Handbook of ACCELERATOR PHYSICS ENGINEERING Ected by Alexander Wu Chao Stonford Linear Accelerator Center Maury Tigner Camel Unitersty Ve World Scientific Singapore «New Jersey *London* Hong KongPublished by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. P.O Box 128, Farrer Road, Singapore 912805. USA office: Suite 1B; 1060 Main Street, River Edge, NJ 07661 UK office: 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H SHE: Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data. Handbook of accelerator physics and engineering / [edited by} Alexander Wu Chao, Maury Tigner. Pp. cm. Includes index. ISBN 9810235003 ISBN 9180238584 (pbk) 1, Particle accelerators -- Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Nuclear physics Handbooks, manuals, ete, I. Chao, Alex. If. Tigner, M. IML Title: Accelerator physics and engineering, QC787.P3H36 | 1998 539.73-de21 9.13549 cP British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Copyright © 1999 by World Scientific Put ing Co, Pte. Ltd. All rights reserved. This Book, or parts thereof; may not be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval system now known or to be invented, without written permission from the Publisher, For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. In this case permission to photocopy is not required from the publisher. Printed in Singapore.Preface This Handbook is a product of the world community of accelerator physicists and engineers. It is not a textbook but rather a collection of information useful to professionals in design, construction, and operation of accelerators. The Handbook has been prepared by more than 200 experienced experts from across the spectrum of accelerator related institutions and to them great thanks are due. In addition to content, a high priority has been given to portability of the book. This has led to a sacrifice of some aesthetics in order to make the text as compact as possible. For that, our apologies go to users and authors alike, Singularly important are the references to be found at the end of each sub-section. Here the user will find locations of tutorial material as well as reliable detail for further reading. The references for thie most part are not intended to be exhaustive or to indicate priority of discovery or invention, but rather to provide a reliable lead into the literature. In addition, a detailed index gives access to occurrences of important subjects and concepts to be found herein. The fees and royalties that would normally be paid to authors and editors are being used instead to provide scholarships to the two world Accelerator Schools now in operation, the CERN Accelerator School and the US Particle Accelerator School. As hard'as the authors and editors tried to be careful, itis not possible to be completely error free. An updated errata list has therefore been established; it can be found at the Handbook website http://www. wspe.com.sg/books/physics/3818.html, The editors would appreciate receiving any suggestions of corrections. To suggest corrections, please send e-mails to [email protected]. Editors Alexander Wu Chao, Stanford, California ‘Maury Tigner, Ithaca, New York September, 1998Acknowledgements ‘The editors hereby acknowledge with deepest appreciation and thanks the support of the Directors of SLAC at Stanford University and of the Laboratory of Nuclear Studies at Cornell University without which this work would have simply been impossible, We also wish to give special thanks to Scott Berg, Indiana University, and Tom Hays, Cornell, for essential help with the technical complexities of typesetting software and to Jim Wahl, SLAC and Don Miller, Cornell for their indispensable help with the illustrations, For continual guidance and help with the intricacies of computer hardware and software, great thanks are due to Tom Knight, SLAC. viTable of Contents Preface 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 HOWTO USE THIS BOOK . 12 13 FUNDAMENTAL CONSTANTS 1.4 UNITS AND CONVERSIONS 14.1 Units AW. Chao... 1.42 Conversions M. Tigner 15 FUNDAMENTAL FORMULAE A.W. Chao Special Functions........ Curvilinear Coordinate Systems Electromagnetism a5 Kinematical Relations Vector Analysis . 15.6 Relativity . S 1.6 GLOSSARY OF ACCELERATOR TYPES . Betatron M. Tigner . Colliders J. Rees. . . Cyclotron H. Blosser... ... Electrostatic Accelerator J. Ferry Free Electron Lasers C, Pellegrin Induction Linacs R. Bangerter...... « Linear Accelerators for Electron G.A. Loew Livingston Chart J, Rees... 0.0. es 1.6.12.1 Radiation therapy 16.122 Radioisotopes . . . . Microtron PH. Debenham . pty Colliders R. Palmer . 5 Pulsed High Voltage Devices J. Nation Radio Frequency Quadrupole J. Staples . Spallation Sources H. Lengeler 1.6.20 Wakefield Accelerators J. Simpson . . . 1.7 COMPUTER CODE LIBRARY . Antiproton Sources J. Peoples JP Marriner. High Voltage Electrodynamic Accelerators M, Cleland . Medical Applications of Accelerators J. Alonso . Synchrotrons and Storage Rings E.J.N. Wilson. ‘Two-Beam Accelerators A. Sessler, G. Westenskow Industrial Applications of Electrostatic Accelerators G. Norton, J.L. Duggan . me eIDAAHHR ARE2 BEAM DYNAMICS 21 22 23 24 2s PHASE SPACE 2.1 Linear Betatron Motion D.A. Edwards, M, Syphers . 2.1.2 Longitudinal Motion D.A. Edwards,M. Syphers . . 2.1.3 Linear Coupled Systems D.A. Edwards, M. Syphers 2.1.4 Orbital Bigen-analysis for Electron Storage Rings JA. Ellison, H. Mais, G. Ripken . on OPTICS ANDLATTICES ........ 22.1 Single Element Optics K. Brown 2.2.2 Cylinder Model of Multipoles M. Bassetti, C. 2.2.3. Lattices for Collider Storage Rings E. Keil 224 Lattices for Low-Emittance Light Sources A. Jackson... 2.25 Mobius Accelerators R.Talman......+. 4+ 2.2.6 Alpha Magnet H. Wiedemann . . NONLINEAR DYNAMICS . . . 23.1 Hamiltonian K. Symon . . 23.1 General case... . « 23.1.2 Transverse motion . . . 2.3.1.3 Longitudinal motion . . 2.3.1.4 Synchrobetatron coupling . . . 23.2. Tune Dependence on Momentum and Betatron Amplitudes D.A. Edwards, M. Syphers oo. ove vue eens 23.3 Nonlinear Resonances D.A. Edwards, M. Syphers . 2.3.4 Synchro-Betatron Resonances A. Piwinski 23.5 Taylor Maps J. Invin, A. Dragt .....« 23.6 LieMaps A.Dragt........ 23.7 Differential Algebraic Techniques M. Bere 2.3:8 Numerical Integration Methods H. Yoshida 23.8.1 Methods of realization 23.82 Sympletc mebod vs noneymplesie method - 23.9 Dynamic Aperture J, Irwin, 7. Yan... « 23.10 Decoherence M.A. Furman .. . 23.11 Momentum Compaction and Phase Slip Factor K.Y. Ng 23.12 Nonlinear Dynamics Experiments S.Fepgs 5 23.13 Echo ‘G.V. Stupakov 23.14 ‘Transverse Beam Shaping J Irvin... . 23.15 Hénon Map and Standard Map ¥.7. Yan .. ELECTRON GUNS AND PRE-INJECTORS H.G. Kirk R. Miller D. Yeremiian 2.4.1 Brightness Web decasaee 2.42. DC High Voltage Guns-and Bunching Systems — 2.42.1 Gumcharacteristics . . 2.4.2.2 Longitudinal dynamics 2423 Radial dynamics . ... . 243 RFGuns . = 244 Compensation of Space-Charge Effects | | COLLECTIVEEFFECTS .... 0.2.22... 2.5.1 ‘Collective Effects in High ney ‘Btectron Linacs'K. Thompson K K Toya : 25.1.1 Single bunch effects . 2.5.1.2 Muiltibunch Effects. . . 2.52 Beam Loading D. Boussard . 25.2.1 Single-bunch passage i 25.2.2 Cavity equivalent circuit viii26 27 28 253 254 255 2.5.6 257 258 2.59 2.5.10 25.11 BEAM-BEAMEFFECTS ......... 26.1 2.62 2.63 2.6.4 POLARIZATION . 0. 2-00 eee 271 212 213 214 a 21.6 27.7 218 219 BEAMCOOLING .........5-+5 2.8.1 28.2 283 2.84 28.5 ‘Transmission of small’ modulations (AM and. Pup thongh « envy with beamioading 6.6.66 e ee eee Periodic beam loading at multiples of fy . . ac Rf power needed for transient beamm-loading correction. |. Traveling-wave cavities ..... . 7 Space Charge Effects in Circular Accelerators B. Zowter . . . 2.5.3.1 Direct space charge effects. . o 2.53.2 Betatron frequency shifts . Viasov and Fokker-Planck Equations. B, Zotter . . Potential Well Effect B.Zotter............ Single-Bunch Instabilities in Circular Accelerators. B, Zotter . Sacherer Formulae B. Zotter oe Landau Damping A.W. Chao, B. Zotier . . . Touschek Effect and Intrabeam Scattering A. Piwinski . . Jon Trapping, Beam-Ion Instabilities, and Dust K Zimmermann. . 2.5.10.1 Jon Trapping . 25.102 Dust particles. . 5 2.5.10,.3 Single-pass ion effects in ‘storage rings and linacs - Electron-Cloud Effect M.A, Furman bbodc Beam-Beam Effects in Storage Rings K.Hirata . 2.6.1.1 Infinitely short bunches... . ... 2.6.1.2 Long bunches 2.6.1.3 Dispersion at IP, cross Beam-Beam Effects in Linear Cc 2 . 2.6.2.1 Disruption with negligible. beamstrahlung 2.6.2.2 ‘Beamstrahlung with negligible disruption . 2.62.3 QED and QCD backgrounds ....... Parasitic Beam-beam Effects and Separation Schemes J.M. Jowett. 2.6.3.1 Separation schemes ........ veveee 2.6.3.2. Long-range beam-beameffects . . Beam-Beam Compensation Schemes S. Poses ‘Thomas-BMT Equation 7 Roser . Spinor Algebra T: Roser . . Spin Rotators and Siberian Snakes T: Roser - Ring with Spin Rotators and Siberian Snakes 7: Roser Depolarizing Resonances and Spin Flippers 7: Roser... . . Polarized Proton Beams and Siberian Snakes A.D. Krisch Radiative Polarization in Electron Storage Rings D.P. Barber, G. Rpten« ‘Computer Algorithms and Spin Matching D.P. Barber, G. Ripken: . Lie Algebra for Spin Motion K. Yokoya . . . Stochastic Cooling J. Marriner. 2.8.1.1 Cooling rates. . . 2.8.1.2 Hardware Electron Cooling F Krienen . . . Laser Cooling in Storage Rings JS: Hangst . Ionization Cooling D. Neuffer . Crystalline Beams J. Wei. . 109 110 110 11 112 112 113 1s 15 7 120. 122 125 127 128 129 130 31 134 134 134 138 138 140 140 141 142 144 144 145 147 148 148 149 149 150 150 151 153 156 165 165 165 165 167 169 172 176 1783. ELECTROMAGNETIC AND NUCLEAR INTERACTIONS 31 32 33 SYNCHROTRON RADIATION . 3.1.1 Radiation of a Point Charge H. Wiedemann Coherent Radiation H. Wiedemann... . Bending Magnet Radiation H. Wiedemann . . we Synchrotron Radiation in Storage Rings H. Wiedemann... 3.12 3.13 314 315 3.1.6 IMPEDANCES AND WAKE FUNCTIONS . . . . Definitions and Properties of Impedances and fake Fanctions r ‘Suzuki wae Impedance Calculation, Frequency Domain R.L. Gluckstern, S.S. Kurennoy . Impedance Calculation, Time Domain 7. Weiland .......... Special Impedances for Lossy Smooth Pipes A. Piwinski..... . . Explicit Expressions of Impedances and Wake Functions KY. Ng. . Effective impedance T: Suzuki . eee Parasitic Loss P Wilson, B. Zotier Trapped Modes 5.5. Kurenngy . . PARTICLE-MATTER INTERACTION . Basic Formulae M. Tigner, A.W. Chao . Beam and Luminosity Lifetime . 3.24 3.22 3.23 324 325 3.2.6 3.2.7 3.28 33.1 33.2 333 3.34 3.35 3.3.6 3.3.7 33.8 3141 3.142 3.143 3144 3145 3.1.46 Undulator and Wiggler Radiation H. Wiedemann . Other Radiation Sources R. Carr, H. Wiedemann . . 3.1.6.1 3.1.6.2 3.1.63 3.1.64 3.1.65 3.1.6.6 3.1.6.7 3.1.68 3.1.6.9 3.1.6.10 3.16.11 3321 3322 Bhabha Scattering (te~ ++ ete) J. Compton Scattering (e*y + e*y) LE. Spencer . Limit of Focusing of Electron Beam due to Synchrotron Radiation K. Oide . Radiation integrals . Radiation damping . . Quantum excitation .... 4. Eulteium beam emiuanes Be Damping wigglers . ‘Quantum lifetimes . ‘Transition radiation . . Free electron laser . . . Cherenkov radiation . . “Shor” magne and ee radation : Bremsstrahlung .. . . Coherent bremsstrahlung Channeling radiation Compton backscatering radiation Diffraction radiation . a Parametric radiation . . ‘Smith-Purcell radiation Protons N.V; Mokhoy, VI. Balbekov Electrons M.S. Zisman "Spencer |. ‘Thermal Outgassing and Beam Induced Desorption AG. Mathewson, O. Grdbner . . Ae Ionization Processes F Zimmermann . . . Beam Induced Detector Backgrounds and Irradiation in e*e~ Colliders S.D. Henderson... 0... 0-0 0s es ao Ga 3.3.8.1 3.3.82 3.3.83 3.3.84 Sources of detector backgrounds Detector and IR radiation tolerance and budget - Detector background shielding .......... Detector background and radiation estimation . . x 181 181 181 182 183 185 185 186 186 187 187 188 188 190 190 191 191 191 192 192 192 193 193 193 194 194 194 195 199 203 203 208 209 212 212 212 214 214 217 218 223 24 227 228 228 231 231 2324 OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS 4.1 LUMINOSITY M.A. Furman, M.S. Zisman 42 43 44 4s 46 47 43 3.3.9 Particle Interactions NY. Mokhov, S.l. Striganov 3.3.10 Beam Collimation P. Bryant . 3.3.11 Atomic and Nuclear BRIGHTNESS K.-J. Kim 42.1 Particle Beam . 4.22. Radiation Beam . and Beam-Induced Backgrounds and Radiation Properties of Materials OPERATION OF HIGH ENERGY ELECTRON LINACS 0. Raubenheimer OPERATION OF FINAL FOCUS SYSTEMS IN LINEAR COLLIDERS TO. Raubenheimer, F Zimmermann... ov eee eevee cece OPERATION OF CIRCULAR ACCELERATORS, 45.1 Enor Sources and Effects D. Rice... . . 5 45.2. Orbit and Lattice Function Measurements D. Rice. 453 Orbit Correction S. Krinsky . 453.1 Global orbit correction | 453.2 Localorbit bump . . . 454° Measurement and Diagnosis of Coupling and Solenoid Compesaion D. Rubin 454.1 Sources of transverse coupling . cr 4542 Solenoids 45.43 Coupling matrix analysis . 4544 Measurement of coupling - 4.5.4.5 Measurement . 45.4.6 Solenoid compensation 455 Modeling and Control of Storage Rings Using Orbit Measurements J. Saranc 45.6 Emittance Dilution Effects M. Syphers . . 50 45.6.1 Injection mismatch 45.6.2 Diffusion processes . . TEMPORAL AND SPATIAL CORRELATIONS IN BPM MEASUREMENTS J. Irwin TRANSITION CROSSING RF GYMNASTICS IN A SYNCHROTRON R. Garo 4.8.1 Adiabaticity 4.8.2 Single Bunch Manipulations . . . 48.3 Multi-bunch Manipulations 4.8.4 Debunched Beam Manipulations . J. Wei 49. ENERGY MEASUREMENT WITH ELECTRON BEAMS J. 4.10 SLOW EXTRACTION PJ. Bryant 5 MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS MECHANICAL AND THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL MATERIALS. 51 5.2 53 54 58 5.6 $7 M. Kuchnir MECHANICAL AND THERMAL PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITE SUPERCON- DUCTORS RM. Scanlan FABRICATION OF NIOBIUM RF STRUCTURES T. Hays, H. Padamsee, D. Proch . THERMODYNAMIC & HYDRODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF COOLANTS & CRYOGENS M, McAshan . . . CREEP AND STRESS RELAXATION IN ACCELERATOR COMPONENTS EMarkley......... ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FORCES M. Tigner . DEFLECTIONS AND BUCKLING M. Tigner . . xi 251 305 308 310 3158 PRACTICAL HEAT TRANSFER AND FLUID FLOW M. MeAhan.M Tyner . . 5.9 REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS C.Rode,R.Ganni...........+- 59.1 Reffigerators ... 06. cee e eee 59.2 Storage and Utilities... 5.93 Transfer Lines 5.10 VACUUM SYSTEMS . 5.10.1 Requirements for Vacuum Systems ‘N.B. Mistry, ¥. Li 66 5.10.2. Units, Conversions and Some Useful Formulae N.B. Mistry, Yi. . 5.10.3 Conductance and Pressure Profiles N.B. Mistry, ¥Li..... 5.104 Pumping Methods N.B. Mistry, ¥ Li. . . . 5.10.5 Instrumentation N.B. Mistry, ¥ Li A 5.10.6 Vacuum Chamber Design and Fabrication N.B. Mistry, ¥ Li 5.10.7 Special Components in the Vacuum System NB. Mistry, ¥. Li 5.10.8 Ceramic Vacuum Chamber Design H. L. Phillips . . 5.11 ALIGNMENT R. Ruland . ‘5.12 MAGNET SUPPORTS AND ALIGNMENT G. Bowden . - 5:13 GROUND VIBRATION €. Montag 1 Rosbach « 5.13.1 Basics... ... . 5.13.2 Measurements 5.13.3 Instruments. . . 5.13.4 Linacs . . 5.13.5 Circular Accelerators - : 5.14 VIBRATION CONTROL IN ACCELERATORS D. Mangra, R. Merl, S. Kim, S. Sharma, J. Galayda 5.15 PROCESS CONTROL R. Carcagno...... ++ ELECTRICAL CONSIDERATIONS 6.1 PROPERTIES OF DIELECTRICS M. Tigner.. 0-0-0 eee eee cece 6.2. PROPERTIES OF CONDUCTORS, NORMAL AND SUPERCONDUCTING RM, Scanlan . — 63 PROPERTIES OF FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS M.Tigner « 6.4 PERMANENT MAGNET MATERIALS RD. Schlueter . . 65 PROPERTIES OF LOSSY MATERIALS M. Tigner ... . 6.6 COMMON TRANSMISSION LINES AND CAVITIES M, Tigner . 6.7 RF PULSE COMPRESSION ZD. Farkas 68 RF WINDOWS AND CAVITY COUPLING RW. Si 6.9 MULTIPACTING D. Proch ............ 6.10 POWER CONVERTERS (SUPPLIES) H.W. Isch . 6.11 POLYPHASE POWER CIRCUITS M. Tigner. . . = 6.12 RF BREAKDOWN, FIELD EMISSION AND DARK CURRENT G.A. Loew, J.W. Wang ae 6.13 HIGH VOLTAGE TECHNIQUE B. Goddard . 6.14 COATING RECIPES . 6.14.1 Recipes for Coating Windows RM. Sundelin, HL. Phillips. = 6.14.2. Recipes for Coating Ceramic and Metal Vacuum Chambers S.D. Henderson. 6.15 SUPERCONDUCTING WIRE AND CABLE RM. Scanlan... ......... 6.16 CAVITY MEASUREMENTS R. Rimmer, M. Tigner . 6.16.1 Field Maps by Perturbation Methods . . . . 6.16.2 Q and 6 Determination from Input Coupler 6.17 MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS 6.17.1 Accelerator Magnets A.K. Jain, P. Wanderer |. | 6.17.2 Insertion Device Measurement S. Marks, RD. Schlueter . felin, H.L. Phillips... 313 318 318 al6.18 HIGH POWER SWITCHES M. Gundersen, G.Roth .... 00.4 ee eee eee 415 7 SUBSYSTEMS 419 7.1 PARTICLE SOURCES 419 7.1 Electron Guns and Preinjectors A.D. Yeremian, RH. Miller 419 7.12 Polarized Particle Sources... . 7 422 7.12.1 Photoemission sources for polarized electrons ©. Prescott, J. Clendenin ..........4.% 422 7.122 Protons and heavy fons, TB. Clee W.Haeberli . 424 313 Amiga Proton Dugas. . 425 7.1.4 Ho Ion Sources K.N. Leung . 428 7.15 Positron Sources 430 71S ‘Tungsten targets S, Ecklund | : 430 7152 Conversion of undulator radiation K. Flottmann . 433 7.1.6 Charge State Strippers M.A. McMahan .......... 435 7.1.7 _ Lorentz Stripping of H~ Ions M. Furman . 438 7.2. CONFINEMENT AND FOCUSING . 439 7.21 Resistive Magnets FE. Mills. 439 722 Consequences of Saturation of High Permeability Material K Halbach .... 444 723 Special Topics in Magnetics K. Halbach ...- 2... .0eeeeeeee 723.1 Orthogonal and direct analog models . . . 7 7232. Properties of 3-D vacuum fields integrated along astraightline |. | 446 4233 Pole wiih acceaery to obtain deals field quay in a2-D magnet. 447 72.3.4 Eddy currents c 5 7235 Magnetic forces . . . 7123.6 Power dissipation in the dipole coils of a sorage vg with iron poles 449 7.2.4 Cos# Superconducting Magnets P Schmiiser . 450 725 Superferric Magnets A. Zeller . 7 456 72.6 Pulsed Magnets GH. Schroder... . . 460 727 Permanent Magnet Elements K. Halbach . 466 72.8 Electrostatic Separators J.J. Welch... . . 4B 7.29 Electrostatic Lenses A, Faltens 415 7.2.10 RF Separators H. Lengeler . 477 72.11 Plasma Lens P. Chen. . + 480 72.12 Lithium Lens G. Dugan . 483, 12.13 Orbit Feedback Control 5. Krinsky, 0. Singh . 486 72.14 Feedback Systems for Coupled Bunch Instabilities .7: Rogers 490 7215 Crystal Beam Bending R.A. Carrigan, Jn . 495 7.2.16 Injection and Ejection G. Rees. . : 497 7.2.17 Septum Devices R. Keizer... . 498 73 ACCELERATION ........ 501 73.1 RF System Design for Stability D. Boussard | 501 732. Kilystron Power Amplifiers... ... . 504 7321 Klystrons G, Caryorakis | 504 73.2.2 Amplifier systems H.D. Schwarz, = Migner 5 + 507 7.33 Tetrode Amplifiers LM. Brennan... . S 510 7.3.4 Drift Tube Linacs JM. Potter . . 513 735 Normal Conducting vp = cLinac Structures G.A. Loew - 516 73.6 Ferrite Loaded Cavities J.M. Brennan . 7 520 73.7 Fixed Frequency Cavities . a6 522 73.1.1 Multicell cavities W. Schnell. 522 73.72 Single cell cavities RA. Rimmer 525 xiii14 18 16 WW 7.3.8 Superconducting Cavities for vp D. Proch - 739. Superconducting Cavities for yy 0,=0if2 <0 = Ngefo, average bunch current peak bunch current horizontal (2), vertical (y), synchrotron (s) partition numbers current density = 2n/2, wave number thermal conductivity luminosity wavelength Poisson’s ratio betatron phase advance per period/turn total number of particles in beam ‘number of particles per bunch ina bunched beam number of bunches in beam horizontal betatron (x), vertical betatron (y), synchrotron (s) tune spin tune = 2nf, angular frequency = 2n fo, angular revolution freq. = Vz,y,swo, betatron (x, y), synchrotron (3) angular frequency solid angle particle momentum design particle momentum power quality factor of oscillator charge on a particle epee a Oe Oxy Cay ors sgn(z) t Tr T tA T Uo t uo » Vat Wim» Wam (or WA,Wd) dey Zima» Zam (or Zh,Z4) = C/(2n), average radius bending radius volume density resistivity longitudinal coordinate along an accelerator interaction cross-section = 1/p,, conductivity horiz. (@), vert. (y), ong. (z) rms beam size horiz. (2), vert. (y’) mms angular spread energy (E), relative energy (6) rms spread sign function, = life >0,=-lif <0 time temperature Kinetic energy trace of matrix A revolution period synchrotron radiation loss per revolution beamstrahlung parameter velocity gxoup velocity phase velocity rf voltage longitudinal, transverse wake function of mode m (W if m = 0, W. ifm = 1) horiz. displacement = dz/ds, horiz, angular deviation of a particle radiation length = (dvz,y/d6), horizontal (x), vertical (y) chromaticity vert. displacement = dy/ds, vert, angular deviation of a particle Gistribution density in phase space, normalized to unity horiz. (2), vert. (y) betatron phase long. displacement of a particle relative to synchronous particle (@ > O ahead, z < 0 behind) Tongitudinal, transverse impedance of mode m (Qj if m = 0, Z, ifm =1)13 FUNDAMENTAL CONSTANTS [1] Ch.1: INTRODUCTION ‘Quantity ‘Symbol Value pl ® 3.14 1592653589 793238 exponential constant e 2.718281828459045235 Euler’s constant x 0.577215649 ‘speed of light c 2.99792458 ES m s~" (exact) permeability of vacuum Ho 4n E-7 Henry m7! (exact) permittivity of vacuum = 1/02) 8854187817 E-12 Farad m=? electronic charge e 1,6021773 E-19 C = 4,8032068 E-10 esu Planck constant r 6.626075 E-34T 8 reduced Planck constant h=h/(2n) 1.054572 E-34 J s = 6582122 E-16 eV s Boltzmann constant kp 1,380658 E-23 K-! Avogadro number Na 6.022137 E23 mole~! gravitational constant G 6.67259 E-11 Newton m?kg~? std, gray, accel. g 9.80665 m s~? eleciron mass Me 91093897 E-31 kg proton mass My 1.6726231 E-27 kg rest mass energy of electron mec? 0,51099906 MeV proton myc? 938.2723 MeV neutron nc? 939.5656 MeV deuteron mac? 1875.6134 MeV muon myc 105.65839 MeV Z-patticle mac 91.187 GeV W-particle mye? 80.4 GeV anomalous gyromagnetic ratio | G = (9 — 2)/2 electron 0.00115965219 muon 0.001165923 proton 1.79284739 deuteron -0.1429878 fine structure constant a= €/(Azeohc) 1/137.035989 impedance of free space Vuoleo = woe | 376.7303 2 classical radius of electron Te = €2/(4meomec*) | 2.8179409 E-15 m proton Tp = &/(4meompc?) | 1.534698 E-18 m electron Compton wavelength | re = h/(rmec) 2.4263106 E-12 m de Ae/(2n) 0,3861593 E-12 m Bohr radius Areoh?/(mee?) | 5.29177249 E-11 m ‘Thomson cross section ad 6.65246 E-29 m? Bohr magneton eh/(2mec) 5.7883826 E-5 eV/Tesla nuclear magneton eh((2mge) | 3:1524517 E-8 eV/Testa Stefan-Boltzmann constant | osp = %k§/(A°c?) | 5.67051 E-8 W m~? K-* gas constant R= Nako 8.3145 JK"! mole“ References [1] RM, Barnett et al, Particle Data Book, PR DS4 (1996) 1Sec.1.4: UNITS AND CONVERSIONS 14 UNITS AND CONVERSIONS 1.4.1 Units A.W. Chao, SLAC We use the SI (Systme International, MKSA) units throughout this Handbook unless otherwise noted, Table below gives the conversion of vati- ‘ous physical quantities from Gaussian to SI unit systems [1]. jantity Gaussian__ST speed of light c Tes charge 4 vise charge density e i current T Tae current density = vee scalar potential = ® ireg® vector potential A aA voltage v iregV. electric field B ico) ; 5 fax 53 displacement DB aD magnetic induction B aR magnetic field a iio conductivity oe es dielectric constant « cleo permeability A £ resistance R 4neoR inductance L 4neoL capacitance Cc & Table below gives some numerical conver- sions between Gaussian and SI units. ‘Quantity Gaussian 3 Conductivity 8,9876E9 s~? =] mho/m Resistance 1,1127E-12 sem = =1 ohm Capacitance 8.9876E11 cm ‘sl farad Inductance 1127-12 = henry If P is power and V is voltage, then AB = 10 logio(Pi/F2), or 20 logio(Vi/Va) References [1] J.D, Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics, 2nd ed., Wiley (1972) 142 Conversions M. Tigner, Cornell U. key: Quantity, symbol, name in SI, Abbr, [dim.] Quantity to be converted, conversion factor Quantity in SI = Quantity to be converted x conversion factor, El = 10, E2 = 100, etc. Length, £, meter, m, (L] inch, in. 2.54E-2 foot, ft. 03048 angstrim, A 1.0E-10 fermi, fm 1.0E-15 light year, ly 0.946816 Area, A, sq. meter, m?, (L?] sq. inch, in? 6AS16E-4 sq. foot, ft 9,2903E-2 acre 4.04683 hectare, ha 1E4 sq, mile, mi? 2,5888E6 barn, bn 1E-28 Volume, V, cu. meter, m®, (L*] cu. inch, in® 1.639E-5 gallon, gal. (liquid) —3.785E-3 cu. ft, ft? 2.832E-2 Mass, M, kilogram, kg, [MI slug 14.59 Density, p, kg/m’, [M/L*] slugicu ft 515.4 pound/cu in, Ib/in’ 2.7684 Time, t, second, s, [T] year, yr. 3.156E7 Speed, v, meter/sec, m/s, {L/T] footlsec, fs 03048 mile/hour, mi/ar 0.4470 Force, F, Newton, N, [ML/T?] dyne 1.0E-5 pound, Ib 4448 Pressure, P, Pascal, Pa, N/m?, [M/T?L] atmosphere, atm 1.013E5 bar 1.0B5 dyne/em? o1 pound/in®, psi 6.89553, in, H20 @ 4°C 2.491E2 Tor, mmHg @0°C —_1,3332E2 Energy, W, Joule, J, [ML?/T?] BTU 1055 erg 1.0E-7 foot-pound, ft Ib 1.356 horsepower hour 2.68556 calorie, cal 4.186 kilowatt hour, kWhr 3.6E6 electron volt, eV 1.602E-19 liter atmosphere 101.31Power, P, watt, W, [ML?/T?] erg/s 1.0E-5 BTUMr 0.2930 foot pound/sec, filb/s 1.356 horsepower 748.7 calorie/sec, cal/s 4.186 ‘Thermal conductivity, «, W/m K,[ML/T?] ‘Wattem K. 1.0E2 BTUM@/A2PFR = 1.73 cal/em's 418.6 Specific heat, cv,p, Skg K, [2/17] cal/gm °C 4.18663 BTU/b °F 4.186E3 Viscosity, h, kg/m's, (M/LT] ppoises, g/em-s 01 slug/fts 4,79E1 Charge, g, Coulomb, C, ini) abcoulomb statcoulomb 3368-10 Current, I, Ampere, A, mone ‘abampere’ statampere 336-10 Potential, V, volt, V, [M'/?L°/2/1?] abvolt 1.0E-8 statvolt 2.99792 Elec, Field, E, volt/m, V/m, (M¥/?LY/2/1?} abvolt/em 1.0E-6 statvolticm 2.997984 Mag. Field, H, A-turn/m, (M¥/2/L1/27] Oested 19.58 Displacement, D, Coul/m?, [M¥/2/L9/2} abcoulomb/cm* 7.95883 statcoulomb/cm? 2.654E-7 Mag. flux, &, Weber, volt-s, (M!/?L*/2/T] ‘Tesla m? 1 maxwell, abvolt-s 1.0E-8 statweber, statvolt-s 2.9979 Flux density, B, Tesla,T, [M!¥/2/L¥/?T] Gauss 10-4 esu 2.997956 Conductivity, s, mho/m* [T/L?} ‘mho/cm 1.0E2 Resistivity, p,, ohm meter, 2-m, [L7/T] microhm cm 1.0E-8 Resistance, R, ohm, ©, [L/T] abohm 1.09 statohm 8.987E11 Capacitance, C, farad, f, [T?/L] abfarad 1.059 statfarad 1112-11 Ch.1: INTRODUCTION Inductance, L, henry, hy, [L] abhenry 1.0E-9 stathenry 8.987411 Activity, bequerel, Bq, (1/T] Curie, Ci 3.7610 Dose, gray, Gy, [L7/T2] rad Exposure, sce Chap. 8 ‘Temperature, T, Kelvin, K T(°CI=TIK] - 273.16 TPF ]= 9/S(T[°C)) + 32 1.0E-2 * “siemens”, S, replaces mho in some literature. 1.5 FUNDAMENTAL FORMULAE A.W. Chao, SLAC 1.5.1 Special Functions Enor function erf(z), erfe(a) = 1— erf(z): erf(2) = os f *ate-®, erf(oo) =1 Bessel functions J,(z), 1,(z), No(z), Ky(a): Sh + 14h 4 (1-4), =0 net Daa (ze? Inia) = de [9™ do ew ine Hie sing In(2) =" Jn(éz) In(—) = Jn(x) = (—1)"In(@) Tn(—2) = (-1)"E-n(@) = (-1)"In(@) Sn (at) FY Tn (x) # sy(w/2)" for [2] K 1 Ny(q) = 2 edemrnaJonle) Ky(@) = ganvall-v(@) — L@)) =a, Nb=—M h=h, Kb=-Ki Fore >1, Sula) = fE cose - fv - 3) Nia) = VE sinz - $v - $) La) © Ziee, Ky(a) Te e* For roots of Jn and J}, see Sec.6.6. Gamma function T'(s T(@ > 0) = fg? dte~tt?-1 Tant+l=nl, P@t1) =a (e) TP - 2) = Se T(1/2) = Vm, 0 (1/4) = 3.626Sec.1.5: FUNDAMENTAL FORMULAE 15.2 Curvilinear Coordinate Systems General Orthogonal System (u1, U2, ts) or Ti [System ui [v2 Tus ha [hs Cartesian [x {y fz {11/1 Cylindricd Jr f@ |z |i fr |i Spherical |r |@ |g ]1 |r | rsing Frenet-Serret | 2 fy |s [1 [1 [1+% d= hyduyty + hzdugtig + hadustig ds? = h3du} + h3du3 + h3dug dV = hyhghsdujdugdus Vo = beat bet bets V- A= poh [ser (hahs ds) + 38 (hahaa) +R (thas) Vx A= phex {rt [285(hss) ~ 385 (h2As)] +hatta [58-(t Ar) — 38;(h34s)] +hsts [p8-(hada) — o25(hAi)] } v= abel (aa) +e (22) + om (HP SS)] artesian: ds? = da? + dy? + dz? dV = dedydz Vy = a+ Bo + ee v fn 4 Sia 5 Oe x Aaa (9s - Be) +9 (Ge - +2 (Se - 4) Vip = Fea Te Bs 2 ) a Spherical: ds? = dr? + r2d6? +r? sin? odg? dV =r singdrdods Vom Bet BO rata Bd V-A= Hilde) + salaa (sin Ae) . Vx A= haf [S(sindAy) - Se] +9 [rca Me — Be(ry)] +44 [B(rd0) - He] Vp = LB (298) + mao (sin 03) + srakro Be References (1) J. Murphy, Synchrotron Light Source Data Book, BNL 42333 (version 3.0) (1993) 153 Electromagnetism Continuity %+V-J=0 static Coulomb force # = ;2% Lorentz force F = q(8+¢x B) energy density u=4(D-£+H-B) momentum density g= 42x A F Cylindrical: Poynting vector S= Bx H ds? = dr? + r2d6? + dz? dV = rdrdodz e= BF 41904 Bee V- A= 12 (rAr) + 158¢ + Se teady-state boundary conditions between two media: (Ba - By) (B: - Bi) (a - By) x (Ga — fh) x A= —Sourtoce where Peurfece is the surface charge density; Jourface is the surface current on the boundary; Vx Ame (2% — Bt) +0 (Se — Be) +22 [B(rds) — 4] Vip = 2S (rh) + be + Se ft is the unit vector normal to the boundary and points into medium 2,Ch.1: INTRODUCTION 1.54 Kinematical Relations [1] Relations between 6, cp, rest mass energy Eo, kinetic energy T,, B, and: B cp T E 7 B= 8 (Bolen)? +1? | 1-04 B) | i ey | vim =@/E =@/E =| Bo/VBP=1 Ey (ek +7)? | fe — HG | BoVFHT =56 =7(e)" | =20 ed ep? — 1)? Tha-1) | VEO] B/y = BA- 6)? T= | (obp- eo | (B+ er - Bo T E-Ey | Eo(y-1) =o (3) y= | a-e)-% p/EoB 14+T/Eo E/E 7 =0-(eyr? First derivatives: 4B (cp) dy = dE/Eo = dT/Eo dp = dp (1 + (€p/Bo)?|-*7d(ep)/Bo | --2(9? - 1)-V?dy = 1 *d(ep)/Eo =f ly dy dep) =| Bo - #)-*a8 (ep) BoP -1)-¥?dy = Boyds = Fo dy dy = dB/Eq | BQ.— B?)-*/aB | [1 + (Bo/ep)}-7d(cp)/ Bo ay = aT/Ey = = Aids = fa(ep)/Eo ‘Logarithmic first derivatives: 4/8 p/p ar/T dB/E =dy/7 48/8 = 46/6 dlp | y+ tart | (= 1) May = dp/p — dy/y = (By) da/1 dp/p = Pap/B dp/p by/(y+3)\aT/T Bday ar/T = | rv+1)46/8 | +71*)do/p ar/T ar -1)"Mdaly ab/E=| (6y)*d8/6 Bdp/p Q-y)ar/T ay/y dy/1= | =? - 1048/6 | = dp/p - 48/8 References [1] C. Bovet et al, CERN/MPS-SV/Int. DL/70/4 (1970)Sec.1.6: GLOSSARY OF ACCELERATOR TYPES 155° Vector Analysis a (6x 8 =8-(@x a) =2- (ax 8) ax @xQ=(@-b-(a-He (@xb)- (ex d) =(@-40-d) - (4-H G-2) ¥xVh=0 V-(Vxa)=0 V(by) = eV + PVe Vx (Vxd)=V(V- a) - Ve Vd) =a- Vp + ova Vx (Ya) = Ve xd+yV xa V@-8):= (@- Wb + (6- VE 40x (Wx BY +b x (V xa) V-(@x 8) =8-(V xa) -a-(V xd) Vx (@x d= av -8) -KV-a) +6-V)a-(@-V)E ax 6x40 x (@xa)+2éx (ax 8) =0 Energy—momentum : PL = (Ps — 2B), E'=(E - cBPs) Pl=P, BL = By = (By + $B2) EL = (Es +08By), BL =1(Be~ $B) 15.6 Relativity Let F be the stationary laboratory: frame with space time coordinates (2, t). Let F’ with (2',t") be a frame-moving with velocity 7 = 8 with respect to F, Lorentz transformations: Coordinates : # = 848 (Ays-2-ct) ‘Energy—momentum : B =P +98 (yb: B-tB) El =(E-B-P) EM fields : a ra . B= B+ Bx B)- 2G BB Ba 9(B- 13x 8)- 26- BR When V = Va, the above becomes Coordinates : a = (a -Vt), varvt-#) 16 GLOSSARY OF ACCELERATOR TYPES 1.6.1 Antiproton Sources J. Peoples, J.P. Marriner, FNAL Antiproton.(P) sources are complete accelerator complexes utilizing many accelerator technolo gies (1, 2, 3]. A schematic of the FNAL p source is shown in Fig.1. A primary proton beam is used to. produce B’s on a target, ‘The production process is inef- ficient, and the secondary f beam is several or- ders of magnitude less dense than the primary proton beam. The design strategy consists of (a) ‘maximizing the initial p phase space density by appropriate preparation of the. proton beam, and (b) stochastically cooling (Sec.2.8.1) the collected B's. The proton beam acquires a short bunch ength by a bunch rotation process (Sec.4.8.2). The rf voltage is lowered so that the beam fills the bucket and then raised to its maximum value. The bunch rotates 90° and achieves a momentary short length, ‘The proton beam is focused transversely onto a target. The target length is significant compared to the beam focal length so it is important to have most of the beam interact in as short a target as possible; The depth of focus problem favors the use of high-Z targets, but excessive energy depo- sition from pair production limits their usefulness. See Tab.1 for typical parameters, ‘The production cross-section has been param- terized as [4] E &o 8 es Ta dP [0.065(1 — 2-)* exp(—3p2)] x [1+ 24s"? exp (82,)] [eexp (br?) exp (-exx)] a with Gaps the absorption cross-section, py the xDebuncher: Lage aportre synchrotron, oye perlod:2 Steonds ‘Accumulation rng High quay storage ting, ‘yet poviod 12-24 hours Protron sours: Rapid cycling high energy, high intesty proton synchrotron cyto period: 2 seconds Figure 1: Schematic of the FNAL source and collider ‘complex [Courtesy G, Dugan}. transverse momentum [GeV/c], «the radial scal- ing variable (= E/Emax. p energy in CM divided ‘by its maximum kinematically allowed value), s “the square of the CM energy [GeV?}. The param- terization consists of three multiplicative factors: Gis cross section for a hydrogen target at infinite, energy, (ii) is deviations from scaling (including the s-dependence), and (iii) is the nuclear depen- dence. Values for a,b,c for various nuclei are given in [2]. For copper, a = 1.50, b = 1.43, c= 1.56, The large angular divergence of the p beam is largely eliminated by a high-gradient lithium lens (ec.7.2.12). The large momentum spread is re- duced as the beam is debunched through a second bunch rotation. The beam is then pre-cooled with stochastic cooling. The parameters of the col- lected beam are given in Tab.2. See also Sec.7.1.3. ‘Table 1: Proton beam parameters used at CERN and FNAL. Parameter FNAL CERN (MR)_@S) ‘Momentum (GeV/c) 120 26 Protons/pulse (10!) 1.8 1s Cycle time (8) 24 48 # Bunches aS rfbucket length(ns) 19 105 rfbunch length (ns) 15 30 Beam radius o at target (mm) 0215 One difficult step is to accumulate fs from the 10‘ pulses, The stacking process is acoom- plished with stochastic cooling. The flux.of p's Ch.1: INTRODUCTION ‘Table 2: Beam parameters of the collected p beam, 6reis for 95% beam, unnormalized. ‘Parameter FNAL CERN ebunch.) (AC) Momentum (GeVie) 8.9 357 Ap/p (%) before rot. 4 6 after rot. 02 15 after cool. O1 0.18 6ne (mm-mrad) before cool. 20% 200% after cool. ‘3m Sa Stochastic cooling bandwidth (GHz) 2-4 13.2 ‘Table 3: Beam properties in the accumulation rings. Parameter FNAL CERN Accum.) (AA) ‘Stack rate (10? hr~ 35 5 Bipulse (10°) 3 1 Yield (Bip) (10-®) 12 5 Final Ap/p(%) 0.2 02 Final emitt, 6rre (mm-mrad) In 6-90 Bandwidths (GHz) Stack tail 12 Core cooling 24,48 Total ps (10!) 1 Ring Circum. (m) 477 that can be accumulated is [5] EaToW?|n| y= @ where W = fmax — frnin is the system band- ‘width, p = beam momentum, 7 = slip factor, A=In(Smnax/fmin)» and 3; = yp with V(E) the voltage gain per tur. In [5], V is exponen- tially decreasing with E, the particle density as a function of energy (E) «x e®/£4, Some param- eters of the stacking process are given in Tab.3. ‘Antiproton beams are extracted from the source storage ring using conventional technique. For the CERN and FNAL sources the techniques used is rf unstacking followed by single-turn ex- traction. It is planned to upgrade the p source at FNAL. to accumulate 10!? p’s/hr by increases in ac- ceptance and cooling. The main obstacle is the inefficient process of producing p's at the target.‘Sec.1.6: GLOSSARY OF ACCELERATOR TYPES References [1] MD. Church, J, Marriner, Amn. Rey. Nucl. Part, Sci. 43 (1993) 253 [2] B. Autin et al, CERN/PS/AA 78-3 (1978); BJ. Wilson et al, CERN 83-10 (1983) (3] Fermilab Design Repor, Tevatron I Project (1984) (4] C. Hojvat, A. van Ginneken, NIM 206 (1983) 67 {5} S. van der Mees, CERN/PS/AA 78-22 (1978) 1.6.2. Betatron [1] M, Tigner, Cornell U. The Betatron is a cyclic electron accelerator with a circular orbit of approximately constant radius which provides acceleration through Magnetic In- duction, Iron core machines of energies up to 300 MeV have been constructed. The guide field in the classical Betatron is weak focusing, A sec- tion perpendicular to the equilibrium orbit plane is shown in Fig.1 [2]. volume of the iron. The iron of the 300 MeV Ili- nois Betatron weighed > 300 tons. There is another constraint on the maximum energy which can be obtained using the betatron principle. As the beam energy rises synchrotron radiation loss rises and competes with the energy gain due to magnetic induction. This effect spoils the linearity of Eq.(1) and requires special means for adding the extra energy needed. In practice, the synchrotron radiation begins to become i portant at ~100 MeV and limits beam energies that can be obtained with iron and copper magnet, technology to ~300 MeV. cron om MM Lapineied Pele Piece (i LUE Figure 1: Betatron schematic. ‘The beam travels in a doughnut shaped, evac uated, dielectric (e.g. glass) chamber with a thin conducting film on the inside to prevent charging, The accelerating electric field is produced by the changing magnetic flux within the equilibrium or- bit. By combining Newton’s law and Faraday’s law of induction together with the Lorentz force law we can write Vacuum Chameor rr a inp Ot p= Bep wD and find that A® = 2B @ the famous 2 to 1 condition that the flux change within the orbit must be twice that which one would obtain if the field were uniform throughout the region inside the orbit and equal to the field at the orbit. Since the field in an iron core magnet is lim- ited by saturation, increase in maximum energy ‘means increase in radius of the core and thus the 10 6 Fld Magnets Figure 2: Separated function betatron, While betatrons using the combined func- tion, one magnetic circuit, design of Fig.1 have been successfully operated at low energies, con- siderable efficiency in size and operation can be achieved by separating the functions as shown in Fig2 [2]. The scale refers to an 80 MeV machine, ‘The magnetic elements are punched 0.355 mm Jaminations of silicon transformer stee!, wound with litz wire to minimize eddy current. Even so the highest energy betatrons achieve only about 5% duty factor due to the large hysteresis and eddy current losses coupled with the difficulty of cooling the massive iron cores. Injection is ac- complished by insertion of an electron gun into the sealed, doughnut vacuum chamber, just out- side or just inside the equilibrium orbit, and puls- ing it negatively at tens to more than 100 kVfor a few microseconds at injection time. Fig.3 [2] shows some typical power cycles of various betatrons. Injection is complicated and involves space charge collective effects in a central way [3]. Injection efficiency can be greatly enhanced by adding pulsed coils to draw the equilibrium or- bit temporarily away from the gun just after injec- tion and slowly restoring it as the initial betatron. oscillations damp. Ejection or targeting is done in the same way by pulsewise distortion of the orbit ‘enough to drive the beam into a weak field region and out of the doughnut through a thin window or into a tungsten bremsstrahlung target within the doughnut with subsequent extraction of the x-rays through a thin window. L-— Pulse interval —el SENT | Figure 3: Typical power cycles. ‘While some of the betatrons, particularly the 300 MeV machine were used for nuclear physics research, the majority were used for medical ther- apy or diagnostic x-raying of industrial equip- ‘ment. The 300 MeV machine was capable of pro- ducing 14,600 R/min. at 1 m in Pb while the ma- chines used for therapy produce typically about 100 R/min. at 1m. These machines have been largely supplanted by linacs which are more pow- erful, more flexible, lighter and more easily con- trolled, Air core betatrons have been built us- ing copper litz wire and some iron field shaping shoes. However with the powering equipment available at that time the duty cycle had to be i Ch.1; INTRODUCTION {kept very low and their intensity was not sufficient for therapy use. With the rapid development of high temperature superconductors and solid state power electronics of great flexibility it may be- ‘come feasible in the future to build light, high in- tensity, relatively high energy betatrons using this new technology. References [1] MS, Livingston, J.P, Blewett, Particle Accelera- tors, McGraw-Hill (1962) [2] By permission, McGraw-Hill Book Co. 3] L. Gonella, Supplement to Nuovo Cimento 3 (1966) 303 163 Colliders J. Rees, SLAC The purpose of colliders is to produce high- energy collisions (interactions) between particles of approximately oppositely directed beams. The CM energy Eem for a collision of two particles (crossing angle 6, energies Fy,2) is Eom [2enEa + (m3 + mac qa) + ay BR mich [ER — me cosa’? my Ea nw ee where my,z are rest masses. In most existing col- liders, my = mz, E, = E2(= E), @ = 0, Ecm = 2E and the CM is stationary in the labo- ratory, Recently ete storage ring colliders have deen built with Ey # Ep deliberately so that the CM moves rapidly in the laboratory and fi- nal states of collisions will move a measurable distance before decaying, thus allowing some im- portant experiments. In these asymmetric storage rings Eom * 2VEiEp, neglecting my,2 and tak- ing @ = 0. The productivity of a collider is measured by its luminosity (Sec.4.1, with achieved luminosity examples). Single-beam or two-beam instabilities (Sec.2.5) may limit the performance of a collider, but if these are removed to higher and higher lev- els, eventually the beam-beam effect (Sec.2.6) be- comes the limit. ‘Schematic drawings of several collider types are shown in Fig.1. Colliders fall into two cate- ‘gories: storage rings and linear colliders. In stor- age rings, the particles of each beam recirculate‘Sec.1,6: GLOSSARY OF ACCELERATOR TYPES: ‘Table 1: Coltiding Beam Machines. [a] DR: Double storage ring. SR: Single storage ring. LC: Linear collider. {[b] Princeton-Stanford Colliding Beam Experiment. (c] 200 GeV per charge-unit. (d] Planned. Location ‘Name (type) ‘Max. Hem (GeV) | Start Stanford/SLAC, USA ‘CBX (e“e“ DR) 10 1963 Spear (¢*e~SR). 5.0 1972 PEP (ete~SR) [5] 30 1980 SLC (¢te“L©) [6] 100: 1989 PEP-II (ee“DR) [7] 10.6. iggglal Frascati Italy ‘AGA (e*e“ SR) 05 1962 Adone (e*e“SR) 3.0 1969 DA@NE (c*e~SR) 1.0. 199714 Novosibirsk, Siberia VEP-1 (¢“e~DR) 0.26 1963 ‘VEPP-2/2M (e+e~SR). 14 1974 ‘VEPP-4 (ete-SR) 4 1979 Cambridge, USA CEA Bypass (e+e SR) 6 1971 Orsay, France ACO (ete“SR) 1.0 1966 DCI (e*e*DR) 3.6 1976 DESY, Germany Doris (eteDR) 60 } 1974. Petra (e*e-SR) 38 1978 Hera (e*p DR) [8] 160 192 CERN, Europe ISR (pp DR) [2] 63 1971 SpBS (pp SR) [9] 630 1981 LEP (e*e~SR) [10] 190 1989} LHC (pp DR) [11] 14,000: 2004!41 Brookhaven, USA —_| RHIC (heavy ions DR) [12] 200/u ll iggglel RHIC (pp DR) 500 Cornell, USA. CESR (e*e~SR) 12 1979 KEK, Japan Tristan (¢*e~SR) [14] 60 1986 KEK B (e*e~DR) [13] 10.6 iggglal Beijing, China BEPC (e*e~SR) [15] 3 1989: Fermilab, USA ‘Tevatron (pp SR) [16] 1000 1987 COD SS Co Figure 1: Schematics of collider types. and meet each other repeatedly. They may be stored in separate rings (Fig.1a,b), in which or- bits of the two beams are made to intersect, or if the beams consist of antiparticles, ina single ring. In Kinear colliders, the beams are accelerated in 12 linacs and transported to a collision point. Beams are discarded after the single collision. Fig.1c shows the simplest case using two linacs. In the ‘more complex scheme used in the SLAC Linear Collider (SLC) , both e* and e~ are simultane- ously accelerated in the same linac, separated af- ter acceleration and. guided along different arcs to collision, as shown in Fig.1d. Linear colliders were developed for colliding high-energy e* and e~ without suffering the large synchrotron radi- ation in storage rings. The design principles and’ the supporting technologies for colliders are those of synchrotrons and storage rings (Sec. 1.6.18) and linear accelerators (Sec.1.6.10). Technical’ com- ponent systems of a linear collider are sketched in Fig.2.Final Final Ormpo Unac _ Focss — Fasae Une OD +i PaaS Clin ica point = «sole solo Figure 2: Component systems of a linear collider. Pp and op Colidors Lopton Coniders 10! Figure 3: Colliders over the years. Colliding-beam storage. rings were first de- scribed in 1956 [1]. The earliest examples were the Princeton-Stanford 500-MeV, two-ring, e~e~ machine at Stanford, the 140-MeV, two-ring, ev e~ VEP- at Novosibirsk, and the 250-MeV AdA at Frascati. AdA was the first ete single- ring machine. The first hadron collider was the Intersecting Storage Rings (ISR) at CERN, a pair of intersecting proton storage rings commissioned in 1971 (2). ‘The idea of the linear collider came in 1965 3]. ‘The first realization of a linear collider was the SLC [4]. The CM energy of colliders has been increasing over the years, as shown in Fig.3 and ‘Tab.1. For comparison, the beam energy (in lab- oratory) of non-colliders over the years using var- ious accelerator technologies may be seen in. the Livingston Chart, Sec.1.6.11. References [1] Kerst et al, PR 102 (1956) 590; G.K. O'Neill, PR 102 (1956) 1418. [2] K. Johnsen, Proc, 8th Int. Conf. on High Energy ‘Ace; (1971)p:79; CERN ARVInt. SG/64-9 Design Study of ISR (1964). [BT M. Tigner, Nuovo Cimento 37 (1965) 1228 (4] B, Richter; Proc. 11th Int. Conf. on High Energy. ‘Ace. (1980) p.168 [5] PEP Conceptual Design’ Report, LBL-4288, SLAC=189 (1976) B Ch.1: INTRODUCTION [6] SLC Design Handbook, SLAC Report (1984) [7] PEP-IL, An Asymmetric B-Factory, LBL-PUB- 5379, SLAC-418 (1993) [8] HERA Facility at DESY, DESY HERA 81/10 (1981) [9] CERN 84-15, CERN Acc. School (1984) [10) CERN-LEP/84-01, LEP Design Report (1984) [11] ‘The Large Hadron Collider - Conceptual Design, (CERN/ACI95-05 (LHC) (1993) [12) Conceptual Design of the Relativistic Heavy Ton Collider, BNL 52195 (1989) [13] Accelerator Design of the KEK B-Factory, KEK 90-24 (1991) [14] Abridged Description of ‘Tristan Electron- Positron Colliding-Beam Machine, KEK Report (1981) [15] Summary of the Preliminary Design of Beijing 2.2/2.8 GeV Electron Positron Collider, IHEP Re- port (1982), [16] Fermilab report, Tevatron I Project (1984) 1.6.4 Cyclotron H. Blosser, Michigan St. U. Earliest [1] and most numerous of circular accel- erators, cyclotrons are characterized by magnetic field and accelerating rf frequency which are con- stant in time (c.w.). (Synchro-cyclotrons are ex- ception to the c.w. rule, See later.) Cyclotrons are often referred to by the diam- ter of the magnet pole (e.g. 27 inch, 184",2 me- ter, U-400). More recently “K”, (~ proton kinetic energy in MeV) has become a designation (e.g. K500; K1200) particularly for multi-particle cy- clotrons where the energy for an ion of charge Qe and mass. Amo (where mo is 1/12 of mass of !7C, moc? = 931.48 MeV) is given non-relativistically by KQ?/A. The maximum bending power (Bp) is related to K by K = (eBp)*/(2mo). ‘Many cyclotrons are referred to by a local name or acronym (e.g. ORIC, VICKSI, SARA, AGOR). Typical beam parameters achieved by cyclotrons: normalized emittances ey, * 2.to 0.2 mm-mrad, enz *5to 1 mm-mrad, and energy spread AE/E typically 10- with best value 2 x 10-4, Cyclotrons have evolved in many, sometimes overlapping, subclassifications. (Characteristics of cyclotrons are best documented in proceedings of a series of triannual conferences (2].) Classical cyclotron (now rare) Fig.1 showsthe original cyclotron concept [1]. A static and uni- form magnetic field B is applied perpendicular to D-shaped hollow electrodes (“dees”). The dees are driven by-an rf voltage: whose frequencySec.1.6: GLOSSARY OF ACCELERATOR TYPES Dee Dee External lon Source ‘Beam ae we Figure 1: A classical cyclotron, If magnetic field points into page, spiral line is trajectory of positive ion, matches the constant cyclotron frequency qB ie nm a of non-relativistic ions. Tons from a central ion source are repetitively accelerated in and out of the dees on a spiral path to maximum energy. In practice, the magnetic field must decrease with r to assure stability in axial direction, and acceler- ating voltage must be high for particles to reach the design energy before they get out of the ac- celerating phase of the rf cycle (due to relativis- tic mass increase and to magnetic field decreasing with r). These effects limit highest velocity. The record for classical cyclotron is 6 = 0.22 (86", Oak Ridge). Isochronous cyclotron Thomas [3] pointed out that magnets with alternate strong and weak az- imuthal regions (“‘sectors” or “hills and valleys”) provided an additional axial focusing which could offset the defocusing from a radially increasing magnetic field [3]. The average magnetic field can therefore match the mass increase of the ac- celerated particle with positive axial focusing pro- vided by the azimuthal variation, Two electron cyclotrons with sinusoidal azimuthal variation of the magnetic field were built (Berkeley, 1940's, B = 0.5). In the 1950's, more trapezoidal az~ imuthal dependence provided by pole tips with a ‘constant gap in the hill region and a larger con- stant gap in the valleys came into use. Also, at that time, “strong-focusing” by spiralling the hills was introduced and designations “sector- focused cyclotron”, “spiral-ridged cyclotron”, “azimuthally-varying-field cyclotron” are now used largely inter-changeably with isochronous cyclotron. (Thomas cyclotron is normally re- served for azimuthally sinusoidal fields.) More than 100 isochronous cyclotrons have been built 4 (60-500 MeV for nuclear physics and 10-100 MeV for commercial production of radionuclei- des). Separated sector cyclotron This is a subclass of isochronous cyclotrons in which the valley re- gions are iron free. The concept was proposed in the late 1950’s by Oak Ridge for a 900 MeV isochronous cyclotron, and first used at PSI in the 590 MeV meson-factory (operation 1974), A sim- pler, “adial-sector” (Le. non-spiral) formulation of this concept was adopted for the Indiana U. 200 MeV proton cyclotron (operation 1975). The ra- dial, separated sector design is also used in large heavy-ion cyclotrons (Ganil, Riken, Lanzhou). H™ cyclotron Cyclotrons to accelerate H~ ions were introduced in 1962 at U. Colorado [4]. At maximum energy a thin foil strips the electrons from the H™ ion, reversing their bending radius ‘and thus sending the beam quickly out of the cy- clotron. Moving the foil to a different radius eas- ily changes the output energy of such a cyclotron over a broad range, and difficult extraction com- ponents (electrostatic deflectors, magnetic chan- nels) are avoided. The H~ technique is used in most radionucleide production cyclotrons, where high beam currents make extraction especially difficult. To avoid electric dissociation (Lorentz stripping, Sec.7.1.7) of H~ at high velocities, the 500 MeV meson-factory cyclotron at Triumf re- quires weak magnetic fields so that this cyclotron. is the world’s largest (17 m dia, overall). Superconducting cyclotron This class cludes cyclotrons with major superconducting components, either the main coil of the magnet, or the rf system (¢.g. TRITRON at Munich). ‘These cyclotrons are typically x10 lighter than room-temperature cyclotrons due to the unusual cyclotron scaling law that total flux o 1/B. Weight and size reduction leads to ~ x05 construction cost and ~ 0.9 operating costs. Examples: (1) 22 ton superconducting cancer therapy cyclotron in Detroit produces 50 MeV deuterons, (2) K1200 nuclear physics cyclotron at East Lansing produces beams >10 GeV for heavier ions making it the highest energy c.w. accelerator of any type. Synchro-cyclotron This largely outmoded form of the classical cyclotron used an rf fre- quency which varied with time to track the orbital frequency. The energy limit of the classical cyclotron is relieved, but the c.w. characteristic is lost and beam current typically decreases byx1000, Auxiliary slow extraction systems were often used to stretch the duty cycle. Synchro- cyclotrons provided the energy-frontier beams of the 1950's but have now been superceded by the synchrotron for high-energy physics and by the isochronous cyclotron for nuclear physics. The highest beam velocity achieved by a cyclotron was in the 1 GeV synchro-cyclotron at Gatchina, Orbit characteristics Magnetic Field B(r, 8) = Bo(r) +> Bilr) coslio + G(r)] @) Near r = 0, By(r) = (r/G)* where G is magnet gap. Bo = Bo(r = 0) = 2x forno/¢ [Eq.(1)]. Choice of sector Number NV = 3,4,6,8,... depends on maximum E/A (energy/nucleon). NN = 2 is radially unstable. Odd numbers other than 3 are too complicated. N = 3 is most fre- quent choice below 200 MeV/A because of fast, rise of By near r = 0. Flutter is defined as Fy Sah oni? 8) where fi(r) = Bi(r)/Bo(r). Sometimes f is called flutter, F called mean square flutter, With flutter, orbit scallops, (6) = (r) + 91 c0s(i9 + «| @ a where 9: © fi/(? — 1). Field spiral ¢y(r) is the angular location of maximum value of the main flutter component, Spiral angle a is angle between radius vector and tangent line to spiral curve, tana = rd¢/dr. ‘The acceleration system consists of dees (2 gap drift tube) or cavities (1 gap drift tube), now usually located in valleys of magnet (in all val- leys or, if NV is even, in alternate valleys). Dees usually operate at 50-200 kV (peak voltage dee to ground). Cavities operate up to 700 KV per gap. The acceleration system often runs on harmonic of beam orbital frequency fr = hfo. Multiple dees are sometimes phased by selection of a natu- ral mode of the resonator structure (0-mode ot - mode at Chalk River) and sometimes by servoed phase shifters (as in 3 dee h = 1 systems at MSU, ‘Texas A&M, Catania, & AGOR ). Without flutter, (B)voe = Before) 6) 15 Ch.1: INTRODUCTION 2-1/2 an [ - (*2f2) ] ¢ =f-13%=7 © As scalloping increases, radial tune v, rises faster than -y, hitting resonances. The NV/2 stopband limits maximum 7 (e.g. Ymax ¥ 1.2 => 200 MeV/A for V = 3). Axial focusing tune vy, & [-k + F(1 + 2tan®a)]/2, Normally one picks a(r) to in- crease with 7 to give vz = 0.2 to avoid reso- nances. If sectors are radial (c = 0), v, decreases with and resonances limit usable energy band. Due to large energy gain per turn and rel tively rapid change of » values with energy, cy- clotrons frequently pass through essential beta- tron resonances at v = N/3,N/4, etc, and im- perfection resonances at 1/1, 2/2. Imperfection resonances are often intentionally used to steer the beam in the central region and near extraction, Space Charge Limits Axial limit Assume fully overlapping turns “current sheet” approximation), Tim = (2 fo) AVE minDjV where ¢ is the permittivity of free space, A is the full beam height, V2.min is the axial tune at the radius of weakest focusing, Dy is the frac- tion of the machine circumference occupied by the beam, and V the peak accelerating voltage per turn, Im * 10 mA is typical. Longitudial limit In an isochronous device the orbit period is independent of the energy so longitudinal length of bunch is unchanged but space charge force increases energy spread of particles in a given turn and is principal limit for single-turn-extraction (see below). The linear component of space charge force can be compen- sated by moving beam slightly to side of voltage wave. Numerical calculations are required to es- timate residual nonlinear component, A scaling Jaw shows that turn separation oc V3, so V is ical. “Flat-topping” voltage by adding higher har- monic gaps is sometimes also used. Beam extraction H™ cyclotrons use stripping foil. Positive ion cyclotrons use an electrostatic deflector with thin (~ 0.1-0.3 mm) septum fol- lowed by magnetic channel(s). Precessional extraction introduces coherent radial oscillation (amplitude a) prior to extrac- tion to add a precessional component (2raly, —