FUNDAMENTALS OF BRIDGE DESIGN 2017

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1General
Bridge is a structure corresponding to the heaviest responsibility in carrying a free flow of
transport and is the most significant component of a transportation system in case of
communication over spacing/gaps for whatever reason such as aquatic obstacles, valleys gorges,
and structures, etc. and to facilitate the transportation systems. Or “Bridges are elevated
transportation structure spanning across some obstacle (a river, a valley, a road or a railway)”. It
provides a passage for transporting pedestrians, vehicles, trains, pipelines, etc. Or “Bridges are
any structures having an opening not less than 6100mm that forms part of a highway or that is
located over or under a highway”.
In large cities, due to traffic jam at the intersection of two or more roads, bridges called
interchange or flyover bridges are provided. Bridges must be planed and engineered before they
can be constructed. Bridge engineering is one of the fascinating fields in civil engineering calling
for expertise in many areas like structural analysis and design, geotechnical, geological
investigation runoff calculation and methods of bridge construction.
Bridges have great importance in terms of urban, social, cultural and economic development.
They also have major military significance.
They are not seen or understood in the same way by everyone.
For instance: A simple bridge over a small river will be viewed differently by different people
because the eyes each one sees it with are unique to that individual.
- Someone travelling over the bridge everyday while going to work may only realize a
bridge is there because the road way has posts and railing on either side.
- Others may remember a time before the bridge was built how far they had to travel to
visit friends and to get the children to school.
- Civic leaders see the bridge as a link between neighborhoods and a way to provide fire
and police protection and access to hospital.
- In business community, the bridge is seen as opening up new markets and expanding
commerce.
- An artist will consider the bridge and its setting as a possible subject for a future painting.

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FUNDAMENTALS OF BRIDGE DESIGN 2017

- A theologian may see the bridge as symbolic of making a connection between God and
human beings.
- While a boater on the river, looking up when passing underneath the bridge, will have a
completely different perspective.
Bridges affect people day today life. People use them; engineers design , later build and maintain
them.
Transportation System and Bridges
Transportation system which is implemented on land needs bridges.
Basically in Road Transportation System Bridge is mandatory for two reasons.
1. To pass obstacles
2. To facilitate the transportation system. This is to say in large cities there is traffic jam
when two or more roads meet at a point.
A bridge controls the capacity of the transportation system. For instance: If the strength of the
bridge is unable to carry heavy trucks, loads limits will be posted and heavy trucks will be
rerouted. Bridges are expensive structures. The cost per meter of a bridge is high in comparison
to the road. If the bridge fails, the transportation system will not be in a position to give function.
Therefore, bridge designer has control over the capacity, cost and Safety.

1.2 History of Bridges

Mankind takes lessons from nature to construct bridges

 Tree fallen accidentally across a stream was the earliest example of a beam type bridge.
 Similarly, the natural rock arch formed by erosion of the loose soil below was the earliest
forebear of arch bridges.
 Creeper hanging from tree to tree allowing monkeys to cross from one bank to the other
was the forerunners of suspension bridges.
The first bridges were made by nature itself as simple as a log fallen across a stream or stones in
a river. The first bridges made by humans were probably spans of cut wooden logs or planks and
eventually stones, using a simple support and crossbeam arrangement. Some early Americans
used trees or bamboo poles to cross small caverns or wells to get from one place to another. A
common form of lashing sticks, logs, and deciduous branches together involved the use of long

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FUNDAMENTALS OF BRIDGE DESIGN 2017

rod or other harvested fibers woven together to form a connective rope capable of binding and
holding together the materials used in early bridges.
Natural bridges: These are bridges which are designed and constructed in nature. They may be
formed due to erosion and scoring of erodible materials under rocks, due to geological formation
or due to their natural behavior. These may be fallen trees, stepping stones, rock arches,
overhanging branches, creepers.
Primitive bridges: The most primitive human communities must often have created bridges
from material lying easily to hand. Hunters and gatherers follow favorite paths and streams need
to be crossed. A fallen tree was dragged into position to serve as a plank. Forest strand may be
intertwined as an elementary suspension bridge.
These are Primitive bridges which are constructed across the stream using fallen tress and
bamboos “The primitive man who felled a tree deliberately so that it fell across a stream was the
first bridge builder”. But these bridge types cannot cross wide rivers.
Early bridges: These are bridges having architectural plan during ancient civilization. brick
masonry arch bridge, stone masonry arch bridge, stone masonry segmental arch bridges (Middle
Ages, Renaissance period) are called early bridges
Modern bridges: These are reinforced concrete bridges, prestressed concrete bridges steel
bridges and fiber bridges which are used for roadway and railway bridges.

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 1.3 BRIDGE SITE INVESTIGATION
A geotechnical site investigation is the process of collecting information and evaluating the
conditions of the site for the purpose of designing and constructing the foundation for a structure,
such as a building, plant or bridge. A geotechnical site investigation in permanent frost regions is
more complex than in southern temperate climate regions because:
A. Potential presence of ice within the soil or rock whose properties are temperature and
salinity dependent;
B. Climate change is warming the ground thereby decreasing the strength of the frozen ground
and eventually thawing it and
C. The presence of saline soils in coastal areas.
Good planning and management of a geotechnical site investigation is the key to obtain sufficient
and correct site information for designing a structure in a timely manner and with minimum cost for
the effort needed. The effort and detail of the geotechnical site investigation to obtain sufficient and
correct site information to select and design a foundation for a building and bridges in permanent
frost is complex. It depends on:
A. Design criteria of the proposed structure;
B. Historic knowledge of general site conditions and structure performance;
C. Drilling equipment availability;
D. Time of year the work needs to be done may determine the geotechnical site investigation
method and finally;
E. The overall costs

1.3.1 Preliminary Investigation stages

1. Field Reconnaissance Survey
For most bridge investigations access and environmental constraints have major influences on cost.
It is therefore necessary for a field reconnaissance survey to be conducted as the first stage of a
geotechnical investigation and other studies. The field reconnaissance survey must be diligently
prepared and conducted to allow for reliable cost estimates to be prepared. Experienced and
suitably qualified personnel should perform the survey. Further stages of the investigation should
be held until the field reconnaissance survey has been completed and reported.
 2. Technical Feasibility Study
The possibilities of the bridge site can be studied using different methods. Using the number of
alternatives which can be to 3- 4 numbers, studying of maps to choose sites, sstudying the local
features of sites, gathering the information on the behaviour of the river at the sites by studying
available reports, holding discussions with knowledgeable people, comparative study of past
survey maps, studying the existing traffic pattern, studying the routes /modes possible,
construction problem assessment.
3. Techno-Economic Study
 Minimum field measurements
 Length of bridge, approaches
 Distance from important city or town
 Nature of stream flow at site, foundation strata
 More detail study of maps of the area
 Traffic data specifically quantities (Traffic volume)
 Expected duration of construction
 Saving in detours (problems involved)
 Construction and maintenance problems
 Construction cost of bridge, protection works and approaches
 Benefit cost ratio / rate of return

4. Soil Investigation
This stage of the Geotechnical Investigation is involved with the exploration of subsurface
conditions and retrieval of test data for generating geotechnical parameters and geotechnical
profiles. Once at the site it is easy and of great value to sample for soil, rock, stone, water, etc. in
cooperation with the soil investigators.
Soil investigation is required to get soil profile, engineering property of the foundation material and
foundation level of the abutments and piers for design of the foundation.
This information is obtained by analyzing samples taken from boreholes, test pits or geophysical
surveying.
Samples of at least 2kg each should be collected marking station number and river name where the
crossing site is fixed. (See 2.3.3)
5. Desk Study
Every site investigation should commence with a desk study directed towards collecting, collating
and reviewing the following:
 Design drawings from any previous structure at the site.
 Previous site investigation reports, borehole logs, penetrometer results and construction
experience e.g. piling records.
 Geological and Topographical maps,
 Survey data and records.
 Hydrological data.
 Aerial photographs
 Regional seismicity data.
 Survey records, local knowledge and resources
The collection and collation of the above information, where possible, could be undertaken during
the field reconnaissance survey stag.
During the desk study stage, an overview of complexity and risks associated with each geotechnical
design should be clearly identified.
1.4 Bridge Site Selection
In this first stage of design the engineer identifies a preferred location for the bridge and decides on
the type, size and capacity of the structure. She/he reaches these decisions on the basis of field
surveys and information concerning:
In locating a bridge crossing the following considerations come in to picture.
 The reach of the river should be straight. Especially this has to hold on upstream side of the
crossing. This is necessary so that the approach flow is not angular and the obstructions
caused by piers, etc have minimum disturbance effect on the flow.
 The river in the reach should have a regime flow free of excess of currents.
If this is present, it will be aggravated by the piers that have to be put up and will result in
excessive scour which endanger the foundation.
 The channel in the reach should be well defined.
 The crossing site should be as narrow as possible.
  The crossing site should have firm high banks which are fairly inerodable. In this case the
river flow will be defined and confined and any excessive velocity will not cause erosion.
 The site on a meandering river should be at nodal point. A nodal point is defined as the
location where the river regime does not normally shift and the location serves as a fulcrum
about which river channel swing laterally ( both upstream and downstream)
 The site should have suitable strata at reasonable and workable depth for founding piers and
abutments.
 The site should allow for constructing approach road.
 The site should be selected where skewness can be avoided.
For a river crossing it is important to identify the type of river to be crossed. There are two types of
rivers namely alluvial and incised.
Alluvial rivers are winding and they erode their banks and scour their beds; they have flood plains
on either side of the channel and the flow regularly overtops the channel banks to spread across the
flood plain. They are continually active, scouring and depositing materials on the banks and
transporting sediments.
Incised rivers have a relatively stable banks and arc generally narrower and deeper than alluvial
rivers.
Bridge crossing over alluvial rivers nearly always require training works to stabilize the channel
flow with in tile bridge waterway opening.
 What is the aim of investigation?
 From field surveys and information the following information are gathered
 The proposed road alignment
 The local terrain and site condition
 The required design life of the bridge
 Traffic volume
 Available resources
Therefore aim of investigation is to select suitable site from possible alternatives at which a
bridge can be built satisfying Economy, Safety, Traffic demand, Stream demand, Aesthetic
1.6 Data Collection and Span Determination
Once the engineer has identified a likely site for the bridge, he/she needs to obtain field information
on the catchment area and run off, local terrain conditions and water levels, navigational and other
clearance requirements.
Field reviews shall be made by the designer in order to become familiar with the site. The most
complete survey data cannot adequately depict all site conditions or substitute for personal
inspection by someone experienced in bridge design.
1.6.1 River Survey
Information required by the designer for analysis and design should include all features that can
affect the magnitude and the frequency of the flood flow which will pass the site under study. These
are: Climatologically characteristics, land runoff characteristics, stream gauging records, high water
marks and size and performance of existing structures in the vicinity
High water marks can be obtained from gauges or from local people. In addition, they can be
identified from small debris, such as grass or twigs caught in tree branches, elephant grass or
similar matted down, mud lines on stones or bridges, are all high water indicators.
The hydrologic characteristics of the basin or watershed of the stream under study are needed for
any predictive methods used to forecast flood flows. Although many of these characteristics can be
found from office studies, some are better found by a field survey of the basin. The size and
configuration of the watershed, the geometry of the stream network, storage volumes of ponds,
lakes, reservoirs, and flood plains, and the general geology and soils of the basin can be found from
maps.
Having determined these basin characteristics, runoff times, infiltration values, storage values, and
runoff coefficients can be found and used in calculating flood flow values using different methods .
Like: Reve’s formula, rational formula, Area-Velocity formula
Hydraulic Requirements
Bridges are designed to accommodate design discharge at design flood. When a river has a wide
flood plain, the economical solution may be using short span bridge with proper scour and erosion
protection for the embankment, abutments and piers.
Piers should be located in such a manner that they can provide the required lineal waterway and
navigational clearance.
The alignment of piers and abutments should, if possible, be set parallel to the direction of flow
during maximum flood.
Free Board
The waterway below the superstructure must be designed to pass the design flood and the floating
debris carried on it.
The free board allows for uncertainty in determining design flood level also. The minimum free
board above the design water level is given in table below unless refined hydraulic analyses have
been made.
Table: Free Board
Discharge (m3/s) Vertical Clearance/Free board (m)
0 to 3.0 0.3
3.0 to 30.0 0.6
30.0 to 300 0.9
> 300 1.2
These clearance measurements should be increased for backwater effects when the flow is restricted
by short span bridge or when the river has history of unusual large floating items or in case of
navigational requirements.

1.6.2 Topographic survey

 Topography; The shape, configuration, relief, roughness, or three-dimensional characteristics
of the earth's surface.
 Topographic Maps; Show topography together with natural and artificial features such as
streams, lakes, buildings, highways, etc.
 Topographic Surveys; Surveys made to determine the configuration of the earth’s surface
and to locate natural and cultural features on it.
Methods for topographic surveying
 Aerial (photogrammetric); Using aerial photographs to determine distances, elevations, areas,
etc for topographic mapping.
 Transit-stadia; Distance, elevation, and location measurements are taken in the field, recorded in
the field book, and then plotted on paper in the office.
 Plane table; Similar to transit-stadia method except that the data is plotted in the field on paper
attached to a drawing board mounted on a tripod.

Topographic Surveys are used to identify and map the contours of the ground and existing features
on the surface of the earth or slightly above or below the earth's surface (i.e. trees, buildings, streets,
walkways, manholes, utility poles, retaining walls, etc.). If the purpose of the survey is to serve as a
base map for the design of a residence or building of some type, or design a road or driveway, it
may be necessary to show perimeter boundary lines and the lines of easements on or crossing the
property being surveyed, in order for a designer to accurately show zoning and other agency
required setbacks.
 Topographic Surveys require "bench marks" to which ground contours are related, information
regarding surface and underground utilities, determination of required setbacks, etc.
 From this information a three-dimensional map may be prepared. The work usually consists of
the following:
 Establishing horizontal and vertical control that will serve as the framework of the survey.
 Determining enough horizontal location and elevation (usually called side shots) of ground
points to provide enough data for plotting when the map is prepared to create a Digital
Terrain Model (DTM).
 Locating natural and man-made features that may be required by the purpose of the survey.
 Computing distances, angles, and elevations.
 Drawing the topographic map with contours.
Bridge surveys are often required for navigation projects. In many instances, a plan of the bridge
may be available from the highway department, county engineer, railroad, etc. When as-built
drawings can be obtained, it may be substituted for portions of the data required herein. However,
an accuracy check should be made in the field. Field survey measurements should include the
elevation of bridge floor, low steel, and a ground section under bridge to present an accurate
portrait of the bridge opening. Piers, bents, and piling should be located with widths or thicknesses
being measured so that their volume can be computed and deducted from the effective opening
under the bridge. Superstructure is not important and need not be shown. However, guardrail
elevations should be obtained and the rails described as to whether they are of solid or open
construction. A very brief description of bridge as to type of construction (wood, steel, concrete,
etc.) and its general condition should be furnished. If wing walls exist, minimum measurements
should be made to draw them in proper perspective. Sketches of existing bridges may be required
on many of the various types of surveys performed by a District. Obtain digital photographs of all
bridges. All photographs should be carefully indexed, and a sketch made to show approximate
position and angle of each exposure. In general, survey data to be included on bridge survey field
notes should include:
  Direction facing bridge, whether upstream or downstream.
 Length of bridge, or stationing if established.
 Distances from centre to centre of piers or bents.
 Dimensions of piers or pilings including batter.
 Low chord (or steel) elevation over channel.
 Profile of bridge deck, roadway, handrail, etc.
 Sketch of plan of bridge, when required, showing deck dimensions including girder size and
spacing.
 Sketch of typical bent, when required, including cap size.
 Sketch of wing wall, when required.
 Digital photographs from various aspects.
 Material of which constructed (wood, steel, concrete, prestressed concrete, etc.).
 Type of construction, such as truss, trestle, or girder.
 General condition of bridge.
 Alignment of bridge to channel, whether normal or at angle (may be shown on plan sketch).
 Alignment of piers or bents, whether normal or at angle.
 Composition of bents may be indicated on sketch.
 Designation of highway, road, street, railroad, etc., utilizing bridge--describe surface, if road.
Grade Requirements
Often in mountainous areas the road way grade is governed by the capacity of heaviest vehicle to
climb, vertical curve and sight distance. These requirements may increase the span beyond the
hydraulic requirement.
1.6.3 Soil Sampling and Testing
Central to the investigation and subsequent design stage an understanding of the ultimate limit state
design to be adopted for design is an essential. This should be done by a suitably qualified and
experienced geotechnical engineer and conveyed to the personnel conducting the investigation prior
to the commencement of site works.
Field reviews shall be made by the designer in order to become familiar with the site. The most
complete survey data cannot adequately depict all site conditions or substitute for personal
inspection by someone experienced in bridge and drainage design. The selection of characteristic
values of geotechnical parameters, the modification of these values by using Geotechnical Strength
reduction factors and the use of these modified values in calculating ultimate limit state design
capacity must be fully understood. Communication between the bridge design engineer and the
geotechnical engineer to achieve an appropriate understanding is imperative. The types of
geotechnical field investigation are usually site specific and require discussion with the structural
and waterways engineers.
All in situ testing, for example Standard Penetration Test (SPT), Electric Friction-Cone penetration
Test (EFCPT) etc, should be carried out in accordance with the relevant standards and supervised
accordingly. The purpose of in situ testing is to determine the soil parameters necessary for the
design of foundations.
Field Sketching and Photos
It has proved very practical to make a simple sketch of the bridge site with approximate water
shores, existing structures, scour holes, main stream location, etc including very rough dimensions
with approximate measurements
As a minimum, photos shall be taken looking upstream and downstream from the site as well as
along the contemplated highway centerline in both directions. Details of the streambed and banks
should also be photographed along with any existing structures in the vicinity both upstream and
downstream. Close-up photographs complete with a scale or grid shall be taken to facilitate
estimates of the stream bed gradation.
Check List of Site Investigation
A form or checklist that can be used by the field investigator/designer in identifying and cataloging
field information is shown on .A checklist for Inspection of existing bridges is shown below.
FIELD VISIT INVESTIGATION FORM
 PROJECT:…………...............................................…………… Date: …................……….
Inv. by ………...................……….........................… Site Situated @ STA: .................……….
 WATERWAY: Name: ......................................... Direction of flow: ....................................
High Water Mark:... ................ Level: +...............Side Slopes: ........................degrees: ............
Diversions/ Flow concentration / Flood Hazards year, level: .........................................................
% Grade of Stream: ......... Channel, Base: ……(m) Height of Banks:…...... (m)
Manning's Value n=..................Crossing angle (estimated): …………degrees
Meandering: ……………………………………(show with figure)
Bottom/Base material.................................. Material on channel side: ......................... n=..........
Up or Downstream Restriction (debris/sedimentation/scour/soil mtrl.): ……………………..
 STRUCTURES : Bridges/ Buildings upstream and downstream: ..................... @ M
up/down:.......
Type:.....................................Piers: Type: ....................
Abutment Types: .......................Width: ...............(m) Size of Spans: ............
Clear Height: ……(m) @............; ............m@..............; .............m@ .............; Total water width
at HWL:............(m);
(Overflow? Year? Level: +...) ..................................
 Land Uses upstream and downstream: ......................................
Vegetation (Location, Type, Name): ....................................................
Wildlife (Paths, Traces, Type, Name): .....................................................................
 Soil Conditions: ..................................................................... at Roadway STA: .....................
Sample no: ............. @ STA: .............; Sample no: ............ @ STN: ................; Sample no: ............
@ STA: ................;
 Photos no:............@STN:............... Shows: ................... Photos no:..........@STA:...............
Shows: .........................
Photos no:............@STN:............... Shows: ..................... Photos no:............@STN:...............
Shows: .........................
 REMARKS: .....................................................................................................................................
..................
( make simple plan sketch incl. water shores/Road alignment and continue the text on back side
of this page, if needed)
Economical Span
Span determination is usually dictated by the hydraulic requirement. However, there are conditions
where lengthen spans are chosen for the sake of road alignment.
For a given span the most economical span is the length at which superstructure cost equals to
substructure cost.
 The most economical bridge site selected :
is on a straight reach of the river
is beyond the disturbing influence of larger tributaries
Steady river flow without serious turn and cross currents
 has well defined banks
has reasonably straight approach roads
The bridge should be square bridge
Has a good foundation condition.
shall allow appropriate approach roads gradient
should offer suitable vertical curves and sight distances
Easy available resources like labour, construction material, transport
facility in the vicinity
Avoidance of excessive under water construction for minimum
foundation cost
On curved alignment bridge should be possibly on tangent side
Reasonable proximity to a direct alignment of the road to the served
Adequate vertical height and waterway for navigation purpose
No adverse environmental impact

Before decision of bridge site the followings factors should be examined carefully
Grade of alignment
Government requirement
Commercial influence
General features of the bridge structures
Time consideration
Foundation characteristics
Erection consideration
Environmental impact
Geographical conditions of the area
Public requirement
Adjacent property considerations
Future expansion
stream characteristic
construction facilities available
maintenance and repair considerations
 aesthetic values
In short bridge location depends upon
Local demand
Administrative requirement
As a part of road project
 CHAPTER TWO
2.1 TYPES OF BRIDGES AND THEIR SELECTION
In this chapter, different types of bridge structures are introduced and their structural behavior,
suitability, relative advantages, and disadvantages are discussed.

2.2 Types of Bridges

Bridges can be classified in different ways
(a) Traffic type/functionality
- Road way or Highway Bridge:
o The bridges which are designed and constructed for road way transport and for design
the live loads considered are road way traffic (vehicular loads).
- Railway Bridge:
o Railway bridges are bridges which are designed and constructed for railway
transportation considering the train weight as a live load.
- Pedestrian bridge:
o A footbridge or a pedestrian bridge is a bridge designed for pedestrians and in
some cases cyclists, animal traffic and horse riders, rather than vehicular traffic.
Footbridges complement the landscape and can be used decoratively to visually link
two distinct areas or to signal a transaction.
- Aqueduct:
o is a bridge that carries water, resembling a viaduct, which is a bridge that connects
points of equal height. A road-rail bridge carries both road and rail traffic
- Viaduct:
o Is a bridge composed of several small bridges to pass valleys or gorges
- Equipment bridge:
o To install electric cables, water pipes, fuel pipes etc across valleys or rivers
(b) Life Span
- Temporary bridges:
 o Temporary bridges, such as Bailey bridges, are designed to be assembled, and taken
apart, transported to a different site, and re-used. They are important in military
engineering, and are also used to carry traffic while an old bridge is being rebuilt
- Permanent bridges:
o All bridges designed and constructed for specified design period.
- Semi-permanent bridges:
o Bridges having life span between temporary bridge and permanent bridges.
(c) Horizontal Arrangement
- Straight/Normal Bridge:
o These are most common bridge types which are perpendicular to the channel bank
and on straight approach of the road. Bridges are easier to design and construct on
straights and grades rather than on horizontal and vertical curves. Variable vertical
curve bridges are more difficult to construct than vertical grade bridges.
- Skewed bridge:
o It is often not possible to arrange that a bridge spans square to the feature that it
crosses, particularly where it is important to maintain a relatively straight alignment
of a roadway above or below the bridge. Thus a ‘skew’ bridge is required. This
increases the spans but more significantly usually results in the end and intermediate
supports being at an angle to the longitudinal axis of the bridge, rather than square to
it. Skew support arrangements give rise to torsional effects that must be taken into
account in design. Angle of skew or skew angle is generally applied to the difference
between the alignments of an intermediate or end support and a line square to the
longitudinal axis of the bridge above. Thus, on a straight bridge, the skew angle at all
supports would normally be the same and the term skew angle can be applied to the
bridge as a whole. On a curved bridge, the skew angle is different at each support
- Curved bridge:
o Although very many bridges follow a straight alignment from one abutment to the
other, some are partly or wholly curved in plan. For road bridges, curvature may be
required to optimize the layout of the carriageway. For footbridges, curvature may be
employed either for a more interesting aspect for users or to enhance the appearance.
Railway bridges are rarely curved in plan, since the track radius is normally so great
 that the deviation from straight over a span is modest and easily accommodated on a
straight superstructure
(d) Vertical Arrangement
- Horizontal/ Flat/ Normal:
o When the two ends of the bridge are on the same level the bridge is called horizontal
or normal bridge. These types of bridges are most commonly used bridges.
- Inclined Bridge:
o Inclined bridge is a bridge connecting the high elevated place to the lowed elevated
one. Or when there is elevation difference between the two ends of the bridge may be
the two end supports differ in elevation. This time the superstructure may be inclined.
So if there is elevation difference between the two ends of the bridge it is called
inclined bridge.
(e) Span
- L ≤ 6m (Culvert)
- 7m < L ≤ 15m (Small span bridges)
- 16 ≤ L ≤ 50m (Medium span Bridges)
- 50 ≤ L≤ 150m (Large Span Bridges)
- L≥150m (Extra Large Span Bridges)
Culverts:
Culvert is a cross drainage work whose length (total length between the inner faces of
abutments or extreme vent-way boundaries when measured at right angles to the axis of
vent-way) is less than 6 meters. Mostly, culverts are constructed over streams which
remain dry for most part of the year. In any highway or railway project, the majority of
cross drainage works fall under this category. Hence culverts collectively are important
in any project, though the cost of individual structures may be relatively small. Culverts
are mainly of four types such as pipe culvert, box culvert, arch culvert and slab culvert.
Pipe culvert:
For small streams crossing the road or railway embankments, one or more pipes may be
placed to act as the culvert. The diameter of pipe is kept not less than 300 mm. The
exact number of pipes and their diameters will depend on the discharge of water in the
stream. Generally pipe culverts are preferred when the discharge in the stream is low
Components of pipe culvert:
1. Concrete bedding: It is necessary to provide the concrete bedding of suitable depth
below the pipes.
2. Construction at the ends: At both ends of the pipe culvert, it is preferable to provide
masonry head walls with arch at top when the depth of earth filling above it is
small. The construction of head walls at the ends of the road formation width
assists to retain the earth and prevents the stream water to damage the
embankment. If the depth of earth filling is more, it will not be economical to
provide high head walls and in such cases, the length of the culvert should be
increased in such a way that the embankments, with its natural side slopes with
revetments, is accommodated without high retaining walls. In both cases, the
splayed wing walls may be provided along with the head walls at the ends.
3. Earth cushion: An earth cushion of minimum specified depth should be provided at the
top of the pipes.
4. Material of pipe: The pipes may be of RCC, cast iron, steel or wood. Cast-iron pipes
are suitable up to a diameter of 750mm and RCC pipes are suitable up to a
diameter of 1800mm.
Box culvert
Reinforced concrete box culverts are used for square or rectangular openings with spans
up to about 4m. The height of vent rarely exceeds 3m. The top of the box section can be
at the road level or can be at a depth below road level with a fill depending on the site
conditions.
Components of box culvert:
1. Barrel of box section of sufficient length to accommodate the carriage way and the curbs,
2. Wing walls splayed at 45 degrees to retain the embankments and also to guide the flow of
water into and out of the barrel,
3. Earth fill over the top of the box barrel if necessary and
4. Concrete foundation bedding
Arch culvert
Stone masonry arch culverts can be constructed for spans from 2m to 4m. This type of
culvert also requires the components similar to the other types.
Slab culvert
Reinforced concrete slab culvert is economical for shorter spans and the construction method
is also easy to complete without much difficulty. If the span is limited to 6m, the term
culvert is suitable to be used. If the span is more than 6m, it has to be called as Slab Bridge.
The slab generally has to be designed as a one way spanning slab. The components such as
deck slab, abutments, wing walls, concrete foundations for abutments, and bedding concrete
are common in the construction activities.
(f) Construction Materials
- Timber Bridges:
o A Timber bridge or wooden bridge is a bridge that uses timber or wood as its
principal structural material. One of the first forms of bridge, those of timber have
been used since ancient times
- Masonry Bridges:
o A bridge whose main load-bearing structures are made of natural stone, brick, or
concrete blocks. Such a bridge is always arched, with massive supports. The main
load-bearing element of a masonry bridge is the arch, over which is built the spandrel,
which in turn supports the bridge roadway. The spandrel is made from a gravel or
crushed stone backing held in by lateral (side) walls made of concrete masonry or
stonework or in the form of an open structure of small arches resting on
crosswalk.The advantages of a masonry bridge are its architectural at-tractiveness and
its durability
- Reinforced Concrete Bridges:
o Reinforced concrete is a composite material in which concrete's relatively low tensile
strength and ductility are counteracted by the inclusion of reinforcement having
higher tensile strength and/or ductility. The reinforcement is usually, though not
necessarily, steel reinforcing bars (rebar) and is usually embedded passively in the
concrete before the concrete sets. Reinforcing schemes are generally designed to
resist tensile stresses in particular regions of the concrete that might cause
unacceptable cracking and/or structural failure. Modern reinforced concrete can
contain varied reinforcing materials made of steel, polymers or alternate composite
material in conjunction with rebar or not. Reinforced concrete may also be
 permanently stressed (in compression), so as to improve the behaviour of the final
structure under working loads

- Prestressed Concrete Bridges:

Prestressed concrete is a method for overcoming concrete's natural weakness in
tension. It can be used to produce beams, floors or bridges with a longer span than is
practical with ordinary reinforced concrete. Prestressing tendons (generally of high
tensile steel cable or rods) are used to provide a clamping load which produces a
compressive stress that balances the tensile stress that the concrete compression
member would otherwise experience due to a bending load. Traditional reinforced
concrete is based on the use of steel reinforcement bars, rebar, inside poured concrete.
Prestressing can be: pre-tensioned concrete and post-tensioned concrete.
Steel Bridge:
Steel bridge construction consists of rolled steel beams, plate girders or trusses with
reinforced concrete deck or steel plate deck-beam bridges.
Advantages
It is a high quality, homogeneous, isotropic material that is perfectly elastic to its yield
point.
It has high tensile and compressive strengths.
Past the yield point it offers considerable ductility to provide a large reserve of strength.
Steel bridges can be built faster than reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete bridge.
They can be erected with ease and this minimizing construction costs.
Steel superstructures are usually lighter than concrete superstructures which translate into
reduced substructures costs, which can be significant when soil conditions are poor.
Steel superstructures can be designed with shallower depth than RC, which is an
important consideration when overhead clearance is required.
Steel bridges are easy and faster to repair than RC.
Steel bridges have some major disadvantages that make then much less favorable than
RC or PSC bridges
 Corrosion of steel is the major drawback which requires prohibitively high maintenance
cost.
Corrosion can reduce cross section of structural members and weaken the superstructure
also.
Some steel bridge types:
-Rolled steel beam bridge
-Plate girder and steel box girder bridges
-Steel truss bridges
-Plate Deck-Stringer Bridges
- Composite Bridges:
o Composite materials (also called composition materials or shortened to composites)
are materials made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different
physical or chemical properties, that when combined, produce a material with
characteristics different from the individual components. The individual components
remain separate and distinct within the finished structure. The new material may be
preferred for many reasons: common examples include materials which are stronger,
lighter or less expensive when compared to traditional materials. Composite bridges
commonly consists steel or prestressed girder with concrete deck.
(g) Span Arrangement
- Simply Supported:
If the bridge span is supported by only two supports (abutments and piers) it is
simple span or simple supported bridge
Continuous Girder Bridges
Continuous girder bridges, not connected monolithically to supports, are suitable when
unyielding supports are available. The spans can be equal, but usually the end spans are
made about 16 to 20 % smaller than the intermediate spans. The decking can be in the
form of slab, T beam or box section. The bending moments and shears at the various
sections of the bridges are evaluated by using influence lines. As the bending moment is
more in the support portion, a haunch profile or a curved soffit is normally preferred and
the section at the support is strengthened with compression reinforcement besides (in
addition to or as well) provision of thickened webs and a cross beam or diaphragm. The
 length of haunch portion is generally 0.2 to 0.25 of the span. All but one of the bearings
will be of the expansion type.
Continuous girder bridges have the following advantages over simply supported girder
bridges.
Less number of bearings over the piers
Reduced width of pier, thus less flow obstruction and less amount of material
Requires less number of expansion joints due to which both the initial cost and
maintenance cost become less
Rigidity quality over the bridge is improved
Lesser depth of girder, hence economical
Better architectural appearance
Lesser vibration and deflection
Disadvantages:
Not suitable on yielding foundations
Analysis is laborious and time consuming.
Balanced Cantilever Bridges
Unyielding supports are required for continuous construction. But if the soil conditions
in the site is poor to bear the load and if supports are expected to be yielding, for medium
spans in the range of about 35 to 60 meters, a combination of supported spans, cantilevers
(or overhangs) and suspended spans may be adopted as shown schematically in the
figure annexed. The bridge with this type of superstructure is known as balanced
cantilever bridge.
The connection between the suspended span and the edge of the cantilever is called an
articulation. The bearings at articulations should be alternately of fixed and expansion
types and can be in the form of sliding plates, roller-rocker arrangement or elastomeric
pads.
The cantilever span is usually about 0.2 to 0.25 of the supported span. The suspended
span is designed as a simply supported span with support at the articulations. Generally,
while designing the main span, the maximum negative moment at the support would
occur when the cantilever and suspended spans are subjected to full live load with no live
load on the main span. The maximum positive moment at the mid span would occur with
 full live load on the main span and no live load on the cantilever or suspended span.
Similarly the governing shears shall be obtained using influence lines. Bearings at the
pier supports shall be alternately fixed and expansion types.
The cross section of a balanced cantilever bridge can be a T beam or hollow box girder
type. The soffit at the support can be hauched or parabolic profile.
The advantages of balanced cantilever bridges over simply supported girder bridges
are listed below.
Less concrete steel and form work are required for cantilever bridge constructions
The reactions at the piers are vertical and central permitting slender piers
Requires only one set of bearings at every pier
Fewer expansion joints are needed for the full structure, resulting less initial cost and less
maintenances cost.
Disadvantages:
Requires more skill on the part of designer
After settlement of supports the super structure will not maintain the same level at all the
cross sections for the free traffic flow
RC Rigid Frame Bridges:
In rigid frame bridges, the deck is rigidly connected to the bridge and piers. All the
advantages of a continuous span bridge are present here.
Additional advantages of rigid frame bridges over continuous ones are
- More rigidity of the structure
- Less moments in deck being partly transferred to the supporting members
- No bearings are required
- Better aesthetic appearance than the continuous span structure
As in continuous span bridges, these structures also require unyielding foundation
materials. The analysis is however, more laborious than the former
(h) Structural Arrangement
Slab Bridges
Slab bridges are most commonly used to span short spans up to 12 meters.
 Slab Bridge may be in the form

Uniform thickness Voided slab

Slab Bridge normally requires more concrete and reinforced steel than Girder Bridge of
the same span but the formwork is simpler and less expressive, hence they are
economical when these cast factor balance favorably.
The structural configuration of bridge is shown below.
T-Girder Bridges
T- Girders are most commonly used for bridges spanning from about 10 meters-25
meters. These usually consist of equal1y spaced beams (generally with spacing of 1.8-
3.6m) spanning longitudinally between supports. The structure is so named because the
main longitudinal girders are designed as T-beams integral with part of the deck slab,
which is cast monolithically with the girders. Simply supported T beams of greater spans
are now-a-days pre-stressed to reduce deflection and vibration and also to reduce the
material. This type of structures can be continuous over some number of piers also. The
slab is structural1y continuous across the top. The slab serves dual purpose of supporting
the live load on the bridge and acting as the top flange of the longitudinal beams.
Diaphragms are provided transversely between the beams over the supports and
depending on the span, at midspan and other intermediate locations. The purpose of
providing diaphragms is to ensure lateral distribution of live loads to various adjacent
stringers, the magnitude of the share of each stringer depends on the stiffness of the
diaphragms relative to the stringers and on the method of connectivity.
Box Girder Bridge:
Concrete box girder bridges are economical for spans of above 25 to 45m. They can be
reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete. Longer span than 45m will have to be
prestressed.
They are similar to T-beams in configuration except the webs of T-beams are all
interconnected by a common flange resulting in a cellular superstructure. The top slab,
webs and bottom slab are built monolithically to act as a unit, which means that full shear
transfer must be provided between all parts of the section.
 Reinforced concrete box girders have high torsional resistance due to their closed shape
and are particularly suitable for structures with significant curvature. This construction
also lends itself to aesthetic treatment.
Concrete box girder bridges have several advantages over other types;
1. The relatively shallow depth of box girders is all advantage where headroom is limited
like in urban overpasses.
2. Monolithic construction of the superstructure and substructure offers structural as well
as aesthetic advantage. The pier caps for continuous box girders can be placed within the
box, facilitating rigid connection to the pier.
3. They provide space for utilities such as water and gas lines, power, telephone and cable
ducts, storm drains and sewers, which can be placed in the hollow cellular section.
Arch Bridge:
Arches are generally characterized by the development of inclined rather than vertical
reactions under vertical loads.
Cross-sections are designed for thrust, moment and shear, with magnitudes depending on
the location of the pressure line. Compared to the girder bridges, arch bridges are
economical because the dead load moments in arch bridges are almost absent when the
arch is properly design.
The loads on the arch are carried by the arch ribs mainly through direct axial thrusts, the
bending moment and shear forces being small compared to Girder Bridge which requires
larger section. This is due to the hogging moment which balances the sagging moment
created by the horizontal force, H, at the support.

The main parameter of an arch is the rise to span ratio, r/l (1/6 to 1/10).
 From economic point of view it is attempted to coincide the center of pressure of a given
load with center of line of the arch. If the pressure line coincides with the axis of
structure, (as in a uniformly loaded parabolic arch), all cross sections will be subjected to
compression, with no moment or shear. If the pressure line falls within the kern, there
will not be tension. But if shape of structure and pressure line differs moment may
become dominant. Figure below shows parts of arch bridges.
Steel Truss bridges
Steel truss girder bridges have been used economically in the past over a span range of
100 m to 500 m. A bridge truss derives its economy from its two major structural
advantages, (a) the primary forces in the members are axial forces (stress resultants are
less), and (b) greater overall depths permissible with its open web construction leads to
reduced self-weight when compared to solid web systems. Warren truss is most common
for short span bridges, while other types like Pratt truss, N-girder and K-girder trusses are
also common. The main components of the truss girder bridges are (a) two main truss
girders, (b) floor beams connecting bottom chord joints, (c) stringer beams connected to
floor beams, (d) decking or flooring, (e) top tie beams parallel to the floor beams and (f)
lateral bracings provided at the top and bottom chord levels to resist horizontal transverse
loads. Truss girder bridges can be of different further structural classifications, like
cantilever truss bridge, arch truss bridge, suspension bridge with steel truss deck etc.

Plate Girder Bridge

Plate girders became popular in the late 1800's, when they were used in construction of
railroad bridges. The plates were joined together using angles and rivets to obtain plate
girders of desired size. But later welded plate girders replaced riveted and bolted plate
 girders in developed world due to their better quality, aesthetics and economy. The use of
plate girders rather than rolled beam sections for the main girders gives the designer
freedom to select the most economical girder for the structure. Generally, the main
girders require web stiffening (either transverse or both transverse and longitudinal) to
increase efficiency.
Since the days of early steel bridge construction there has been a marked preference for
the plate girder bridge system due to its aesthetic value and easiness of maintenance.
Deck type or half through type are most common. A plate girder highway bridge usually
consists of the deck slab (normally reinforced concrete) and stringers running
longitudinally and resting on transverse floor beams, which in turn rest on the plate
girders. In modern highway bridges of moderate and long spans, the concrete deck slab
is replaced by a stiffened deck plate over which a thin layer of asphalt concrete wearing
course is directly laid. The steel deck plate is stiffened in two orthogonal directions,
longitudinally by closed rib system and transversely by the floor beams. Since the
stiffness in the two orthogonal directions of the deck is different, it is said to be
orthotropic deck. Cross bracings are provided to firmly fix in position the two plate
girders or plate girder assembly.
Cable Stayed Bridge:
A cable stayed bridge is a bridge whose deck is suspended by multiple cables that run
down to the main girder from one or more towers. The cable stayed bridge is specially
suited in the span range of 200 to 900 m. It was developed in Germany in the post war
years in an effort to save steel which was then in short supply. Cable stayed bridges are
economical over wide range of span lengths and they are aesthetically attractive.
Cable stayed bridges are ideal for spanning natural barriers of wide rivers, deep valleys
and for vehicular and pedestrian bridges crossing wide interstate highways because they
can provide long spans unobstructed by piers.
Span arrangement types:
- Two span (symmetrical or asymmetric)
- Three spans
- Multi Span
The arrangement of the cable stays is one of the fundamental items in the design of cable-
stayed bridges. It influences, in fact not only the structural performance of the bridge but
also the method of erection and economies.
Longitudinal cable arrangement:
Main components of a cable stayed bridge are (a) inclined cables, (b) towers and (c)
orthotropic deck. (Orthotropic means having different elastic properties in two mutually
perpendicular directions. It evolved from steel deck plate in an effort to reduce the dead
weight of highway bridges during the post second world war period. The most developed
form consists of deck plate stiffened by a shallow grid work of closely spaced welded
ribs, the stiffened plate then acts as the top flange of the stringers) The cables connecting
the deck and towers would permit elimination of intermediate piers facilitating a larger
width for purposes of navigation.
When the number of stay cables in the main span is between 2 and 6, the spans between
the stay supports tend to be large (between 30 m and 60 m) requiring large bending
stiffness. The stay forces are large and the anchorages of cables become complicated.
On the other hand, the use of multiple stay cables would facilitate smaller distances
between points of supports (between 8m and 15m) for the deck girders, resulting in
reduced structural depth and facilitating erection by free cantilever method without
auxiliary supports. Cables can be arranged in a fan form or in a harp form. Fan type
configuration results in minimum axial force in deck girders. The harp form requires
larger quantity of steel for the cables induces higher compressive axial forces in the deck
and causes bending moments in the tower. Fan shape is superior from structural and
economical points of view. Harp configuration of cables also warrants erection of the
tower and the deck to progress at the same time. The cables may be arranged in one
vertical plane, in two vertical planes or in two inclined planes. The single plane system
has the advantage that the anchorage at deck level can be accommodated in the traffic
median resulting in the least value of required total width of deck. With the two vertical
plane system, additional widths are needed to accommodate the towers and deck
anchorages. Aesthetically, the single plane system is more attractive as this affords an
unobstructed view on one side of the motorist. In the case of a two plane system of
cables, a side view of the bridge would give impression of intersection of cables. The
two inclined plane system of cables with the cables radiating from the apex of an A-
frame tower facilitates the three-dimensional structural performance of the superstructure
and reduces the torsional oscillations of the deck due to wind.
The deck structure can be of reinforced concrete slab with ribs along the edges, if the
width is less than 15 m and the span is relatively small. For width greater than 15 m and
spans longer than 500m, the all steel plate deck becomes mandatory in order to reduce the
dead loads. Other combinations using pre-stressed concrete decks and composite decks
have also been used. Shallow box sections with wind nose at either end have been used
successfully for long spans.
Single free standing tower may be employed when the cables are in one plane. In this
case the piers should be sufficiently wide to accommodate the bearings. For bridges with
cables in two planes, the towers can be a free standing pair or a portal frame with a
slender bracing. An additional bracing may be introduced below the deck. The height of
towers should preferably be in the range of 0.2 to 0.25 Lm (where Lm = the main span).
The higher the tower, the smaller will be the quantity of steel required for the cables and
the compressive forces. But it is not advantageous to increase the height beyond 0.25
Lm.
The steel used for cables have ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of the order of 1600 MPa.
High carbon fibre cables having UTS of about 3300 MPa are under development.
Carbon fibre cables have negligible corrosion and possess high fatigue resistance. Cables
are used either as parallel bundle strands of wire or coiled bundle of strands enclosed in a
polyethylene tube. Anchorage of cables at the deck is fixed and has a provision for a
neoprene pad damper to damp oscillations.
A cable-stayed bridge has one or more towers (or pylons), from which cables support the
bridge deck. There are two major classes of cable-stayed bridges: harp type and fan type
In the harp or parallel design, the cables are nearly parallel so that the height of their
attachment to the tower is proportional to the distance from the tower to their mounting
on the deck.
In the fan radiating (converging) design, the cables all connect to or pass over the top of
the towers. The fan design is structurally superior with minimum moment applied to the
towers but for practical reasons the modified fan is preferred especially where many
 cables are necessary. In the modified fan arrangement the cables terminate near to the top
of the tower but are spaced from each other sufficiently to allow better termination,
improved environmental protection, and good access to individual cables for maintenance
Suspension Bridges
Suspension bridge is currently the only solution for spans in excess of 900 m. Suspension
bridges consist of two large, or main, cables that are hung (suspended) from towers. The main
cables of a suspension bridge drape over two towers, with the cable ends buried in enormous
concrete blocks known as anchorages. The roadway is suspended from smaller vertical cables
that hang down from the main cables. In some cases, diagonal cables run from the towers to the
roadway and add rigidity to the structure. The main cables support the weight of the bridge and
transfer the load to the anchorages and the towers.
The world’s longest span bridge at present is the Akashi-Kaikyo bridge (1998) across Akashi
strait in Japan which is a suspension bridge with a main span of 1991m. The Brooklyn Bridge,
which was the world’s longest suspension bridge at the time of its completion in 1883, crosses
the East River in New York City and has a main span of 486 m 31 cm (1,595 ft 6 in). While
suspension bridges can span long distances, this design has a serious drawback: It is very
flexible, and traffic loading may cause large deflections, or bending, in the bridge roadway.
Suspension design is rarely used for railroad bridges, because trains are heavier and can travel
faster than highway traffic. Apart from the above drawback of suspension bridges, the collapse
of Tacoma Narrows bridge, Washington, due to heavy wind of about 67 kmph, on November 7,
1940 (opened to traffic on July 1, 1940), taught us the need to study the aerodynamic stability of
bridges. In an attempt to slenderize the bridge the designer provided shallow plate girders for
stiffening the deck. The span to depth ratio was 350, where the earlier bridges of this span range
provided around 90. The span to width ratio was 72, as against the normal value of 35. The
result was that the bridge was extremely flexible. Also, instead of allowing the wind to pass
through, the plate girders caught the wind, to buck and roll. The use of solid plate stiffener,
which helped in visual enhancement, rendered it aerodynamically unstable. The bridge was
oscillating vertically and earned a little galloping. At last the vertical oscillation turned into
violent twisting motion with amplitude reaching 9.2m. Soon the whole deck twisted itself to
pieces and fell into the Narrows. As improvement in designing for aerodynamic stability of
suspension bridge deck, the objects set were to widen the deck, leaving cantilevered foot paths,
fin like, increasing voided depth by providing trussed stiffeners for the deck and as a whole
making the deck orthotropic, including diagonal suspenders in addition to the vertical suspending
cables and incorporating artificial damping devices against wind action.
Sag ratio for cables should be L/9-L/13
Suspension bridges are economical when the span exceeds 300m. Suspension bridges consist of
one main span and two side spans.
L1/L =0.17100
The cables being very flexible do not take any bending moment and arc subjected only to tensile
forces. The stiffening truss stiffens the deck and distributes the live load of the deck on to the
cables. Otherwise the cables would be subjected to local sag due to action of concentrated live
load and thus causes local angle change in the deck system.
The stiffening trusses arc hinged at the towers and suspended at node points from suspenders,
which are usually high tensile cables.
Vertical suspenders have been used in many bridges but diagonal suspenders have the advantage
of increasing the aerodynamic stability
Selection of Bridge Type
In selection of a bridge type, there is no unique answer. For each span length range there is more
than one bridge type that will satisfy the design criteria. Generally the following factors should
be considered.
 Geometric Condition of the Site: The type of bridge selected will often depend on the
horizontal and vertical alignment of the highway route and on the clearances above and below
the road way.
E.g. If the road alignment is on a curve, box and slab type bridges are best options because
they have pleasing appearance, can readily built on curve and have a relatively high torsional
resistance.
Relatively high bridges with larger spans over navigable waterways will require a different
bridge type than one with medium spans crossing a floodplain. The site geometry will also
dictate how traffic can be handled during construction, which is an important safety issue and
must be considered early in the planning stage.
Subsurface Conditions of the Site: The foundation soils at a site will determine whether
abutments and piers can be founded on spread footings, driven piles and shafts. If the subsurface
investigation indicates that creep settlement is going to be a problem, the bridge type selected
must be one that can accommodate differential settlement over time. Drainage conditions on the
surface and below ground must be understood because they influence the magnitude of earth
pressures, movement of embankments, and stability of cuts or fills. All of these conditions
influence the choice of substructure components that, in turn, influence the choice of
superstructure. For example, an inclined leg rigid frame bridge requires strong foundation
material that can resist both horizontal and vertical thrust. If this resistance is not present, then
another bridge type may be more appropriate. The potential for seismic activity at a site should
also be a part of the subsurface investigation. If seismicity is high, the substructure details will
change, affecting the superstructure loads as well.

 Functional Requirements: In addition to the geometric alignment that allows a bridge to

connect two points on a highway route, the bridge must also function to carry present and
future traffic volumes. Decisions must be made on the number of lanes of traffic,
inclusion of sidewalks and/or bike paths, whether width of the bridge deck should include
medians, drainage of the surface waters, snow removal, and future wearing surface. In the
case of stream and floodplain crossings, the bridge must continue to function during
periods of high water and not impose a severe constriction or obstruction to the flow of
water or debris. Satisfaction of these functional requirements will recommend some
bridge types over others. For example, if future widening and replacement of bridge
decks is a concern, multiple girder bridge types are preferred over concrete box girders.

 Aesthetics: It is necessary to understand what qualities and features of a bridge tend to make
that aesthetics statement a good one. This understanding requires training and time.
When a bridge is placed across a relatively shallow valley, the most pleasing appearance occurs
when there are an odd number of spans with span lengths that decrease going up the side of the
valley.
Harmony between the whole structure and its surrounding needed to be addressed.
Repeating similar spans too many times can become monotonous, just as hearing the same music
with a heavy beat that is repeated over and over again can be uncomfortable.
Moreover, contrast and texture, light and shadow are additional aesthetic parameter in bridge
design.
 Economics and ease of maintenance: In comparison of the economics of different bridge
types, the construction cost and maintenance cost should be taken together. A general rule is
that the bridge with minimum number of spans, fewest deck joints and widest spacing of
girders will be the most economical. By reducing the number of spans, the construction cost
of one pier is eliminated.
Deck joints are a high maintenance cost item, so minimizing their number will reduce the life
cycle cost of the bridge,
Generally, concrete structures require less maintenance than steel structures.
 Construction and erection considerations: The selection of the bridge type to be built is
often governed by construction and erection considerations. The length of time required to
construct a bridge is important and varies with bridge type. In general, the larger the
prefabricated or precast member, the shorter the construction time. However, the larger the
members, the more difficult they are to transport and lift into place.
The availability of skilled labor and specified materials will also influence the choice of a
particular bridge type.
Legal Considerations: One of the components of the model was the constraint put on the design
procedure by regulations. These regulations are usually beyond the control of the engineer, but
they are real and must be considered. Applicable laws like environmental laws, Local and
regional politics also govern the type of bridge.
 CHAPTER THREE

BRIDGE LOADINGS & THEIR DISTRIBUTION

3.1 Types of loads
The following permanent and transient loads and forces shall be considered for design of bridges where applicable. The load provisions may also
be applied to the structural evaluation of existing bridges.
 Permanent Loads
DC = dead load of structural components and nonstructural attachments
DD = down drag
DW = dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities
EH = horizontal earth pressure load
EL = accumulated locked-in effects resulting from the construction process
ES = earth surcharge load
EV = vertical pressure from dead load of earth fill
 Transient Loads
BR = vehicular braking force
CE = vehicular centrifugal force
CR = creep
CT = vehicular collision force
EQ = earthquake
FR = friction
 IM = vehicular dynamic load allowance
LL = vehicular live load
LS = live load surcharge
PL = pedestrian live load
SE = settlement
SH = shrinkage
TG = temperature gradient
TU = uniform temperature
WA = water load and stream pressure
WL = wind on live load
WS = wind load on structure
3.1.1 Dead Loads
(DC = Structural Component; DW = Wearing surface; EV = Vertical Earth fill)
Dead load shall include the weight of all components of the structure, appurtenances and utilities attached thereto, earth cover, wearing surface,
future overlays, and planned widening.
In the absence of more precise information, the densities, specified in table below, shall be used for dead loads.
Table 3.1 Densities and Force Effects of Different Materials
MATERIAL DENSITY (kg/m3) Force effect (kN/m3)
Bituminous Wearing Surfaces 2250 22.5
Cast Iron 7200 72
Cinder (volcanic stone) Filling 960 9.6
Compacted Sand, silt, or Clay 1925 19.3
Concrete Normal 2400 24
Loose Sand, Silt, or Gravel 1800 18
Soft Clay 1700 17
 Rolled Gravel or Ballast 2250 22.5
Steel 7850 79
Stone Masonry 2725 27.3
Wood Hard 960 9.6
Soft 800 8
Water Fresh 1000 10

3.1.2 Live Loads

Number of Design Lanes: Generally, the number of design lanes should be determined by taking the integer part of the ratio w/3600, where w
is the clear roadway width in mm between curbs and/or barriers.

Multiple Presence Factor of Live Load: The provisions of this subchapter shall not be applied to the fatigue limit state for which one design
truck is used, regardless of the number of design lanes.
Trucks will be present in adjacent lanes on roadways with multiple design lanes but this is unlikely that all adjacent lanes will be loaded
simultaneously. This will be considered by the multiple presence factors.
Number of Loaded Lanes 1 2 3 >3
Multiple Presence Factors “m” 1.20 1.0 0.85 0.65

Table 3.2 Multiple Presence Factors "m"

The multiple presence factors have been included in the approximate equations for distribution factors in Approximate Methods of
Analysis, both for single and multiple loaded lanes. The equations are based on evaluation of several combinations of loaded lanes with their
appropriate multiple presences factors and are intended to account for the worst case scenario. Where use of the lever rule is specified the
Designer must determine the number and location of vehicles and lanes, and, therefore, must include the multiple presences. Stated another way,
if a sketch is required to determine load distribution, the Designer is responsible for including multiple presence factors and selecting the worst
design case. The factor 1.20 from Table 3-2 has already been included in the approximate equations and should be removed for the purpose of
fatigue investigations.
If a component supported a sidewalk and one lane, it would be investigated for the vehicular live load alone with m = 1.20, and for the
pedestrian loads combined with the vehicular live load with m = 1.0. If a component supported a sidewalk and two lanes of vehicular live load, it
would be investigated for:
 One lane of vehicular live load, m = 1.20;
 The greater of the more significant lane of vehicular live load and the pedestrian loads or two lanes of vehicular live load, m = 1.0 applied to
the governing case; and
 Two lanes of vehicular live load and the pedestrian loads, m = 0.85.

The multiple presence factor of 1.20 for a single lane does not apply to the pedestrian loads. Therefore, the case of the pedestrian loads without
the vehicular live load is a subset of the second bulleted item.

The multiple presence factors in Table 3.2 were developed based on an ADTT (Average Daily Truck Traffic) of 5000 trucks in one direction.
The force effect resulting from the appropriate number of lanes shall be reduced for sites with lower ADTT as follows:

 If 100  ADTT  1000; 95 % of the specified force effect shall be used; and
 If ADTT < 100; 90 % of the specified force effect shall be used.

This adjustment is based on the reduced probability of attaining the design event during a 75-year design life with reduced truck volume.
Design Truck
The weights and spacing of axles and wheels for the design truck shall be as specified in Figure 3-1. A dynamic load allowance shall be
considered as specified in the following subchapter on Vehicular Dynamic Load Allowance.

Plan of Design Truck Load

showing tire contact areas

4.3 m

4.3 –9.0 m

1.8 m
3.000 mm
Figure 3-1 Characteristics of the Design Truck
Except as specified in following subchapters on the application of Design Vehicular Live Loads and Fatigue Loads, the spacing between the two
145 kN axles shall be varied between 4.3 and 9.0 m to produce extreme force effects.

Design Tandem
The design tandem used for Strategic Bridges (see Chapter 2: General Requirements) shall consist of a pair of 110 KN axles spaced 1.2 m
apart. The transverse spacing of wheels shall be taken as 1.8 m. A dynamic load allowance shall be considered as specified in a following
subchapter. The spacing and loading is illustrated in Figure 3-2

110 kN
 1.2 m

110 kN

1.8 m

Figure 3-2 Design Tandem Load

Design Lane Load

The design lane load shall consist of a load of 9.3kN/m, uniformly distributed in the longitudinal direction. Transversely, the design lane load
shall be assumed to be uniformly distributed over a 3.0-m width. The force effects from the design lane load shall not be subject to a dynamic
load allowance.

Pedestrian Loads
A pedestrian load of 4.0 kPa (kN/m2) shall be applied to all sidewalks wider than 0.6 m and considered simultaneously with the vehicular design
live load.
See the provisions of above subchapter Multiple Presence of Live Load for applying the pedestrian loads in combination with the vehicular live
load. Usually the 4 kN/m2 load will allow for small cars to pass. To avoid accidents for bridges wider than 2.4 m, provision shall be made for an
additional axle load.
Where sidewalks, pedestrian, and/or bicycle bridges are intended to be used by maintenance and/or other incidental vehicles, these loads shall be
considered in the design. If unknown, at least one movable axle load of 70 kN acting together with the pedestrian load shall be applied. The
dynamic load allowance need not be considered for these vehicles.
In half-through-trusses of steel, the compressed top chord of a simple span truss shall be designed to resist a lateral force of not less than 4.0
kN/m length, considered as a permanent load for the Strength I Load Combination and factored accordingly.

3.1.3 Dynamic Load Allowance (IM = Vehicular Dynamic Load Allowance):

Unless otherwise permitted in subchapters Buried Components and Wood Components below, the static effects of the design truck or tandem,
other than centrifugal and braking forces, shall be increased by the percentage specified in Table 3.3 for dynamic load allowance.
The factor to be applied to the static load shall be taken as: (1 + IM/100).
The dynamic load allowance shall not be applied to pedestrian loads or to the design lane load.

Component IM
Deck Joints – All Limit States 75%
All Other Components
 Fatigue and Fracture Limit State 15%
 All Other Limit States
33%

Table 3.3 Dynamic Load Allowance, IM

Dynamic load allowance need not be applied to:

 Retaining walls not subject to vertical reactions from the superstructure, and
 Foundation components that are entirely below ground level.

The dynamic load allowance shall be reduced for components, other than joints, if justified by sufficient evidence, but in no case shall the
dynamic load allowance used in design be less than 50% of IM in the table above.

The dynamic load allowance (IM) in Table 3.3 is an increment to be applied to the static wheel load to account for wheel load impact from
moving vehicles.

Dynamic effects due to moving vehicles shall be attributed to two sources:

 Hammering effect is the dynamic response of the wheel assembly to riding surface discontinuities, such as deck joints, cracks, potholes, and
delaminations, and
 Dynamic response of the bridge as a whole to passing vehicles, which shall be due to long undulations in the roadway pavement, such as
those caused by settlement of fill, or to resonant excitation as a result of similar frequencies of vibration between bridge and vehicle. The
frequency of vibration of any bridge should not exceed 3 Hz.

Buried Components
The dynamic load allowance for culverts and other buried structures, in %, shall be taken as:
 IM = 33 (1.0 - 4.l*10-4 DE) > 0%
Where:
DE = the minimum depth of earth cover above the structure (mm)

Wood Components
Wood structures are known to experience reduced dynamic wheel load effects due to internal friction between the components and the damping
characteristics of wood.
For wood bridges and wood components of bridges, the dynamic load allowance values specified in table of dynamic load allowance shall be
reduced to 70  of the values specified therein for IM.

Tire Contact Area:

Using AASHTO the tire contact area of a wheel consisting of one or two tires shall be assumed to be a single rectangle, whose width is 500 mm
and whose length () in mm shall be taken as:

 = 2.28 x 10-3  (1 + IM/100) P (3.1)

Where:  = load factor for the limit state under consideration.
IM = dynamic load allowance percent
P = 72.5 kN for the design truck and 55 kN for the design tandem

The tire pressure shall be assumed to be uniformly distributed over the contact area. The tire pressure shall be assumed to be distributed as
follows:
 On continuous surfaces, uniformly over the specified contact area, and
 On interrupted surfaces, uniformly over the actual contact area within the footprint with the pressure increased in the ratio of the specified to
actual contact areas.

However, for all concrete decks including composite decks the length 200 mm shall be used in Equation 3.1.
But ERABDM specifies tyre contact area of a wheel consisting of one or two tyres shall be assumed to be a single rectangle, whose width
is 510 mm. and whose length is 250mm.

Application of Design Vehicular Live Loads

The effects of an axle sequence and the lane load are superimposed in order to obtain extreme values.
Unless otherwise specified, the extreme force effect shall be taken as the larger of the following:
 The effect of the design tandem combined with the effect of the design lane load, or
 The effect of one design truck with the variable axle spacing specified in the subchapter Multiple Presence of Live Load above, combined
with the effect of the design lane load, and
 For both negative and positive moment between points of contraflexure under a uniform load on all spans, and reaction at interior piers only,
90% of the effect of two design trucks spaced a minimum of 15.0 m between the lead axle of one truck and the rear axle of the other truck,
combined with 90% of the effect of the design lane load. The distance between the 145 kN axles of each truck shall be taken as 4.3 m.

The design truck or tandem shall be positioned transversely such that the center of any wheel load is not closer than:

 For the design of the deck overhang - 300 mm from the face of the curb or railing, and
 For the design of all other components - 600 mm from the edge of the design lane.

Unless otherwise specified, the lengths of design lanes, or parts thereof that contribute to the extreme force effect under consideration shall be
loaded with the design lane load.

The lane load is not interrupted to provide space for the axle sequences of the design tandem or the design truck.

3.1.4 Centrifugal forces (CE= Vehicular Centrifugal Force):

Centrifugal force is due to inertia force of vehicles on curved bridges at speed. Centrifugal forces shall be applied horizontally at a distance 1.8
m above the roadway surface.
Centrifugal forces shall be taken as the product of the axle weights of the design truck or tandem and the factor C, taken as:
C = 4 v2
3 g*R
Where: v = highway design speed (m/s)
g = gravitational acceleration: 9.81 (m/s2)
R = radius of curvature of traffic lane (m)
Lane load is neglected in computing the centrifugal force, as the spacing of vehicles at high speed is assumed to be large, resulting in a low
density of vehicles following and/or preceding the design truck.
 3.1.5 Breaking Force (BR= Vehicular Braking Force):
From AASHTO Commentary 3.6.4 Based on energy principles, and assuming uniform deceleration (retardation), the braking force determined
as a fraction "b" of vehicle weight is:
b = v2
2ga
Where a = the length of uniform deceleration.

Calculations using a braking length of 122 m and a speed of 90 km/h (25 m/s) yield b = 0.26 for a horizontal force that will act for a period of
about 10 seconds. The factor "b" applies to all lanes in one direction because all vehicles may have reacted within this time frame. Only the
design truck or tandem is to be considered.
From ERA bridge design manual the braking force shall be taken as the greater of:
• 25% of the axle weights of the design truck or design tandem; or
• 5% of the design truck plus lane load; or5% of the design tandem plus lane load placed in all design lanes headed in the same direction.
These forces shall be assumed to act horizontally at a distance of 1800 mm above the roadway surface in either longitudinal direction to cause
extreme force effects.

3.1.7 Vehicular Collision (CT= Vehicular Collision Force):

Unless protections are provided a horizontal force of 1800KN applied at 1.2m above the ground should be considered.
3.1.8 Pedestrian Loads
A pedestrian load of 4 kPa (kN/m2) shall be applied to all sidewalks wider than 0.6 m and considered simultaneously with the vehicular design
live load.
3.1.9 Water Loads (WA= Water Load and Stream Pressure)
Static Pressure: Static pressure of water shall be assumed to act perpendicular to the surface that is retaining the water. Pressure shall be
calculated as the product of height of water above the point of consideration, the density of water, and "g" (the acceleration of gravity = 9.81
m/s2).
 p =  * g * z * 10-9
Where p = static pressure (Mpa)
 = density of water (kg/m3)
z = height of water above the point of consideration (mm)
g = Gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
 Buoyancy: Buoyancy shall be considered an uplift force, taken as the sum of the vertical components of static pressures, acting on all
components below design water level.
 Stream Pressure: Longitudinal: The longitudinal drag force shall be taken as the product of longitudinal stream pressure and the
projected surface exposed thereto.
p = 5.14*10-4 CDV2
Where: p = pressure of flowing water (MPa)
CD = drag coefficient for piers as specified in Table below
V = design velocity in m/s of water for the design flood in strength and service limit states and for the check flood in the extreme
event limit state

Type CD
Semicircular-nosed pier 0.7
Square-ended pier 1.4
Debris lodged against the pier 1.4
Wedged-nosed pier with nose angle 90o or less 0.8

Drag Coefficient
Lateral: The lateral, uniformly distributed pressure on substructure due to water flowing at an angle, , to the longitudinal axis of the pier (see
Figure below) shall be taken as:
PL = 5.14 x 10-4CLV2
Where: PL = lateral pressure (MPa)
CL = lateral drag coefficient specified in Table below.
Plan View of Pier Showing Stream Flow Pressure

Angle, , between direction of flow and CL

longitudinal axis of the pier
0o 0.0
1o 0.5
10o 0.7
20o 0.9
30o 1.0

Lateral Drag Coefficient

The lateral drag force shall be taken as the product of the lateral stream pressure and the surface exposed thereto.

3.1.10 Wind Loads (WL= Wind on Live load; WS= Wind load on Structure)

Horizontal Wind Pressure:

General
Pressures specified herein shall be assumed to be caused by a base design wind velocity, VB, of 160 km/h (= 45 m/s).
Wind load shall be assumed to be uniformly distributed on the area exposed to the wind. The exposed area shall be the sum of areas of all
components, including floor system and railing, as seen in elevation taken perpendicular to the assumed wind direction. This direction shall be
varied to determine the extreme force effect in the structure or in its components. Areas that do not contribute to the extreme force effect under
consideration shall be neglected in the analysis.
For bridges or parts of bridges more than 10 m above low ground or water level, the design wind velocity, V DZ (km/h), at design elevation, z,
should be adjusted according to:

V DZ=2.5∗Voalignl [ V 10 ¿ ] ¿ ¿¿¿
¿
Where:V10 = wind velocity at 10 m above low ground or above design water level (km/h)
VB = base wind velocity of 160 km/h (45 m/s) at 10 m height, yielding design pressures specified in following subchapters Wind
Pressure on Structures and Vertical Wind Pressure
Z = height of structure at which wind loads are being calculated as measured from low ground, or from water level, > 10 m (m)
Vo = friction velocity, a meteorological wind characteristic taken, as specified in Table 3-4, for various upwind surface characteristics
(km/h)
Zo = friction length of upstream fetch, a meteorological wind characteristic taken as specified in Table 3-4 below (m)

V10 shall be established from:

 Basic Wind Speed charts available from National Meteorological Services Agency for various recurrence intervals,
 Site-specific wind surveys, or
 In the absence of better criterion, the assumption that V10 = VB =145 km/h (= 40 m/s) shall be used for small and medium sized bridges.

The following descriptions are for the terms "open country" and "suburban" in Table 3-4:
 Open Country: Open terrain with scattered obstructions having heights generally less than 10 m. This category includes flat open country
and grasslands.
 Urban and Suburban: Urban and suburban areas, wooded areas, or other terrain with numerous closely spaced obstructions having the size
of single-family or larger dwellings. Use of this category shall be limited to those areas for which representative terrain prevails in the
upwind direction at least 500 m.
 CONDITION OPEN COUNTRY URBAN AND SUBURBAN
Vo (km/h) 13.2 17.6
Zo (m) 70 1000

Table 3-4 Values of Vo and Zo for Various Upstream Surface Conditions

Base design wind velocity varies significantly due to local conditions. For small and/or low structures, wind usually does not govern. For large
and/or tall bridges, however, the local conditions should be investigated.
Pressures on windward and leeward sides are to be taken simultaneously in the assumed direction of wind.
Typically, a bridge structure should be examined separately under wind pressures from two or more different directions in order to ascertain
those windward, leeward, and side pressures producing the most critical loads on the structure.
The suggested wind speed V10 = 40 m/s should be compared with the Ethiopian Building Code Standard, where V 10 = 150 km/h (42 m/s) is used
for the highest mountaintops. The National Atlas of Ethiopia shows that the western parts of the country (Bahar Dar, Nekemte, Gore, Jima,
Awasa and Goba) have a wind speed (V 10) that never exceeds 15 knots (equal to 30 m/s or 105 km/h). However, since the National
Meteorological Services Agency has collected wind data only every 4 hours it is not certain that the maximum wind speeds are given at the
meteorological stations. Therefore, it is recommended to make separate observations for large or wind-sensitive bridges.

Equation 3.2 below is based on boundary layer theory combined with empirical observations and represents the most recent approach to defining
wind speeds for various conditions as used in meteorology. In the past, an exponential equation was sometimes used to relate wind speed to
heights above 10 m. This formulation was based solely on empirical observations and had no theoretical basis.

V DZ=CV 10∗¿ [ Z ¿] ¿ ¿¿¿

¿ (3.2)
The purpose of the term C and exponent "" was to adjust the equation for various upstream surface conditions, similar to the use of Table 3-4
(further information can be found in Refs.)

 Wind Pressure on Structures, (WS): For small and medium sized concrete bridges below 50m length the wind load on structures shall be
neglected.

In the absence of more precise data, design wind pressure, PD in kPa, shall be determined as:
 Where PB = base wind pressure specified in Table below:
VDZ = design velocity of wind at design elevation, Z (Km/hr)
VB= Base wind velocity (Km/hr)
STRUCTURAL WINDWARD LOAD, kPa LEEWARD LOAD, kPa
COMPONENT
Trusses, Columns, and Arches 2.4 1.2
Beams 2.4 Not applicable
Large Flat Surfaces 1.9 Not applicable

Table 3-12 Base Pressures, PB Corresponding to VB = 160 km/h (45 m/s)

The wind loading shall not be taken less than 4.4 kN/m 2 in the plane of a windward chord and 2.2 kN/m 2 in the plane of a leeward chord on truss
and arch components, and not less than 4.4 kN/m2 on beam or girder components.

 Wind Pressure on Vehicles, (WL): When vehicles are present, the design wind pressure shall be applied to both structure and vehicles.
Wind pressure on vehicles shall be represented by an interruptible, moving force of 1.46 kN/m acting normal to, and 1.8 m above, the
roadway and shall be transmitted to the structure

 Aero elastic Instability: Many bridges, decks, or individual structural components have been shown to be aero elastically insensitive if their
length-to-width or length-to-depth ratios are under about 30.0. Wind tunnel testing of bridges and other civil engineering structures is a
highly developed technology, which shall be used to study the wind response characteristics of a structural model or to verify the results of
analysis. This is especially applicable to long spans.
3.1.11 Earthquake Effects (EQ= Earthquake)
Earthquake loads are given by the product of the elastic seismic response coefficient Csm and the equivalent weight of the superstructure. These
are inertia forces due to mass of the bridge when a sudden shaking of the ground occurs. Minimum seat width requirements shall be at least 500
mm at each abutment.

For multi span structures, the minimum analysis requirements shall be as specified in the table:

Seismic Single-Span Multi-span Bridges

Zone Bridges Other Bridges Essential Bridges Critical Bridges
Regular Irregular Regular Irregular Regular Irregular
1-3 No Seismic * * * * * *
Analysis SM/UL SM SM/UL MM MM MM
4 Seismic Analysis

Minimum Analysis Requirements for Seismic Effects

In which:
* = no seismic analysis required (Zone 1-3)
UL = uniform load elastic method
SM = single-mode elastic method
MM = multimode elastic method
The selection of the method of analysis depends on seismic zone, regularity, and importance of the bridge.
Essential bridges are generally those that should, as a minimum, be open to emergency vehicles and for security/defense purposes immediately
after the design earthquake, i.e., a 475-year return period event. However, some bridges must remain open to all traffic after the design
earthquake and be usable by emergency vehicles and for security/defense purposes immediately after a large earthquake, e.g., a 2500 year return
period event. These bridges should be regarded as critical structures.
3.1.12 Earth Pressure (EH = Horizontal Earth Pressure; ES = Earth Surcharge; LS = Live Load Surcharge; DD = Down drag)
Earth pressure shall be considered as a function of the:

 Type and density of earth,  Location of groundwater table,

 Water content,  Earth-structure interaction,
 Soil creep characteristics,  Amount of surcharge, and
 Degree of compaction  Earthquake effects.
Walls that can tolerate little or no movement should be designed for at-rest earth pressure. Walls that can move away from the soil mass should
be designed for pressures between active and at-rest conditions, depending on the magnitude of the tolerable movements. Movement required to
reach the minimum active pressure or the maximum passive pressure is a function of the wall height and the soil type. Some typical values of
these mobilizing movements, relative to wall height, are given in Table below:

Approximate Values of Relative Movements Required to Reach Minimum Active or Maximum Passive Earth Pressure Conditions
Values of /H
Type of Backfill Active Passive
Dense sand 0.001 0.01
Medium-dense sand 0.002 0.02
Loose sand 0.004 0.04
Compacted silt 0.002 0.02
Compacted lean clay 0.010 0.05
Compacted fat clay 0.010 0.05
Where:
 = movement of top of wall required to reach minimum active or maximum passive pressure by tilting or lateral translation (mm)
H = height of wall (mm)
For walls that are backfilled with cohesive materials, the effects of soil creep should be taken into consideration in estimating the design earth
pressures.
Where activity by mechanical compaction equipment is anticipated within a distance of one-half the height of the wall, taken as the difference in
elevation between the point where finished grade intersects the back of the wall and the base of the wall, the effect of additional earth pressure
that shall be induced by compaction shall be taken into account.
Wherever possible, the development of hydrostatic water pressure on walls should be eliminated through use of free-draining (rapid-draining)
backfill material and/or the use of weep holes and crushed rock, pipe drains, gravel drains, perforated drains, or geofabric drains that provide
drainage.
Where soils are subject to saturation and seismic or other cyclic/instantaneous loads, special consideration should be given to addressing the
possibility of soil liquefaction.
 EH = Horizontal Earth Pressure
There are two earth pressure theories used. These are Rankin and Coulomb Earth Pressure Theories.
Coulomb theory is recommended by AASHTO for masonry and RC abutment since this theory holds better for the actual situation.
Basic earth pressure (p, in MPa) shall be assumed to be linearly proportional to the depth of earth and taken as:

p = kh*s*g*z *10-9
Where: kh = coefficient of lateral earth pressure taken as ko, from table below for walls that do not deflect or move,
Soil type Coefficient of Lateral Earth Pressure, ko
OCR = 1 OCR = 2 OCR = 5 OCR = 10
Loose sand 0.45 0.65 1.10 1.60
Medium Sand 0.40 0.60 1.05 1.55
Dense Sand 0.35 0.55 1.00 1.50
Silt (ML) 0.50 0.70 1.10 1.60
 Lean Clay (CL) 0.60 0.80 1.20 1.65
Highly Plastic Clay (CH) 0.65 0.80 1.10 1.40
Or ka, specified in Equations below, walls that deflect
ka = sin2 ( + /)
* sin2 sin ( - )
In which:

 = 1 + sin (/ + ) sin (/ - )

sin ( - ) sin ( + )

Where:  = friction angle between fill and wall

 = angle of fill to the horizontal
 = angle of backfill of wall to the vertical
/ = effective angle of internal friction ()
 Notations

s = density of soil (kg/m3)

z = depth below the surface of earth (mm)
g = Gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
 ES = Earth Surcharge; LS = Live Load Surcharge
Where a uniform surcharge is present, a constant horizontal earth pressure, p (MPa), shall be added to the basic earth pressure. This constant
earth pressure shall be taken as:
p = ks qs
Where: ks = coefficient of earth pressure due to surcharge
qs = uniform surcharge applied to the upper surface of the active earth wedge (MPa)
A live load surcharge shall be applied where vehicular load is expected to act on the surface of the backfill within a distance equal to the wall
height behind the back face of the wall.
The increase in horizontal pressure due to live load surcharge shall be estimated as:
p = k*s*g*heq *10-9
where: p = constant horizontal earth pressure due to uniform surcharge (MPa)
s = density of soil (kg /m3)
k = coefficient of earth pressure
heq = equivalent height of soil for the design truck (mm)
Equivalent heights of soil, heq, for highway loadings shall be taken from Table below. Linear interpolation shall be used for intermediate wall
heights.
The “Wall Height” shall be taken as the distance between the surface of the backfill and the bottom of the footing.
Wall Height (mm) heq (mm)
1500 1700
3000 1200
6000 760
9000 610
Equivalent Height of Soil, heq for Different Wall Heights Due to Vehicular Loading
N.B If the vehicular loading is transmitted through a structural slab, which is also supported by means other than earth, an appropriate reduction
in the surcharge loads shall be permitted.
 Down Drag (DD):
When soil surrounding piles settle, it applies a downward force. In this case, the force should be considered.
3.1.13 Force Effects Due to Superimposed Deformations: TU, TG, SH, CR, SE
- Uniform temperature, (TU): Bridge materials expend and contract in response to rise and fall of temperature. The difference between the
lowest or the highest temperature and the base construction temperature assumed in design shall be used to calculate thermal deformation
effects.
Temperature Gradient, (TG): Temperature rise can differ on the top and bottom surfaces of abridge because the top surface is subjected to
direct solar radiation.
- Differential Shrinkage, (SH): Where appropriate, differential shrinkage strains between concretes of different age and composition, and
between concrete and steel or wood, shall be determined. The designer may specify timing and sequence of construction in order to minimize
stresses due to differential shrinkage between components.
- Creep, (CR): In determining force effects and deformations due to creep, dependence on time and changes in compressive stresses shall be
taken into account.
- Settlement, (SE): This will cause internal forces in continues structures. Force effects due to extreme values of differential settlements
among substructures and within individual substructure units shall be considered.
Design Philosophy:
In engineering design the general principle is that the resistance of a cross section has to exceed the effects come from the applied loads. That is
Resistance ≥Effect of Loads
When a particular loading condition reaches and just exceeds the resistance capacity of the provided section failure is the result. Such a condition
is referred to as a Limit State.
A limit state is a condition beyond which a bridge system or bridge component ceases to full fill the function for which it is designed.
Preventing a limit state from being reached is the central goal of design of bridges. In addition to this function, appearance and economy must
get due attention.
Safety is achieved by using reasonable margin of safety factors. These factors are results of collective experience and judgment of qualified
group of engineers and officials.
In Highway Bridge design AASHTO LRFD provision is used for bridge design. The resistance side of the inequality of Equation above is
multiplied by a statistically based resistance factor, whose value is usually less than one, and the load side is multiplied by a statistically based
load factor, whose value is usually greater than one.
The load effect at a particular limit state involves a combination of a different load types (Qi) that have different degrees of predictability. Due to
this reason the load effect side is written in a summation form. The equation is

Φ∗Rn≥∑ γi∗Qi
And this equation involves both load factors and resistance factor due to this the design method is called load and resistance factor design
method. In AASHTO LRFD bridge design specification the equation is given by

η∗∑ γi∗Qi≤Φ∗Rn
The additional parameter η is known as load modifier which is incorporated to consider ductility, redundancy and operational importance of the
bridge.
Under the umbrella of the LRFD the strength limit state, extreme event limit state, service limit state and fatigue and fracture limit state exist.
Load Factors and Load Combinations:
The total factored force effect shall be taken as:
Q = ii Qi
Where:
i= load modifier
Qi = force effects from loads specified herein
i = load factors specified in Tables B and C below
Rn= is resistance
Components and connections of a bridge shall satisfy the above equation for the applicable combinations of factored extreme force effects as
specified at each of the limit states presented in Table A:

Table A Limit States

STRENGTH Basic load combination relating to the normal vehicular use of the bridge
I without wind.
A reduced value of 0.50, applicable to all strength load combinations,
specified for uniform temperature (TU), creep (CR), and shrinkage (SH),
used when calculating force effects other than displacements at the
strength limit state, represents an expected reduction of these force
effects in conjunction with the inelastic response of the structure. The
calculation of displacements for these loads utilizes a factor greater than
1.0 to avoid undersized joints and bearings.
STRENGTH Load combination relating to the use of the bridge by ERA-specified
II special design or permit vehicles, without wind.

The permit vehicle should not be assumed to be the only vehicle on the
bridge unless so assured by traffic control. Otherwise, the other lanes
should be assumed to be occupied by the vehicular live load as specified
herein. For bridges longer than the permit vehicle, the presence of the
design lane load, preceding and following the permit load in its lane,
should be considered.
STRENGTH Load combination relating to the bridge exposed to wind velocity
III exceeding 90 km/h.

Vehicles become unstable at higher wind velocities. Therefore, high

winds prevent the presence of significant live load on the bridge.
STRENGTH Load combination relating to very high dead load to live load force effect
IV ratios.

The standard calibration process for the strength limit state consists of
trying out various combinations of load and resistance factors on a
number of bridges and their components. Combinations that yield a
safety index close to the target value of  = 3.5 are retained for potential
application. From these are selected constant load factors  and
corresponding resistance factors  for each type of structural component
reflecting its use.

This calibration process had been carried out for a large number of
bridges with spans not exceeding 60 m. For the primary components of
large bridges, the ratio of dead and live load force effects is rather high,
and could result in a set of resistance factors different from those found
acceptable for small- and medium-span bridges. It is believed to be more
practical to investigate one additional load case than to require the use of
two sets of resistance factors with the load factors provided in Strength
Load Combination I, depending on other permanent loads present. For
bridges with up to 180 m spans, Load Combination IV will govern where
the dead load to live load force effect ratio exceeds 7.0.
STRENGTH Load combination relating to normal vehicular use of the bridge with
V wind of 90 km/h (25 m/s) velocity
EXTREME Load combination including earthquake
EVENT I
This limit state includes water loads, WA. The probability of a major
flood and an earthquake occurring at the same time is very small.
Therefore, consideration of basing water loads and scour depths on mean
discharges shall be warranted. Live load coincident with an earthquake
is discussed elsewhere in this chapter.
SERVICE I Load combination relating to the normal operational use of the bridge
with a 90 km/h (25 m/s) wind and all loads taken at their nominal values.
Also related to deflection control in buried metal structures, tunnel liner
plate, and thermoplastic pipe and to control crack width in reinforced
concrete structures. This load combination should also be used for the
investigation of slope stability.

Compression in prestressed concrete components is investigated using

this load combination. Service III is used to investigate tensile stresses in
prestressed concrete components.
SERVICE II Load combination intended to control yielding of steel structures and
slip of slip critical connections due to vehicular live load.

This load combination corresponds to the overload provision for steel

 structures, and it is applicable only to steel structures. From the point of
view of load level, this combination is approximately halfway between
that used for Service I and Strength I Limit States.
SERVICE III Load combination relating only to tension in prestressed concrete
structures with the objective of crack control.

The live load specified in these Specifications reflects, among other

things, exclusion weight limits. The statistical significance of the 0.80
factor on live load is that the event is expected to occur about once a year
for bridges with two traffic lanes, less often for bridges with more than
two traffic lanes, and about once a day for bridges with a single traffic
lane.
FATIGUE Fatigue and fracture load combination relating to repetitive gravitational
vehicular live load and dynamic responses under a single design truck
having a constant axle spacing of 9.0 m between 145 kN axles.

The load factor, applied to a single design truck, reflects a load level
found to be representative of the truck population with respect to a large
number of return cycles of stresses and to their cumulative effects in steel
elements, components, and connections.
The load factors for various loads comprising a design load combination shall be taken as specified in Table B. All relevant subsets of the load
combinations shall be investigated. For each load combination, every load that is indicated to be taken into account and that is germane to the
component being designed, including all significant effects due to distortion, shall be multiplied by the appropriate load factor and multiple
presence factor specified in, if applicable..

The factors shall be selected to produce the total extreme factored force effect. For each load combination, both positive and negative extremes
shall be investigated.
In load combinations where one force effect decreases another effect, the minimum value shall be applied to the load reducing the force effect.
For permanent force effects, the load factor that produces the more critical combination shall be selected from Table C.

Where the permanent load increases the stability or load-carrying capacity of a component or bridge, the minimum value of the load factor for
that permanent load shall also be investigated.
The larger of the two values provided for load factors of Uniform Temperature (TU), Creep (CR), and Shrinkage (SH) shall be used for
deformations and the smaller values for all other effects.
 Table B - Load Combinations and Load Factors
Load DC LL WA WS WL FR TU TG SE Use one of
Combination DD IM CR these at a
Limit State DW CE SH time
EH BR
EV PL
ES LS
EQ CT
EL
STRENGTH I p 1.75 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE - -
(Unless noted)
STRENGTH p 1.35 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE - -
II
STRENGTH p - 1.00 1.40 - 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE - -
III
STRENGTH - -
IV p - 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 - -
EH, EV, ES, 1.5
DW DC ONLY
STRENGTH V p 1.35 1.00 0.50 1.0 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE - -
EXTREME p EQ 1.00 - - 1.00 - - - 1.00 -
EVENT I
SERVICE I 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.30 1.0 1.00 1.00/1.20 TG SE - -
SERVICE II 1.00 1.30 1.00 - - 1.00 1.00/1.20 - - - -
SERVICE III 1.00 0.80 1.00 - - 1.00 1.00/1.20 TG SE - -
FATIGUE
LL, IM and CE - 0.75 - - - - - - - -
ONLY

Where (see following text):

BR = vehicular braking force FR = friction

CE = vehicular centrifugal force IM = vehicular dynamic load allowance
CR = creep LL = vehicular live load
CT = vehicular collision force LS = live load surcharge
DC = dead load of structural components PL = pedestrian live load
DD = downdrag SE = settlement
DW = dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities SH = shrinkage
EH = horizontal earth pressure load TG = temperature gradient
EL = accumulated locked-in effects resulting TU = uniform temperature
from the construction process WA = water load and stream pressure
EQ = earthquake load WL = wind on live load
ES = earth surcharge load WS = wind load on structure
EV = vertical pressure from dead load of earth fill
Table C - Load Factors for Permanent Loads, p
Type of Load Load Factor (p)
Maximum Minimum
DC: Component and Attachments 1.25 0.90
DD: Downdrag 1.80 0.45
DW: Wearing Surfaces and Utilities 1.50 0.65
EH: Horizontal Earth Pressure
 Active 1.50 0.90
 At-Rest 1.35 0.90
EL: Locked-in Erection Stresses 1.0 1.0
EV: Vertical Earth Pressure
 Overall Stability 1.35 N/A
 Retaining Structure 1.35 1.00
 Rigid Buried Structure 1.30 0.90
 Rigid Frames 1.35 0.90
 Flexible Buried Structures other than 1.95 0.90
Metal Box Culvert
 Flexible Metal Box Culverts 1.50 0.90
ES: Earth Surcharge 1.50 0.75

For example, at Strength I Limit State where the permanent load reaction is positive and live load can cause a negative reaction, the
load combination would be:

0.9DC + 0.65DW + 1.75(LL+IM)

If both reactions were negative, the load combination would be:

 1.25DC + 1.50DW + 1.75(LL+IM).

Load Modifiers, i = D R I :
D = a factor relating to ductility, as specified below
R = a factor relating to redundancy as specified below
I = a factor relating to operational importance as specified below
Ductility, redundancy, and operational importance are significant aspects affecting the margin of safety of bridges.
Ductility: The structural system of a bridge shall be proportioned and detailed to ensure the development of significant and visible
inelastic deformations at the strength and extreme event limit states prior to failure.
For the strength limit state:
D  1.05 for non-ductile components and connections
D = 1.00 for conventional designs and details complying with these Specifications
D  0.95 for components and connections for which additional ductility-enhancing measures have been specified beyond
those required by these Specifications
For all other limit states:
D = 1.00
Redundancy: Multiple load-path structures should be used unless there are compelling reasons not to use them.
For the strength limit state:
R 1.05 for nonredundant members
=1.00 for conventional levels of redundancy
0.95 For exceptional levels of redundancy
For all other limit states:
R = 1.00
Operational importance: This definition shall apply to the strength and extreme event limit states only. Some bridges or structural
components and connections shall be declared to be of operational importance.
 Such classification should be based on social/survival and/or security/defense requirements.
For the strength limit state:
l  1.05 for important bridges
= 1.00 for typical bridges
 0.95 For relatively less important bridges
For all other limit states:
l = 1.00
For Conventional Construction, Resistance Factors Ф shall be taken as
For flexure and tension of RC = 0.9
For flexure and tension of PSC = 1.0
For shear and torsion = 0.9
For bearing on concrete = 0.7
For compression in strut-and-tie model = 0.7
For compression in anchorage zones = 0.8
For tension in steel in anchorage zones = 1.0
For resistance during pile driving = 1.0
 1. SUPERSTRUCTURE
An efficient design of bridge superstructure is essential to achieve overall economy in the whole
bridge structure in that the superstructure dead weight may form a significant portion of the
gravity load the bridge must sustain and transmit to the foundation. A light superstructure is
economical not _only material requirements of the superstructure but also requires smaller size
for substructure and foundations. A clear understanding of the structural behavior of structural
behavior under loads is essential for efficient design.
A bridge superstructure is an integrated body of various members of reinforced concrete,
prestressed concrete, steel, composite, diaphragms, trusses, arches, etc. Determination of' forces
in theses components is essential for design purposes.
The following types of bridges are discussed as follows.
RC Bridge, Steel Bridge, Arch Bridge, Cable Stayed Bridge and Suspension Bridge
Reinforced concrete bridges:
Steel and concrete are construction materials.
Reinforced concrete bridges possess several advantages over steel bridges.
- adaptability of concrete wide variety of structural shapes
- Low maintenance cost
- Long life and better resistance to temporary overloads and dynamic loads than steel bridges.
- Cast-in-place Reinforced concrete structures are continuous and monolithic, attributes, which
translate into easy construction, low cost and good seismic resistance. They can also be given
the desired aesthetic appearance.
The disadvantage
- large dead weight
- difficulty to widen
- longer construction time
- requires formwork and false work
Bridge live loads occupy partial area of the decks unlike live loads in buildings which is taken
uniformly distributed all over the floor area. Live load on bridges can occupy random positions
both longitudinally and transversely, and this affects the live load shared by various beams. This
aspect of live load distribution is one of the primary concerns in the analysis of bridge decks.
 Influence lines will be used to determine load position for maximum effect and the magnitude of
these effects.
The following RC bridges will be discussed.
1.1.1 Slab bridge
1.1.2 T-girder bridge
1.1.3 Box girder bridge
1.1.4 Continuous RC bridge
1.1.5 RC rigid frame bridges
Slab Bridge:

Post & raining

Curb

Notch Slab
Edge beam
Typical Cross-section of Slab Bridge
The load carrying mechanism is by plate action, i.e., by bending and twisting due to continuity in
all directions. Application of a load on the portion make the slab deflect into a dish shape locally,
causing a two-dimensional system of bending and twisting moments, the mechanism through
which the load is transferred to the adjacent elements of the deck, which are less severely loaded.
Where: Z is the downward deflection of the plate
q is intensity of uniform load
D is flexural rigidity of tile plate
In the absence of closed form solution to the above equation, approximate methods are
developed.
One method is the method of influence surfaces, which uses design charts. These charts have
been prepared by Pucher or slabs of various shapes and support conditions (1964), and by Rusch
and Heregnroder (1961) and Dalas and Hanuska (1964) for simply supported skew slabs.
Grillage method is also used for analysis and softwares are available for this. Another method
that AASHTO recommends is the Strip Method.
Depth Determination:
AASHTO Recommendations’
Load distributions:
The equivalent width of longitudinal strips per lane for both shear and moment with one lane,
i.e., two lines of wheels, loaded shall be determined as:

E=250+0.42 √ L 1W 1
The equivalent width, E of longitudinal strips per lane for both shear and moment with more than
one lane loaded shall be determined as:

W
E=2100+0 .12 √ L 1 W 1≤
NL
Where: E = equivalent width (mm)
L1 = modified span length taken  of the actual span or 18,000 (mm)
W1 = modified edge-to-edge width of bridge taken to be  of the actual width or
18,000 mm for multilane loading, or 9,000 mm for single-lane loading (mm)
W = physical edge-to-edge width of bridge (mm)
NL = number of design lanes as specified
Where decks span primarily in the direction of traffic, the effective width of a strip, with or
without an edge beam, shall be taken as the sum of the distance between the edge of the deck and
the inside face of the barrier, plus 300 mm, plus one-half of the strip width.
Section analysis:
Rectangular stress block is used for determination of section capacity.
Remember inserting equations
Limits for reinforcement:
Maximum reinforcement c/de ratio and minimum reinforcement 0.03*fc’/fy
T-girder Bridge:
Design of T- girder bridges consists of deck slab analysis and design, and the T-girder analysis
and design.
Structural analysis of the deck slab involves taking a continuous strip perpendicular to the girders
(AASHTO Art.9.6.1) and analyzing by moment distribution or using design aid given by
AASHTO, ILS for critical position of loads. Extreme positive moment at any point will be taken
to apply to all positive moment regions (Art 4.6.2.1.1). The width of equivalent interior
transverse strip over which the wheel loads can be considered distributed longitudinally in cast -
in - place concrete decks is given as [Table Art. 4.6.2. I .3-1]
 overhang, 11401-0.83lX
 positive moment, 660+0.55S
 negative moment, 1220+0.25S
Where X is the distance from the wheel load to centerline of support and S is the spacing of' the
T-beams.
In the design of overhang deck slab design forces acting on the post and railings or barrier should
be considered.
Depth Determination:
AASHTO Recommendations’
Load Distribution Factors:
 bridges usually have more than one girder
 So we have to distribute lane load from the deck
 Two main methods
 1. Using ASTHO’s table
 gives more an approximate (conservative) value
 no need to consider multiple presence factor
 . Refined analysis
 Using finite element method
 need to consider multiple presence factor
 DFS are different for different superstructures
 DFs are different for interior and exterior girders
 Are determined for one lane loaded and two or more lanes loaded
 Then the governing one is to be used
 Moment and Shear in a typical Girder
At any section, if not using AASHTOs GDF
MLL+IM=DFs* (Mtruck/tandem* IM+Mlane)*m
VLL+IM=DFs* (Vtruck/tandem* IM+Vlane)*m
At any section, using AASHTOs GDF
MLL+IM=DFs* (Mtruck/tandem* IM + Mlane)
 VLL+IM=DFs* (Vtruck/tandem* IM + Vlane)

Moment or Shear to be used for design

of the girders
Design Consideration:
The structural behavior of box girders is similar to T-beams. Box girders are essentially T-beams
with transverse bottom flange resulting in a closed, torsionally stiff multi-cell configuration.
The interior webs resist shear and often only a small portion of girder moments. Consequently
they are usually thinner than the webs of T-beams. This is so because, in the case of continuous
T-beams, the webs must resist the negative girder moments as well as all the shear, and contain
all the reinforcement for positive moments.
The bottom slab (soffit) contains reinforcement for the positive moment and also acts as a
compression flange in the negative moment regions of continuous spans. The bottom slab also
affords a superstructure considerably thinner than a T- beam bridge of the same span and permits
even longer spans to be built.
Cross-sections are taken as shown in Fig. below a and b for analysis for exterior and interior
girders respectively. The structural analysis is same as for T-beams. Section analysis is also same
except the compression bottom flange for continuous spans. The entire slab width is assumed
effective for compression.