PHYSICS

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 Transfer of Heat
AIEEE Syllabus
Heat transfer-conduction, convection and radiation, Newton’s law of
cooling
10
CHAPTER

Heat transfer can take place from one place to the other by three different THIS CHAPTER
processes namely conduction, convection and radiation. COVERS :
HEAT CONDUCTION  Heat Conduction
Conduction usually takes place in solids.  Steady State
Steady State  Thermal Resistance
When heat conduction takes place across say a rod of certain material, the  Series and Parallel
state at which each cross-section of rod is at a constant temperature (which Rods
is different for different sections) is called steady state. The bar does not
absorb any heat, and if the rod is completely lagged then the heat entering  Formation of Ice
one end is equal to the heat leaving other end. Layer

Law of Conduction  Convection

 Radiation
l
T1  Kirchhoff's Law
 A  Stefan's Law
A
T2  Newton's Law of
x Cooling
dx
 Wein's
Rate of heat flow across any section is given by Displacement Law

dQ dT
 kA
dt dx

dT
Here k = Thermal conductivity and is known as temperature gradient
dx
i.e. rate of change of temperature with distance.
Units of thermal conductivity are
Watt (metre-kelvin)–1 or Wm–1K–1

Important Results
(1) In steady state, rate of heat flow is same across any section

dQ  T  T2 
 kA  1 
dt  l 

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(2) If temperature at every cross section remains constant, temperature at a distance x from T1 end is

 T  T2  Tx
T x  T1   1 x
 l 
T1 T2

x
l
(3) Graphical Variation of Tx with x

(a) Lagged rod

T1 T2 T1
x dx

T2
x

(b) Unlagged rod

T1 T2 T1
x
dx

T2
x

Decreasing Order of Conductivity

For some special cases it is as follows :
(a) KAg > KCu > KAl
(b) Ksolid > Kliquid > Kgas
(c) Kmetals > Knon-metals

THERMAL RESISTANCE OF A ROD

dQ (T  T2 )
In steady state  kA 1
dt l
T1 T2
l  l l  A dQ/dt
R as in current electricit y R  A  A  k
kA  
l
Weidman – Frenz law

k
 constant
T
Where  is electrical conductivity
Composite Rod :
(1) Series
In steady state
dQ/dt dQ/dt
l l l  l2
R 1  2  1 A k1 k2 A
k1A k 2 A kA T1 T2
Where k = effective thermal conductivity given by l1 T l2

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l1  l 2
k
l1 l 2

k1 k 2

k1 k
T1  2 T2
l
Temperature of junction T  1 l2 . For same geometrical dimensions,
k1 k 2

l1 l2

k1T1  k 2T2
T 
k1  k 2

(2) In parallel
l
dQ dQ1 dQ2 dQ1
  A1 k1
dt dt dt dt
T1 T2
dQ2
A2 k2
1 1 1 k ( A1  A2 ) k1A1 k 2 A2 dt
    
R R1 R2 l l l

where k = effective coefficient of thermal conductivity given by

k1A1  k 2 A2
k
A1  A2

Applications
(1) If number of conductors having identical dimension are in series then equivalent thermal conductivity is harmonic
mean of individuals,

n 1 1 1
   .......... . 
K eq K 1 K 2 Kn

(2) If number of conductors having identical dimension are in parallel then equivalent thermal conductivity is
arithmatic mean of individuals,

K 1  K 2  K 3  ...  K n
K eq 
n T2
A2

k1A1 k A k A l2
T1  2 2 T2  3 3 T3 T1 A1 ‘T ’
l1 l2 l3
(3) T  l1
k1A1 k 2 A2 k 3 A3 A3
  l3
l1 l2 l3 T3

k1T1  k 2T2  k3T3

T  [l1 = l2 = l3, A1 = A2 = A3]
k1  k 2  k 3

(4) kA = k1A1 + k2A2 k2 R2

k1 R1
k1  3k 2
If R1 = R & R2 = 2R, then k 
4

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(5) Formation of ice

If temperature of water just below the ice layer = 0°C

– °C
x dQ/dt ice
dx
0°C

water 0°C

1
 Rate of formation 
instantane ous thickness

L x 2
Time taken to deposit x thickness, t =  t  x2
k 2
(6) Let there be a hollow sphere of inner radius r1 and outer radius r2, having inner surface temperature T1
and outer surface temperature T2, To calculate radial rate of flow of heat 'H', assume a spherical shell of
radius r and width dr. The heat flow rate through this section is given by

H
dr

r
r2
r1

4Kr1r2 (T1  T2 )
H
r2  r1

r1r2
H
r2  r1

CONVECTION
In this process, heat is transferred from one place to the other by the actual F
movement of heated substance. D E

To understand the convection process consider a beaker in which some liquid

is placed as shown in the figure. When liquid is heated at the bottom, the liquid B C
expands and hence pressure at that point (A) reduces. So liquid from B & C A
moves toward point A. Now to take position of liquid at B & C liquid from D & Burner
E moves towards B & C respectively. At D & E liquid is supplied from region F
and to fill the vacant place F liquid moves from A to F. In this way convention
currents set up on the whole beaker.
Natural Convection : This type of convection results from difference in densities
due to difference in temperature.
Forced Convection : Here, heated fluid is forced to move by a blower.

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RADIATION
The process by which heat is transferred directly from one body to another, without requiring any medium is called
radiation.
1. Radiation is the fastest mode of heat transfer as in this mode, heat energy is propagated at speed of light,
i.e., 3 × 108 m/s.
2. As all bodies radiate energy at all temperatures (more than K) and at all times, radiation from a body can
never be stopped.
3. Heat radiations are invisible, travel in straight line, cast shadow, affect photographic plate and can be reflected
by mirrors and refracted by glasses.
4. Blue star is hotter than red star.
5. A medium which allows heat radiations to pass through it without absorbing them is called diathermanous
medium. e.g. dry air.
6. A medium which partly absorbs heat rays is called athermanous medium. e.g. moist air, metals, wood, glass
etc.
Glass and water vapours transmit shorter wavelengths through them but reflects longer wavelengths. This concept
is utilised in Green House Effect. Glass transmits those waves which are emitted by a source at a temperature
greater than 100ºC. So heat rays emitted from sun are able to enter through glass enclosure but heat emitted
by small plants growing in the nursery gets trapped inside the enclosure.

Perfectly Black Body

A body which absorbs all the radiations incident on it is called perfectly black body.
Absorptive Power (a) : Absorptive power of a surface is the ratio of the radiant energy absorbed by it in a given
time interval to total radiant energy incident on it in the same time interval. Absorptive power of a black body is
maximum i.e. unity.
Emissive Power (e) : Emissive power of a surface is defined as the radiant energy emitted per second per unit
area of the surface.
Spectral Emissive Power : The radiant energy/second/area corresponding to a definite wavelength is called
spectral emissive power.
If e is spectral emissive power and e is emissive power then



e  e d 
0

Emissive power of a surface depends on its nature and temperature. Its units are W/m2.

KIRCHHOFF’S LAW
The ratio of emissive power to absorptive power for a given wavelength is same for all surfaces at the same
temperature, and is equal to the emissive power of a perfectly black body for that wavelength at that
temperature.
This implies that a good absorber is a good emitter. Following points must be remembered.
(1) Sand is rough and black. Therefore it is a good absorber as well as good emitter.
(2) A polished metal plate has a black spot. When the plate is heated strongly and taken to a dark room,
spot will appear brighter than the plate.
(3) In sodium absorption spectrum, two dark lines in yellow region are found. If emission spectrum of sodium
is observed, it is found to emit the corresponding lines.
(4) Fraunhoffer lines are dark lines in spectrum of sun and are formed because, the elements present in outer
atmosphere absorb their characteristic wavelengths.
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STEFAN’S LAW
The radiant energy emitted by a perfectly black body per second per unit area (emissive power) is directly
proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature of the body.
RT4 R = T 4

Power
R  P = AT 4
Area

For other bodies P = AT4,  is emissivity of the body.

Rate of heat loss
For a sphere of radius r at a temperature T placed in a surrounding of temperature T0, the rate of heat loss
dQ
is  4r 2 (T 4  T04 ) , Where  is emissivity..
dt

Rate of cooling

dT 3(T 4  T04 )
It is rate of fall in temperature, It is given by 
dt sr

Newton’s Law of Cooling

If the temperature T of a body is not much different from surrounding temperature T0, then rate of cooling of
a liquid is directly proportional to the difference in the temperature of liquid T and temperature of surroundings
i.e.

Rate of cooling  dT  (T  T0 )
dt

Results
(1) Tf = T0 + (Ti – T0)e–t, where Ti is initial temperature, Tf is temperature after time t.

Ti  T0
(2) Another form t  log
Tf  T0

Ti
 
m  mass of body 
 dT 4AT03   T0
(3)  (T  T0 ),  c  specific heat 
dt mc  A  surface area 
   emissivity 
 
t

(4) Another approximate formula is

ln(T1 – T0)
T1  T2  T  T2 
  1  T0 
t  2 
t
Above formula gives time ‘t’ taken by the body to cool from
T1 to T2. T0 is temperature of surrounding.

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Thermometric Conductivity or Diffensivity

It is defined of the ratio of thermal conductivity to the thermal capacity per unit volume of material.
K
D
c
K  thermal conductivity
  density
c  specific heat
Practical examples :
(1) Hot water loses heat in smaller duration as compared to moderate warm water.
(2) Adding milk in tea reduces the rate of cooling.

WEIN’S DISPLACEMENT LAW

This law states that the wavelength corresponding to maximum intensity for a black body is inversely proportional
to the absolute temperature of the body

b
m 
T
where b is a constant known as Wein's constant
Results

T1
1 T2

 2 T1
T2
1 2

(1) max T = b
(2) b = 2.898 × 10–3 m-K
(3) Area under e –  graph = T 4
(4) If the temperature of the black body is made two fold, max
becomes half, while area becomes 16 times.
(5) Temperature of the Sun,
If T = temperature of sun, then total energy radiated by sun per second = T4 (4R2)
The Sun
R The Earth

Intensity at distance r from the sun (i.e., on earth)

T 4R 2
I = S (Solar constant) = [S = 1.4 KW / m2]
r2
14
 r 2 S
So, T   2  
 
 R  

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