Common-Base

Common-Emitter
Configuration

Common-Collector
Bipolar
junction Schematic and structure
transistor
(BJT)
Widths of the depletion regions, indicating clearly which
junction is forward-biased and which is reverse-biased. As
indicated in Fig. 3.5 , a large number of majority carriers will
Operation diffuse across the forward biased p–n junction into the n -type
material.

The question then is whether these carriers will contribute

directly to the base current I B or pass directly into the p -type
One p–n junction of a transistor is reverse-biased, whereas the other is forward-biased.
material. Since the sandwiched n -type material is very thin
and has a low conductivity, a very small number of these
carriers will take this path of high resistance to the base
The depletion region has been Consider the similarities between this situation terminal. The magnitude of the base current is typically on the
reduced in width due to the applied and that of the reverse-biased order of microamperes, as compared to mA for the emitter
bias, resulting Diode. and collector currents.
in a heavy flow of majority Recall that the flow of majority carriers is zero,
carriers from the p - to the n -type resulting in only a
The larger number of these majority carriers will diffuse
material. minority-carrier flow, as indicated in Fig. 3.4b.
across the reverse-biased junction into the p -type material
connected to the collector terminal as indicated
in Fig. 3.5 .

Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to the transistor of Fig. 3.5 as

if it were a single node, we obtain:

1
 Bipolar
junction The heavily doped n-type emitter region has a very high density of
transistor conduction-band (free) electrons, as indicated in Figure 4–4. These
(BJT) free electrons easily diffuse through the forward-based BE junction
into the lightly doped and very thin p-type base region, as indicated
Operation by the wide arrow. The base has a low density of holes, which are the
majority carriers, as represented by the white circles. A small
percentage of the total number of free electrons injected into the
base region recombine with holes and move as valence electrons
through the base region and into the emitter region as hole current,
indicated by the red arrows.

Figure 4–3 shows a bias arrangement for both npn and pnp
BJTs for operation as an amplifier. Notice that in both cases
Bias the base-emitter (BE) junction is forward-biased and the base-
collector (BC) junction is reverse-biased. This condition is
called forward-reverse bias.

2
Additional note for BJT behavior
 Note in Fig. 3.8 that as the
All the current directions appearing in emitter current increases
Fig. 3.6 are the actual directions as above zero, the collector
defined by the choice of conventional current increases to a
flow. Note in each case that IE = IC + IB. magnitude essentially equal
Note also that the applied biasing (voltage to that of the emitter current
sources) are such as to establish current in as determined by the basic
the direction indicated for each branch. transistor-current relations.
That is, compare the direction of IE to the Note also the almost
polarity of VEE for each configuration negligible effect of VCB on
and the direction of IC to the polarity of the collector current for the
VCC. active region. The curves
clearly indicate that a first
approximation to the
relationship between IE and
BJT’s IC in the active region is
Configuration given by IE≈IC The output set relates an output current ( IC ) to an output
voltage ( VCB ) for various levels of input current ( IE ) as
(Common-Base) shown in Fig. 3.8 . The output or collector set of
characteristics has three basic regions of interest, as
indicated in Fig. 3.8 : the active , cutoff , and saturation
regions. The active region is the region normally employed
The input set for the common-base amplifier as shown for linear (undistorted) amplifiers.
in Fig. 3.7 relates an input current ( IE ) to an input In particular:
voltage ( VBE ) for various levels of output voltage ( In the active region the base–emitter junction is forward-
VCB). biased, whereas the collector–base junction is reverse-
biased.

The active region is defined by the biasing arrangements of Fig. 3.6 . At the lower
end of the active region the emitter current ( IE ) is zero, and the collector current is
simply that due to the reverse saturation current, IC0 , as indicated in Fig. 3.9 . The
current IC0 is so small (mA) in magnitude compared to the vertical scale of IC (mA)
that it appears on virtually the same horizontal line as IC=0. The circuit conditions
that exist when IE=0 for the common-base configuration are shown in Fig. 3.9 . The
notation most frequently used for IC0 on data and specification sheets is, as
indicated in Fig. 3.9 , ICB0 (the collector-to-base current with the emitter leg open).
3
 It is important to fully appreciate the
statement made by the characteristics of Fig. 3.10c .
They specify that with the transistor in the “on” or
active state the voltage from base to emitter will be
0.7 V at any level of emitter current as controlled by
the external network. In fact, at the first encounter of
BJT’s any transistor configuration in the dc mode, one can
now immediately specify that the voltage from base
Configuration to emitter is 0.7 V if the device is in the active
region—a very important conclusion for the dc
(Common-Base) analysis to follow.

In fact, increasing levels of VCB have such a small effect

on the characteristics that as a first approximation the change due
to changes in VCB can be ignored and the characteristics drawn as
shown in Fig. 3.10a . If we then apply the piecewise linear
approach, the characteristics of Fig. 3.10b result. Taking it a step
further and ignoring the slope of the curve and therefore the
resistance associated with the forward-biased junction results in
the characteristics of Fig. 3.10c .

For the analysis to follow in this book the equivalent model

of Fig. 3.10c will be employed for all dc analysis of transistor
networks. That is, once a transistor is in the “on” state, the base-
to-emitter voltage will be assumed to be the following:

VBE≈0.7V

4
 The most frequently encountered transistor configuration appears in Fig.
3.12 for the pnp and npn transistors. It is called the common-emitter
configuration because the emitter is common to both the input and output
terminals (in this case common to both the base and collector terminals).

The emitter, collector, and base currents are shown in

their actual conventional current direction. Even
though the transistor configuration has changed, the
current relations developed earlier for the common-
base configuration are still applicable.

That is, IE = IC + IB and IC = αIE.

BJT’s Configuration
(Common-Emitter ) The characteristics of Fig. 3.14 the magnitude of IB is in
Two sets of characteristics are again necessary to μA,compared to mA of IC . Consider also that the curves of IB
describe fully the behavior of the common-emitter are not as horizontal as those obtained for IE in the C-B
configuration: one for the input or base–emitter configuration, indicating that the C-E voltage will influence the
circuit and one for the output or collector–emitter magnitude of the collector current. The active region for the C-
circuit. Both are shown in Fig. 3.13 . E configuration is that portion of the upper-right quadrant that
has the greatest linearity, that is, that region in which the curves
for IB are nearly straight and equally spaced.

In Fig. 3.13a this region exists to the right of the vertical dashed
line at VCE sat and above the curve for IB=0. The region to the
left of VCE sat is called the saturation region.

In the active region of a common-emitter amplifier, the base–emitter

junction is forward-biased, whereas the collector–base junction is
reverse-biased. 5
Cont. from slide 5

BJT’s Configuration
(Common-Emitter )

The cutoff region for the C-E configuration is not as

well defined as for the C-B configuration. Note on the
collector characteristics of Fig. 3.14 that IC ≠0, when In Fig. 3.13 the conditions surrounding this newly defined current are demonstrated with its
IB=0. For the C-B configuration, when the input current assigned reference direction.
IE=0, the IC =IC0, so that the curve IE=0 and the voltage For linear (least distortion) amplification purposes, cut-off for the C-E configuration will
axis were, for all practical purposes, one. be defined by IC = ICEO .
In other words, the region below IB = 0 mA is to be avoided if an undistorted output signal is
required. When employed as a switch in the logic circuitry of a computer, a transistor will
have two points of operation of interest: one in the cutoff and one in the saturation region. The
cutoff condition should ideally be IC=0mA for the chosen VCE voltage. Since ICEO is typically
low in magnitude for silicon materials, cutoff will exist for switching purposes when I B= 0
mA or IC=ICEO for silicon transistors only . For germanium transistors , however ,
cutoff for switching purposes will be defined as those conditions that exist when I C= ICBO.
This condition can normally be obtained for germanium transistors by reverse-biasing the
base-to-emitter junction a few tenths of a volt. 6
Cont. from slide 6

BJT’s Configuration (Common-Emitter )

The use of Eq. (3.11) is best described

by a numerical example using an actual
set of characteristics such as appearing
in Fig. 3.13a and repeated in Fig. 3.17 .
Let us determine βac for a region of the
characteristics defined by an operating
point of IB= 25 mA and VCE =7.5 V as
indicated on Fig. 3.16 . The restriction of
VCE= constant requires that a vertical
line be drawn through the operating
point at VCE =7.5 V. At any location on
this vertical line the voltage VCE = 7.5 V,
a constant.

The change in IB(ΔIB) as appearing in Eq. (3.11) is then defined by choosing two points on
either side of the Q -point along the vertical axis of about equal distances to either side of
the Q -point. For this situation the IB = 20 mA and 30 mA curves meet the requirement
without extending too far from the Q -point. They also define levels of IB that are easily
defined rather than require interpolation of the level of IB between the curves. It should be
mentioned that the best determination is usually made by keeping the chosen ΔIB as small as
possible.
At the two intersections of IB and the vertical axis, the two levels of IC can be determined by
drawing a horizontal line over to the vertical axis and reading the resulting values of IC

The resulting βac for the region can then be determined by

7
Cont. from slide 7

BJT’s Configuration (Common-Emitter )

If the characteristics of a transistor are approximated by those

appearing in Fig. 3.17 , the level of βac would be the same in
every region of the characteristics. Note that the step in IB is
fixed at 10 mA and the vertical spacing between curves is the
same at every point in the characteristics—namely, 2 mA.
Calculating the βac at the Q -point indicated results in

8
Cont. from slide 8

BJT’s Configuration (Common-Emitter )

Biasing

The proper biasing of a common-emitter amplifier can be determined in a manner

similar to that introduced for the common-base configuration. Let us assume that
we are presented with an npn transistor such as shown in Fig. 3.18a and asked to
apply the proper biasing to place the device in the active region.

The first step is to indicate the direction of IE as established by the arrow in the
transistor symbol as shown in Fig. 3.18b . Next, the other currents are introduced
as shown, keeping in mind Kirchhoff’s current law relationship: IC + IB = IE. That
is, IE is the sum of IC and IB and both IC and IB must enter the transistor structure.
Finally, the supplies are introduced with polarities that will support the resulting
directions of IB and IC as shown in Fig. 3.18c to complete the picture. The same
approach can be applied to pnp transistors. If the transistor of Fig. 3.18 was a pnp
transistor, all the currents and polarities of Fig. 3.18c would be reversed.

9
Cont. from slide 9

BJT’s Configuration (Common-Emitter )

As with the common-base configuration, there is a maximum collector-emitter voltage

that can be applied and still remain in the active stable region of operation. In Fig. 3.19
the characteristics of Fig. 3.8 have been extended to demonstrate the impact on the
characteristics at high levels of VCE .

At high levels of base current the currents almost climb vertically, whereas at lower
levels a region develops that seems to back up on itself. This region is particularly
noteworthy because an increase in current is resulting in a drop in voltage totally
different from that of any resistive element where an increase in current results in an
increase in potential drop across the resistor. Regions of this nature are said to have a
negative-resistance characteristic.

Although the concept of a negative resistance may seem strange at this point, this text
will introduce devices and systems that rely on this type of characteristic to perform
their desired task. The recommended maximum value for a transistor under normal
operating conditions is labeled BVCEO as shown in Fig. 3.19 or V(BR )CEO .

It is less than V(BR )CEO and in fact, is often half the value of BVCEO. For this breakdown
region there are two reasons for the dramatic change in the curves. One is the avalanche
breakdown mentioned for the common-base configuration, whereas the other, called
punch-through, is due to the Early Effect.
In total the avalanche effect is dominant because any increase in base current due to the
breakdown phenomena will be increase the resulting collector current by a factor beta.

This increase in collector current will then contribute to the ionization (generation of
free carriers) process during breakdown, which will cause a further increase in base
current and even higher levels of collector current.

10
 COMMON-COLLECTOR CONFIGURATION

The third and final transistor configuration is the

common-collector configuration , shown in Fig. 3.20
with the proper current directions and voltage notation.
The common-collector configuration is used primarily
for impedance-matching purposes since it has a high
input impedance and low output impedance, opposite
to that of the common-base and common-emitter
configurations.

A common-collector circuit configuration is provided in Fig. 3.21 with

the load resistor connected from emitter to ground. Note that the collector
is tied to ground even though the transistor is connected in a manner
similar to the common-emitter configuration. From a design viewpoint,
there is no need for a set of common-collector characteristics to choose
the parameters of the circuit of Fig. 3.21 .

For all practical purposes, the output characteristics of the common-

collector configuration are the same as for the common-emitter
configuration. For the common-collector configuration the output
characteristics are a plot of IE vs VCE
for a range of values of IB .

The input current, therefore, is the same for both the common-emitter
and common-collector characteristics. The horizontal voltage axis for the
common-collector configuration is obtained by simply changing the sign
of the collector-to-emitter voltage of the common-emitter characteristics.

Finally, there is an almost unnoticeable change in the vertical scale of IC

of the common-emitter characteristics if IC is replaced by IE for the
common-collector characteristics (since α=1). For the input circuit of the
common-collector configuration the common-emitter base characteristics
are sufficient for obtaining the required information.

11
LIMITS OF OPERATION
For each transistor there is a region of operation on the
characteristics that will ensure that the maximum ratings are not
being exceeded and the output signal exhibits minimum distortion.

Such a region has been defined for the transistor characteristics of

Fig. 3.22 . Some of the limits of operation are self-explanatory,
such as maximum IC (normally referred to on the specification
sheet as continuous IC) and maximum VCE(often abbreviated as
BVCEO or V (BR )CEO on the specification sheet). For the transistor of
Fig. 3.22 , ICmax was specified as 50 mA and BV CEO as 20V.

The vertical line on the characteristics defined as VCEsat specifies

the minimum V CE that can be applied without falling into the
nonlinear region labeled the saturation region. The level of VCEsat
is typically in the neighborhood of the 0.3 V specified for this
transistor.

12
13
14
15
For point B , if a signal is applied to the circuit, the
device will vary in current and voltage from the The term biasing appearing in the title of this
operating point, allowing the device to react to (and chapter is an all-inclusive term for the application of
possibly amplify) both the positive and negative dc voltages to establish a fixed level of current and
excursions of the input signal. voltage.

If the input signal is properly chosen, the voltage For transistor amplifiers the resulting dc current and
and current of the device will vary, but not enough voltage establish an operating point on the
to drive the device into cutoff or saturation. characteristics that define the region that will be
employed for amplification of the applied signal.

Because the operating point is a fixed point on the

Point C would allow some positive and negative characteristics, it is also called the quiescent point
variation of the output signal, but the peak-to-peak (abbreviated Q -point). By definition, quiescent
value would be limited by the proximity of VCE = 0 means quiet, still, inactive. Figure 4.1 shows a
V and IC=0mA. general output device characteristic with four
operating points indicated
Operating at point C also raises some concern about
the nonlinearities introduced by the fact that the
spacing between IB curves is rapidly changing in
this region.

In general, it is preferable to operate where the gain

of the device is fairly constant (or linear) to ensure
that the amplification over the entire swing of input

signal is the same .

If no bias were used, the device would Point D sets the device operating point near
initially be completely off, resulting in a the maximum voltage and power level. The output
Q -point at A —namely, zero current voltage swing in the positive direction
through the device (and zero voltage is thus limited if the maximum voltage is not to be
BJT DC ANALYSIS across it). exceeded.

The biasing circuit can be designed to set the device operation at any of these points or others
OPERATING POINT within the active region. The maximum ratings are indicated on the characteristics of Fig.4.1
by a horizontal line for the maximum collector current I C max and a vertical line at the
maximum collector-to-emitter voltage VCE max .

The maximum power constraint is defined by the curve P C max in the same figure. At the lower
end of the scales are the cutoff region defined by IB ≤ 0 µA, and the saturation region ,
defined by VCE ≤ VCE sat .
16
 BJT DC ANALYSIS (BIAS
The fixed-bias circuit of Fig. 4.2 is the CONFIGURATION) The dc supply VCC can be separated
simplest transistor dc bias configuration. into two supplies (for analysis
Even though the network employs an npn purposes only) as shown in Fig. 4.3
transistor, the equations and calculations to permit a separation of input and
apply equally well to a pnp transistor output circuits.
configuration merely by changing all current
directions and voltage polarities. It also reduces the linkage between
the two to the base current IB . The
The current directions of Fig. 4.2 are the separation is certainly valid, as we
actual current directions, and the voltages are
note in Fig. 4.3 that VCC is
defined by the standard double subscript
notation. For the dc analysis the network can
connected directly to RB and RC just
be isolated from the indicated ac levels by as in Fig. 4.2 .
replacing the capacitors with an open-circuit
equivalent because the reactance of a
capacitor is a function of the applied
frequency.

17
18
19
 =

=
=

=
20
The term saturation is applied If we approximate the curves
to any system where levels of Fig. 4.8a by those
have reached their maximum appearing in Fig. 4.8b , a
values. quick, direct method for
determining the saturation
For a transistor operating in level becomes apparent. In
the saturation region, the Fig. 4.8b , the current is
current is a maximum value for relatively high, and the
the particular design. voltage VCE is assumed to be
0 V.
Change the design and the
corresponding saturation level Applying Ohm’s law, we can
may rise or drop. Of course, the determine the resistance
highest saturation level is between collector and
defined by the maximum emitter terminals as follows:
collector current as provided by
the specification sheet.

Saturation conditions are normally avoided because the base–collector junction is no

longer reverse-biased and the output amplified signal will be distorted.

An operating point in the saturation region is depicted in Fig. 4.8a . Note that it is in a
region where the characteristic curves join and the collector-to-emitter voltage is at or
below VCE sat . In addition, the collector current is relatively high on the characteristics.

21
Applying the results to the network schematic results in the configuration of
Fig. 4.9 . For the future, therefore, if there were an immediate need to know
the approximate ICmax sat for a particular design, simply insert a short circuit
equivalent between collector and emitter of the transistor and calculate the
resulting IC. In short, set VCE= 0V

For the fixed-bias configuration of Fig. 4.10 , the short circuit has been
applied, causing the voltage across RC to be the applied voltage VCC .

The resulting saturation current for the fixed-

bias configuration is

22
Recall that the load-line solution for a diode
network was found by superimposing the
actual diode characteristics of the diode on
a plot of the network equation involving the
same network variables. The intersection of
the two plots defined the actual operating
conditions for the network. It is referred to
as load-line analysis because the load
(network resistors) of the network defined
the slope of the straight line connecting the The output characteristics By joining the two points defined by Eqs. (4.13) and (4.14), we can
points defined by the network parameters. of the transistor also relate draw the straight line established by Eq. (4.12). The resulting line
the same two variables IC on the graph of Fig. 4.12 is called the load line because it is
The same approach can be applied to BJT and VCE as shown in Fig. defined by the load resistor RC . By solving for the resulting level
networks. The characteristics of the BJT are 4.11b . The device of IB , we can establish the actual Q -point as shown in Fig. 4.12.
superimposed on a plot of the network characteristics of IC versus
equation defined by the same axis VCE are provided in Fig.
parameters. The load resistor R C for the 4.11b . We must now
fixed-bias configuration will define the superimpose the straight
slope of the network equation and the line defined by Eq. (4.12)
resulting intersection between the two plots. on the characteristics.

The smaller the load resistance, the steeper The most direct method of
the slope of the network load line. The plotting Eq. (4.12) on the
network of Fig. 4.11a establishes an output output characteristics is to
equation that relates the variables IC and use the fact that a straight
VCE in the following manner: line is defined by two
points. If we choose IC to
be 0 mA, we are
specifying the horizontal
axis as the line on which
one point is located. By
substituting IC =0 mA into
Eq. (4.12), we find that
23
 If the level of IB is changed by varying the value of RB , the Q -point moves
up or down the load line as shown in Fig. 4.13 for increasing values of IB.

If VCC is held fixed and RC increased, the load line will shift as shown in Fig.
4.14 . If IB is held fixed, the Q -point will move as shown in the same figure.

If RC is fixed and VCC decreased, the load line shifts as shown in Fig. 4.15 .

24
25
EMITTER-BIAS CONFIGURATION

The dc bias network of Fig. 4.17 contains an emitter resistor to improve the
stability level over that of the fixed-bias configuration. The more stable a
configuration, the less its response will change due to undesirable changes in
temperature and parameter variations. The improved stability will be
demonstrated through a numerical example later in the section. The analysis
will be performed by first examining the base–emitter loop and then using the
results to investigate the collector–emitter loop.

The dc equivalent of Fig. 4.17 appears in Fig 4.18 with a separation of the
source to create an input and output section.

26
There is an interesting result that can be
derived from Eq. (4.17) if the equation is
used to sketch a series network that would
result in the same equation. Such is the
case for the network of Fig. 4.20 .

Solving for the current IB results in the

same equation as obtained above. Note
that aside from the base-to-emitter voltage
VBE , the resistor R E is reflected back to
the input base circuit by a factor (β+ 1).

In other words, the emitter resistor, which

is part of the collector–emitter loop,
―appears as‖ (β + 1)R E in the base–emitter
loop. Because b is typically 50 or more,
the emitter resistor appears to be a great
deal larger in the base circuit. In general,
therefore, for the configuration of Fig.
4.21.

Equation (4.18) will prove useful in the analysis to

follow. In fact, it provides a fairly easy way to
remember Eq. (4.17). Using Ohm’s law, we know
that the current through a system is the voltage
divided by the resistance of the circuit.

For the base–emitter circuit the net voltage is VCC -

VBE . The resistance levels are RB plus RE reflected
by (β+ 1).
The result is Eq. (4.17). 27
28
29
30
31
VOLTAGE-DIVIDER BIAS CONFIGURATION

The voltage-divider bias

configuration of Fig. 4.28 is such
a network. If analyzed on an
exact basis, the sensitivity to
changes in beta is quite small.

If the circuit parameters are

properly chosen, the resulting
levels of ICQ and VCEQ can be
almost totally independent of
beta. Recall from previous
discussions that a Q -point is
defined by a fixed level of ICQ
and VCEQ as shown in Fig. 4.29 .

The level of IBQ will change with

the change in beta, but the
operating point on the
characteristics defined by ICQ and
VCEQ can remain fixed if the
proper circuit parameters are
employed.

32
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