crystallization temperature, the least soluble salt becomes insoluble and precipitates out of the

liquid. Cooling the brine below this temperature results in even more precipitation of solids. This
data is published for all the common brines used and can be found in the M-I Completion Fluids
Handbook. The fluids engineer specifies a brine formula that takes into account the fluid’s
crystallization tendencies and the temperatures likely to be encountered in the workover operation.

Fluid Loss Rate

As stated earlier, drilling fluids use solids to deposit a filter cake against the formation. The fluid
engineer can check the effectiveness of the filter cake with a standardized API test called API water
loss, which measures the loss rate of the filtrate (liquid portion) of the fluid through the permeable
filter cake left by the solids in the fluid.

Components of Completion and Workover Fluids

Each fluid begins with a base fluid and a weighting agent. Then an additive package is selected to
condition the fluid to fit the specific characteristics of the well. The workover crew may use an oil-
based fluid, a water-based fluid, a clear brine, or another base fluid. Normally the base fluid chosen
is the least expensive one that satisfies two basic requirements:

• It must be capable of controlling the well.

• It must protect the formation from permanent permeability damage.

Base Fluid
Fluids have two basic components: a liquid or gas (the base fluid) and solids to condition the base
fluid to meet the requirements of the well. Workover crews may use oil, water, gas, or clear brine as
the base fluid. Water is the easiest to use and is less expensive than oil-based fluids or gas, but it is
not always suitable for a particular formation.

Water
The water in a water-based fluid may come from a variety of sources including produced water
(lease saltwater), fresh water, potable water, drinking-quality water, treated brackish water from
marshes, or treated seawater.

Oil
Crude oil, diesel, mineral oil, or synthetic vegetable-based oil may be used as a base.

Gas
For gas-based systems, nitrogen gas is combined with water and a chemical called a surfactant to
create stable foam. Foams are used in workovers on wells that have very low formation pressures
and therefore will not support the weight of a column of liquid. Nitrogen densities range from 1 to 5
ppg.
Clear Brine
Clear brine is a fluid made up mainly of chemical salts, such as sodium, chloride, calcium, or
potassium chloride. This base contains little or no clay or other solid material and is virtually clear. It
is used frequently because it minimizes formation damage.

Weighting Material
The weighting material in the fluid can be barite (barium sulfate), limestone (calcium carbonate), or
inorganic salts such as zinc bromide, calcium chloride, sodium chloride, or potassium chloride.

Additives
Additives are used to condition the fluid to meet the well requirements. The most common fluid
additives and their basic uses are listed in Table 5-2.

Water-Based Fluids
Conventional water-based drilling fluids can be used for workovers when a zone is to be abandoned
and the inherent solids damage to the formation is not an issue. They may also be used in wells
perforated with an intentional underbalance. These wells are immediately flowed through the perfs
and put on production, thus reducing the possibility of solids damage to the formation.

The physics of familiar water-based drilling muds are not within the scope of this manual. For
information on their components and properties, consult the M-I Drilling Fluids Manual.

Clay-free fluids use sized particles of organic salts or calcium carbonate to provide density and to
bridge across pore spaces, preventing fluid loss to the formation. The particles in these muds, unlike
clay minerals, can be dissolved in an appropriate solvent (water or acid), eliminating permanent
formation damage.

Oil-Based Fluids
An oil-in-water emulsion is a fluid of about 40% oil in a salt brine. It is used while gun perforating.

Solids-laden oil-based muds contain solids for weighting material (called organophyllic clays), but
have no free water and are thus selected to protect watersensitive clays. True oil-based mud
contains only about 5% water. The base oil (usually diesel) is dispersed as small droplets in the
water, with emulsifying agents added to keep the water and oil from separating. Invert emulsion
mud contains 10– 30% water, which is dispersed as small droplets in the oil. For completion and
workover use, the true oil-based muds are generally preferred as they are less damaging to the
formation.

Clear Brine Fluids

Brine is water saturated with a large amount of salt. Brine fluids are used worldwide. They are
readily available, safe for most formations, nonflammable, low-solids or solids-free, inexpensive in
the lower density ranges (up to about 11.5 ppg), and, in these lower densities, convenient to mix on
the rig. In the higher density ranges, they can be corrosive to completion components, very
expensive, and even toxic to personnel and the environment. Many of the brine systems are run
solids-free, which involves extensive filtration, sampling, and testing (see “Brine Filtration Units” on
page A-13 in the Appendix). Densities for the various commercially available brines are shown in
Table 5-3.

Brine fluids can be prepared on the rig or obtained premixed from fluid manufacturers. The crew
must treat the heavy brines to reduce their corrosive tendencies and take care not to precipitate out
the salt. The risks to personnel and the environment are significant.

Brines are made from a water base (either drinking water, treated potable water, or treated lease
water), one or more salts selected for the required density, and, if required, viscosifiers, pH control
agents, and corrosion control agents.

One problem that workover crews must keep in mind when using a clear brine is brine crystallization
(see “Crystallization Temperature” on page 5-8). If the salt crystallizes, it can plug lines and valves. If
it settles in the fluid tanks, the density of the fluid may change and, when pumped back into the
hole, may not be high enough to maintain primary well control. Fortunately, the process is
reversible. Reheating the brine above its crystallization temperature dissolves the solids with no
permanent change in the brine properties.

Commonly Used Brines

Some of the most commonly used brines include:

• Sodium chloride

• Potassium chloride

• Calcium chloride

Sodium Chloride
Statistically, sodium chloride (NaCl) is the most commonly used brine. It can be mixed in densities
from 8.4 to 9.8 ppg. Many brine charts show the upper limit of NaCl brine as 10.0 ppg, but 10.0 ppg
is difficult to achieve in the field. That number is based on laboratory conditions—using distilled
water and chemically pure salt and stirring with a high-speed blender. The crystallization
temperature range is 31°F for 8.4 ppg down to -5°F for 9.8 ppg.

Table 5-4 indicates the quantities for mixing NaCl brine to different densities and also shows their
corresponding crystallization points.

Potassium Chloride
Potassium chloride (KCl) can be mixed in densities from 8.4 to 9.7 ppg. The crystallization
temperature range is 31°F for 8.4 ppg to 60°F for 9.7 ppg. Table 5-5 gives quantities for mixing KCl
brine to different densities and the corresponding crystallization points. A 2% KCl solution, which
requires NaCl, is so commonly used (for clay inhibition) that a mixing table is included for reference
(see Table 5-6).
Calcium Chloride
Calcium chloride (CaCl2) can be mixed in densities from 8.4 to 11.6 ppg, so it provides a large
density range. The crystallization temperature range is 31°F for 8.4 ppg to 44°F for 11.6 ppg. Dry
calcium chloride is available in two grades: 77% and 94%. The 94% grade is preferred since it
contains fewer unidentified solids. For economic reasons, solutions of NaCl/CaCl2 are sometimes
used instead of CaCl2 only. Mixing CaCl2 produces an exothermic (heat-generating) reaction, so the
WSS should ensure that personnel take precautions to avoid burns.

Table 5-7 gives quantities for mixing CaCl2 brine to different densities and the corresponding
crystallization points.