.
graph however they’re contribution to both sensible and latent
loads justified then to be mentioned in greater detail than the
5.2 Infiltration Load other loads.

As mentioned before the latent load of the moisture

5.4 Total Load Impact
present in the air of tropical climates is especially high. By
allowing the outdoor un-conditioned air to mix
In the previous experiment, the psychrometric data
uncontrollably with the indoor air-conditioned, the cooling
yielded that at maximum settings the AC unit of Rm 101
load of the room will be consequently increased. The design
could remove 6.8 kW of heat from the room. If the infiltration
room Rm. 101 has a very large infiltration problem due to the
problem were to be remedied then the AC unit would perform
opened window as mentioned before. The infiltration is the
very well. In addition to being more sustainable, the
most significant factor as evidently shown by the previous
elimination of considerable infiltration would make the room
figures of the total loads with and without the infiltration. To
a better environment for learning. Furthermore, the hot spots
maintain a more sustainable and more comfortable
and cold spots would be adequately improved as mentioned
environment of the design room Rm. 101 the infiltration
in the previous experiment the cooled air would have to
problem is to be minimized.
opportunity to cool the farther parts of the room.
14

6.Recommendations References

[1] ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals IP Units (2017)

The Rm.101 should have a proper installation of the Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and
window-type AC unit to ensure that the condenser heat would Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
not enter the room in addition to the infiltration. The
thermostat setting should be lowered at the later part of the [2] ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55-2010 (2010), Thermal
day (i.e. set at a higher temperature operation) to ensure a Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy. Atlanta:
cost-efficient operation of the air-conditioning unit. The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-
temperature should be set at 25°C or around that range to Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
ensure that the occupants of the room would also not feel
chilly. [3] Bliss, R.J.V. 1961. Atmospheric radiation near the
surface of the ground.Solar Energy 5(3):103.
The unit given its visibly obvious old design should be subject
to consideration for replacement for a newer more efficient [4] Buffington, D.E. 1975. Heat gain by conduction through
model. New models have a higher EER and use more exterior walls and roofs—Transmission matrix method.
environmental friendly chemicals than the obsolete ASHRAE Transactions 81(2):89.
refrigerants. An inverter type air-conditioning unit promises
to save on almost 40% energy consumption of the unit. This [5] Chantrasrisalai, C., D.E. Fisher, I. Iu, and D. Eldridge.
however is still subject to testing for the application in 2003. Experimental validation of design cooling load
Rm 101. procedures: The heat balance method. ASHRAE
Transactions 109(2):160-173.

6.1 Calculation Method Optimization [6] Incropera, F.P., and D.P. DeWitt. 1990. Fundamentals of
heat and mass transfer, 3rd ed. Wiley, New York.
Due to various factors and time constrains, the
author’s expresses strong regret over not performing the other [7] Iu, I., and D.E. Fisher. 2004. Application of conduction
approved types of load calculations. The initial peak load transfer functions and periodic response factors in cooling
calculation was perform using the RTS method although load calculation procedures. ASHRAE Transactions
some assumptions could be better refined. The shelves could 110(2):829-841.
be considered as heat storage for transmission loads etc. The
improvement of the initial calculation loads is referred to as [8] Kimura and Stephenson. 1968. Theoretical study of
optimization. The optimization for load calculation of Rm. cooling loads caused by lights. ASHRAE Transactions
101 would further improve the overall ‘picture’ of the 74(2):189-197.
condition of the room. Further study could also be used to
simulated the day other than the 21st or for a calculation of the [9] Karambakkam, B.K., B. Nigusse, and J.D. Spitler. 2005.
entire year. The future researchers might also perform A one-dimensional approximation for transient multi-
calculations that involved the shading or reflecting of the dimensional conduction heat transfer in building envelopes.
windows in Rm. 101. Proceedings of the 7th Symposium on Building Physics in
the Nordic Countries, The Icelandic Building Research
Another recommendation would be to use the CLTD Institute, Reykjavik, vol. 1, pp. 340-347.
method to compare the results of using the Rm 101 as a
benchmark whether the practice of using the method is within [10] McQuiston, F.C., and J.D. Spitler. 1992. Cooling and
the safe limits of error assumed by literature. The CLTD heating load calculation manual, 2nd editon. ASHRAE.
calculation can be done entirely by hand so for this approach
the study will be easily tracked where the errors are stemming [11} Miller, A. 1971. Meteorology, 2nd ed. Charles E.
from. Merrill, Columbus.

Lastly to validate all this method using a direct [12] Nigusse, B.A. 2007. Improvements to the radiant time
modeling using the heat balance method. The heat balance series method cooling load calculation procedure. Ph.D.
method done properly would model the entire room and dissertation, Oklahoma State University.
would perform an energy analysis and subsequently a load-
calculation. This is by far the longest method recommended [13] N.H. Wong, E. Tan, O. Gabriela, S.K. Jusuf (2016).
and should only be considered when there is enough time. Indoor Thermal Comfort Assessment of Industrial Buildings
in Singapore. 169 158 – 165
15

[14] Parker, D.S., J.E.R. McIlvaine, S.F. Barkaszi, D.J. Beal,

and M.T. Anello. 2000. Laboratory testing of the reflectance
properties of roofing material. FSEC-CR670-00. Florida
Solar Energy Center, Cocoa.

[15] Pedersen, C.O., D.E. Fisher, R.J. Liesen, R.K. Strand.

2003. ASHRAE Toolkit for Building Load Calculations.
ASHRAE Transactions. 109(1) :583-589

[16] Pedersen, C.O., D.E. Fisher, J.D. Spitler, and R.J.

Liesen. 1998. Cooling and heating load calculation
principles. ASHRAE.

[17] Rock, B.A. 2005. A user-friendly model and

coefficients for slab-on-grade load and energy calculation.
ASHRAE Transactions 111(2):122-136.

[18] Sowell, E.F. 1988b. Load calculations for 200,640

zones. ASHRAE Transactions 94(2):716-736.

[19] Spitler, J.D., and D.E. Fisher. 1999a. Development of

periodic response factors for use with the radiant time series
method. ASHRAE Transactions 105(2):491-509.

[20] Spitler, J.D., and D.E. Fisher. 1999b. On the

relationship between the radiant time series and transfer
function methods for design cooling load calculations.
International Journal of Heating, Ventilating, Air-
Conditioning and Refrigerating Research (now Science and
Technology for the Built Environment) 5(2):125-138.

[21] Spitler, J.D., D.E. Fisher, and C.O. Pedersen. 1997. The
radiant time series cooling load calculation procedure.
ASHRAE Transactions 103(2).
16

APPENDIX A-1: ASHRAE Fundamentals 2017

Table 14 Recommended Radiative/Convective Splits for Internal Heat Gains

Note: for the tables referred in the comments section please refer directly to the ASHRAE Handbook – Fundamentals

APPENDIX A-2: ASHRAE Fundamentals 2017

Table 15 Solar Absorptance Values of Various Surfaces
17

APPENDIX B-1: ASHRAE Fundamentals 2017

Table 16 Wall Conduction Time Series
18

APPENDIX B-2: ASHRAE Fundamentals 2017

Table 16 Wall Conduction Time Series (continued)
19

APPENDIX B-3: ASHRAE Fundamentals 2017

Table 16 Wall Conduction Time Series (continued)
20

APPENDIX B-4: ASHRAE Fundamentals 2017

Table 16 Wall Conduction Time Series (continued)
21

APPENDIX B-5: ASHRAE Fundamentals 2017

Table 16 Wall Conduction Time Series (continued)
22

APPENDIX B-6: ASHRAE Fundamentals 2017

Table 16 Wall Conduction Time Series (continued)
23

APPENDIX B-7: ASHRAE Fundamentals 2017

Table 16 Wall Conduction Time Series (continued)
24

APPENDIX B-8: ASHRAE Fundamentals 2017

Table 17 Roof Conduction Time Series (continued)
25

APPENDIX B-9: ASHRAE Fundamentals 2017

Table 17 Roof Conduction Time Series (continued)
26

APPENDIX B-10: ASHRAE Fundamentals 2017

Table 17 Roof Conduction Time Series (continued)
27

APPENDIX B-11: ASHRAE Fundamentals 2017

Table 17 Roof Conduction Time Series (continued)
28

APPENDIX C: ASHRAE Fundamentals 2017

Table 18 Thermal Properties and Code Numbers of Layers Used in Wall and Roof Descriptions for APPENDICES B
29

APPENDIX D-1: ASHRAE Fundamentals 2017

Table 19 Representative Nonsolar RTS Values for Light to Heavy Construction

APPENDIX D-2: ASHRAE Fundamentals 2017

Table 20 Representative Solar RTS Values for Light to Heavy Construction
30

APPENDIX E: ASHRAE Fundamentals 2017

Table 21 RTS Representative Zone Construction for APPENDICES D

DESIGN ROOM COE BUILDING Rm. 101 LAYOUT