CLASSIFICATION OF CASTING TECHNIQUES

CLASSIFICATION OF CASTING TECHNIQUES

Classification:

1. Expendable moulds (temporary moulds)

- Sand moulding
- Shell moulding
- Full moulding
- Investing casting
- Co2 moulding
2. Permanent moulds (Metallic moulds)
- Centrifugal casting
- Die Casting
- Slush Casting
3. Continuous Casting

1. Shell Moulding:

1. This technique is used to produce better surface finish of the objects and more accuracy
when compared to sand moulding.
2. Pattern is produced by metallic material and it will be heated upto 2500C.
3. Moulding material contains fine grain dry silica sand, Phenolic resins((Phenol
formaldehyde & Urea formaldehyde) and alcohol
4. Moulding material is made in contact with pattern material. Due to heat from the pattern
phenolic resins get activated the bonding properties and moulding sand will be sticking
to the surface of pattern in the form of shell.

Fig. 1 Shell Moulding process

5. Thickness of the shell will depends on contact time between pattern and moulding
material, this is known as dwell time.
6. After getting required thickness of the shell, pattern and shell will be separated from the
mould box and they will be heated up to 3500C to increase strength of the shell.
7. After that shell will be separated from the pattern and required number of shells can be
produced by repeating the above process and they will be added to get the required
shape of the cavity.
8. Shell will be kept in a flask with necessary backup material and the molten metal is
poured into the cavity.
 9. After solidification by breaking the mould, castings will be separated.
10.It can be used for mass production
11.Materials can be cast: CI, Al and Cu alloys.

Advantages:
 More dimensional accuracy.
 Smoother surface finish. (Due to finer size grain used)
 Very thin sections can be cast.
 Very small amount of sand is needed.

Limitations:
 Expensive pattern
 Small size casting only.( upto 200 kg)
 Highly complicated shapes cannot be obtained.
 More sophisticated equipment is needed for handling the shell moldings.

Applications:
 Cylinders and cylinder heads of air cooled IC engines
 Rocker arms, Valve plates of refrigerators and Power transmission parts, etc.

2. Investment Casting

1. To produce smooth surface finish of the objects with high precision and accuracy, this
technique is used.
2. Complex shape of the objects made up of high M.P materials can be produced
3. Pattern is produced by wax material using a die. Number of patterns will be added along
with gating elements to produce a pattern assembly.
4. Slurry coatings are provided on the pattern and fine grain ceramic particles will be added
on the surface of the wax pattern to get a ceramic shell. The above process is repeated
until required thickness of ceramic shell is produced, this is known as ‘stuccoing’ process.
5. By heating the ceramic shell, solid wax can be melted into liquid form and it will be
removed from the shell to get the required shape of the cavity.
6. To remove any wax traces in the shell, it can be heated in a oven upto 950 0 C and liquid
metal will be allowed to solidify.
7. After solidification, by breaking the ceramic shell castings can be produce
8. To minimize the gas defects, this process is carried out under vacuum conditions.

Advantages:
 close dimensional tolerances can be produced
 Excellent surface finish (1.2 to 3.0 mm )
 Machining can be reduced or completely eliminated
 High melting point alloy can be cast, almost any metal can be cast
 Unlimited intricacy

Limitations:
 Costly patterns and moulds
 Labour costs can be high
 Limited size

Applications
 1. Aerospace and rocket components, Gas turbine blades, jet engine parts, medical
implants, dentures (Surgical instruments), Gold ornaments etc.

Fig.2 Investment casting process

3. Full Moulding/ Cavity less moulding / Evaporative pattern casting(EPC)

1. To produce complex shape of the objects in mass production, this technique is used.
2. Pattern is produced by plastic material and number of gating elements will be added on
the pattern.
3. Slurry coatings are provided on the pattern and refractory materials will be added to
produce a shell around the pattern.
4. By providing pattern and shell inside the mould box, sand will be filled and by providing
vibrating mechanism, moulding sand will be settled inside the mould box.

5. Liquid metal is directly allowed on to the pattern. Due to high temperature, Pattern will
start evaporation and it will be converted into gaseous form
 6. By allowing the gases to escape, cavity can be created into which liquid metal will be
simultaneously filled and it allowed to solidify.
7. After solidification, by breaking the mould the required casting can be produced.
8. If moulding material is replaced by plaster of Paris then it is called Plaster moulding. It
is used to produce low melting point Non ferrous materials.

Fig. 3 Full Moulding

Applications

Tooling, Fittings, Lock components, Motor casings, etc.

4. Co2 Moulding

1 To increase the strength and hardness of large size moulds and cores, this technique is
used.
2. Mould is prepared by adding sodium silicate binder. Co 2 gas is supplied to the mould for
sufficient time. It will react with sodium silicate and produce silica gel which is having
better bonding properties. Due to this strength of the mould can be increased.
Na 2 SiO3  2  6%
Na 2 SiO3  Co2  SiO2  Na 2 Co3
Where SiO2 is having gelling action (Silica gel)
3. Strength of the mould will depends on time of supplying of Co 2 gas to the mould known
as Co2 gassing time.
4. There is a possibility of reducing permeability and collapsibility of mould, due to this
breathing of mould is difficult.

Centrifugal Casting
a) True Centrifugal Casting:

1. To produce hollow symmetrical objects without using core, in mass production, this
technique is used.
2. Liquid metal will be entering into the mould which is under rotation. Due to centrifugal
force, high density pure liquid metal can be forced away from the centre and the less
density impurities can be collected towards the centre.
3. Mechanical properties of centrifugally cast jobs are better compared to other processes,
because the inclusions such as slag and oxides get segregated towards the centre and
can be easily removed by machining. Also, the pressure acting on the metal throughout
the solidification causes the porosity to be eliminated giving rise to dense structure.
4. Through this process, only axi- symmetric hollow objects are produced
5. Installation cost is more
Advantages:
 Fine grained structure at the outer surface of the casting with free of gas and shrinkage
cavities and porosity
 Formation of hollow interiors in cylinders without cores
 Can produce a wide range of cylindrical parts, including ones of large size.
 Good dimensional accuracy, soundness, and cleanliness
 There is no need for gates and runners, which increases the casting yield, reaching
almost 100 %.

Fig.5 True centrifugal casting

Limitations:
 More segregation of alloy component during pouring under the forces of rotation
 Contamination of internal surface of castings with non-metallic inclusions
 Inaccurate internal diameter
 Shape is limited.
 Spinning equipment can be expensive
 Poor machinability
Applications
Hollow cylindrical pipes, Gun barrels, cylindrical bushes, propeller shafts are produced.

B) Semi-Centrifugal Casting

1. Liquid metal will be entered into the die cavity through sprue at the centre of the mould
and Centrifugal force assists the flow of metal from a central reservoir to the extremities
of a rotating symmetrical mold.
2. Rotational speeds are lower than for true centrifugal casting
3. Cores can be used to increase the complexity of the product.
4. Casting yield may be less than true centrifugal casting.

Fig. 6 Semi –Centrifugal Casting

Applications:
Wheels, Pulleys etc.

C) Centrifuging:

1. Uses centrifuging action to force the metal from a central pouring reservoir into separate
mold cavities that are offset from the axis of rotation.
2. Low speed
3. Axis of rotation does not coincides with axis object
 Fig. 8 Centrifuging proess
Applications:
Patterns used in investment casting

Die-casting
a. Gravity Die Casting
b. Pressure Die Casting

a. Gravity Die Casting

1. Liquid metal enters into the cavity by means of gravity force only.
2. It is used to produce simple shape of the objects made up of high fluidity materials.
3. Surface finish of the objects are very high.
4. Due to fast rate of cooling, fine gain structure will be developed in the castings
which are having more strength and hardness. It can be used in mass production.

Applications:

Pistons used in Automobiles made up of Aluminium alloys

b. Pressure Die Casting

1. Molten metal is injected into die cavity under pressure ranging from 100 to 150 MPa.
2. Pressure is maintained during solidification
3. After which the dies are separate and the casting is ejected along with its attached
sprues and runners.
4. Cores must be simple and retractable and take the form of moving metal segments

A. Hot chamber Die casting process:

1. It is suitable for low melting temperatures materials like Lead, Tin & Zinc
2. Liquid metal will be entering into the cavity under external piston force
3. Furnace is integrated with die. It is used to produce the complex shape of the objects
made up of low melting point materials
4. Liquid metal is not exposed to the outside atmospheric gases so the possibility of metal
oxide losses will be less.
5. Liquid metal will be getting solidified in the die cavity under pressure. Due to this high
dense structure can be produced in casting.
6. The production rate is high.
7. Due to sticking property of aluminum, it is not used in hot chamber die casting.
B Cold chamber process:

1. It is used to produce high melting point materials compared to hot chamber process
like aluminum, copper, brass etc.,
2 contact of the liquid metal inside the chamber is less.
3 To minimize the gas defects, flux material will be added in the ladle before filling into
cavity.

Advantages:

 Extremely smooth surfaces (1 µm)

 Excellent dimensional accuracy
 Rapid production rate
 Better mechanical properties compared to sand casting
 Intricate parts possible
 Minimum finishing operations
 Thin sections possible

Limitations:
 High initial die cost
 Limited to high-fluidity nonferrous metals
 Part size is limited
 Porosity may be a problem
 Some scrap in sprues, runners, and flash, but this can be directly recycled

Applications

Carburetors, Crank cases, valve bodies, fuel injection pump parts, toilet fixtures etc.,
Slush Casting

1. To produce thin castings and hollow thin castings of required thickness without using
the core, this technique is used.
2. Liquid metals allowed to solidify on the die.
3. After getting required thickness of the casting by rotating the die, un solidified liquid
metal can be removed from the solidified metal. This is known as partial
solidification.
4. It is generally used for low melting point Non-ferrous materials.
5. In centrifugal casting we can produce hollow shapes of axi-symmetric objects but in
slush casting, we can able to produce the complex shapes of un-symmetric objects.

Applications:

Lamp shades, Ornaments, Toys, Decorative items, Hollow statues etc.

Continuous casting

1. To produce continuously long length metallic objects in mass production directly from
the liquid metal this technique can be used.
2. Liquid metal is allowed through the die opening and the output of the die is a solid
crust on which water will be sprayed to cool the material at a faster rate.
3. Depending on properties required by object, different cooling rates are provided.

Applications

Long length slabs, billets and bars etc.,

CASTING DEFECTS

1. Gas defects
2. Moulding material & Methods
3. Improper Gating design
4. Pouring metal
5. Metallurgical defects
6. Other defects

Gas Defects

a) Blowholes & Open blows

Blow holes

Gas defects which are formed inside the casting is blow holes and outside the casting is
 known as open blows.

b) Scar : A shallow blow which is formed on the flat surface of the casting is scar.

c) Blister :

A scar covered by this layer of metal is known as Blister.

d) Pin hole porosity:

Small size gas defects which are formed due to hydrogen (H2) gas is known as pin holes.

Remedies

1. Heat the liquid metal in the furnace upto pouring temperature only.
2. Convert green sand moulds into dry sand moulds before filling the liquid metal into
cavity.
3. Select the moulding sand such that it has good permeability
4. Provide vent holes

Moulding material & methods

a) Drop & Dirt :

Due to improper ramming, loose silica sand particles will be dropped from cope surface, will
form a projection on top surface of casting known as drop & a cavity at the bottom surface of
the casting is known as dirt.

b) Cuts & Washes

 These appear as rough spots and areas of excess metal, and are caused by erosion of
molding sand by the flowing metal.
 This is caused by the molding sand not having enough strength and the molten metal
flowing at high velocity.
 The former can be taken care of by the proper choice of molding sand and the latter can
be overcome by the proper design of the gating system.
Scab
 This defect occurs when a portion of the face of a mould lifts or breaks down and the
recess thus made is filled by metal.
 When the metal is poured into the cavity, gas may be disengaged with such violence as
to break up the sand, which is then washed away and the resulting cavity filled with
metal.
 The reasons can be: - too fine sand, low permeability of sand, high moisture content of
sand and uneven mould ramming.

d) Metal penetration:

 When molten metal enters into the gaps between sand grains, the result is a
rough casting surface.
 This occurs because the sand is coarse or no mold wash was applied on the
surface of the mold. The coarser the sand grains more the metal penetration.

Gating design

a) Shrinkage cavities :

Due to improper riser design and due to the shrinkage of the material, the cavities
formed in the casting is known as shrinkage cavities.

Pouring metal defects

a) Misrun :
Due to lack of fluidity of the liquid metal, before reaching thin section of the cavity, if the
liquid metal will solidify, it will form a defect known as Misrun.

b) Cold shut:
 Two streams of liquid metal will not fuse properly will form a defect in the casting
known as cold shut.
To overcome these defect, provide optimum pouring temperature & use cavity lining.

Metallurgical defects

a) Hot tears/cracks:

 Due to non-uniform cooling non-uniform shrinkage stresses can be developed in the

casting.
 If these stresses are more than the strength of the material, cracks will be formed on the
casting. These are known as hot tears/ hot cracks.
 To overcome this defect, chills are provided.

Other defects

(a) Core Shift (b) Mould Shift

Core shift: Shifting of core form its original position due to upward buoyancy force is known
as core shift.To overcome this defect, chaplets & core prints are provided.

Mould shift: Due to improper position of cope box on drag box, there is a mismatch in the
casting along the Parting line. This can be overcome by providing clamps & dowel pins.
 FURNACE
1. Crucible Furnace
• Smaller foundries generally prefer this furnace.
• The metal is placed in a crucible which is made of clay and graphite. The energy is
applied indirectly to the metal by heating the crucible by coke, oil or gas.
• Used for melting of non-ferrous materials

2. Electric Arc Furnace

 For heavy steel castings, the open-hearth type of furnaces with electric arc would be
generally suitable in view of the large heat required for melting.
 Heat is generated by producing electric arc between a non-consumable carbon electrode
and charge.
 Electric arc furnaces are more suitable for ferrous materials and for larger in capacity.
3. Cupola Furnace
 Cupola has been the most widely used furnace for melting cast iron.
 In hot blast cupola, the flue gases are used to preheat the air blast to the cupola so that
the temperature in the furnace is considerably higher than that in a conventional cupola.
Coke is fuel and Lime stone (CaCO3) is mostly used flux.
 Cost of melting low.
 Main disadvantages of cupola are that it is not possible to produce iron below 2.8%
carbon.
 Steel can be also prepared in cupola by employing duplexing and triplexing operations.
• Less control of final quality, and losses involved are more.
• Operating temp. 1650oC
 3. Induction Furnace:
• Induction furnaces are used for all types of materials, the chief advantage
being that the heat source is isolated from the charge and slag & flux get the
necessary heat directly from the charge instead of the heat source.
• Higher yield, faster start up, cleaner melting, natural stirring and compact
o
installation(Operating temp. 1700 C)

4. Reverberatory furnace
• Reverberatory furnaces heat the metal with direct fired wall-mounted burners.
• Heat transfer is through radiation from the refractory brick walls to the metal, but
convective heat transfer also provides additional heating from the burner to the metal.
• high volume rate, and low operating and maintenance costs.
• high metal oxidation rates, low efficiencies, and large floor space requirements
• Operating temp. 1700oC