MODULAR SYSTEM ANGLES and TRIANGLES Ghon Mert Mehmet Ozim Zambdk Fustewiee:Zambak a Copyright © Surat Baim Reklomilk ve Egitim Aragon Son, Ti. AS Al rights reserved No part ofthis book may be reproduced stored in retrieval system, or transmitted in any form of recording without the prior written per- mmission ofthe publisher. Digital Assembly Tambak Typesetting & Design Page Design Jamil Keskinojlu Serdal ilu Language Proofreader Toe Barnett Publisher Strat Bosim Reklamalhk ve Egitim Araglari San, Tic AS Printed by oblayon AS, Song Ylu Uzeri No.7 Siem tir, Arges 2008 Tals 029225222 0.232522 20 9697 ISBN: 978-975-266-913-0 Printed in Turkey DISTRIBUTION Strat Basim Reklamaihk ve Egitim Argan San. Tic. A. Bulgurlu Mah Haminne Cesmasi Sok, No. 20 34696 _Ushiidr / ISTANBUL Tal - +90-216 522 0900 (abx) Fox: +90-216 443 98 39 hitp://book.zambok.comPREFACE This book ts about the basic concepts of angles and triangles in Euclidean plane geometry. These concepts form the basis of Euclidean geometry in the same way that numbers form the basis of algebra, and letters form the basis of words This book ts divided into three chapters, structured as follows. + Chapter 1 begins with a presentation of the concepts of geometric proof and geometric construction, followed by a study of angles. The information i contains 18 used thronghout the rest af the book Chapter 2 covers triangles and the concept of congruence, beginning with the key elements and properties of triangles, and leading to an understanding of the most important properties of tsosceles, equilateral and right, triangles. Chapter 3 covers similarity in triangles. This important chapter shows students the usefulness of similarity in problem solving, and shows how similarity can be used to prove a number of important triangle-related theorems and properties This book has been designed to be an effective teaching aid, and includes all the features of the Zambak high school math teaching series ¢ The material in the book is presented in a student-friendly way and uses a step-by-step teaching approach Definstions and examples are explained in detail, just as a teacher would explain them to a class Problems and examples are explained clearly and simply, since the first step towards solving a problem ts understanding it correctly. The hook includes a wide range of activities and applications that engage different learning styles and encourage student-centered learning. The paper folding activities, puzzles and margin notes can all be used independently, as ‘hands-on’ introductions to different parts of the text. In addition, the use of dynamic geometry software 1s encouraged: the activities and problems can all be presented using this software in the classroom or in a computer lab, as a way of stimulating students’ interest Learning skills are also important. To get the most from this book, try asking students to study the topic and work through the examples on thetr own before they. come to class. Research has shown that as much as 80% of new knowledge can be forgotten within 24 hours if 43 not revised or used in some way, You can therefore help students by encouraging them to revise the things they have learned the same day in whatever way they like, for example by reading or rereading notes, by reviewing examples in the book, or by doing homework for the next class. This daily study ts the hey to success Acknowledgements Many friends and colleagues helped us tn the writing of this book, and we would like to thank all of them for their constructive ideas. In particular, we would like to thank Mustafa Kirsh, Mhammer Tagharan and Ramazan Sahin {for their support and input, and Marat Kol, Ismail Ersocoplu, and Ahmet Galtr for their careful review. We are also {grateful to Samil Keskinoglu and Serdar Yildirim for their patient typesetting and good design, and to Zoe Barnett for her careful proofreading. Finally, we would like to thank our families for thetr patience and support durtng our work. The AuthorsTo the Student This book ts about angles and triangles and their properties. These concepts form the basis of Enclidean geometry. The material in the book will be useful to you in the rest of your studies of math Geometry has fewer rules than other areas of mathematics: it depends mostly on problem-solving techniques and proofwriting. Once you have learned the basic skills, the only thing you need is practice with solving problems and exercises. Since each topic in this book builds on the previous one, you should also try to master each topic with daily study, In this book you will see many proofs, and you will also be asked to write some proofs yourself The proofs are given from the start of the book in three different forms (paragraph, two-colwmn and flow chast) 10 ‘make it easier for you to understand the ‘essence’ of mathematical proof and begin using it yourself Finally, this book aims to make geometry not only clear, easy to understand and interesting, but also challenging and savisfying. I hope you will enjoy studying st, and 1 wish you every suecess im your studies and exams Using This Book This book has ben designed 3 that you ca wat ecto cali =I Each chapter has its own special color that you can see at the bottom of the page you see a note, read it twice! Make sure you understand it It can also be shown that the convers rt So \ ts and ealee <<. \ pave, Definition boxes give formal descriptions of new concepts. Property boxes state tmportant a ‘Note | Notes help you focus on important details. When properties, and Theorem boxes include propositions that can be proved. The The meas) ‘information im these boxes 13 very important . for further understanding and for solving 7 exainples 1. The length, a tehExamples show you problems and their solution, with explanations. The examples are numbered, 0 you can find them easily in the book Check Yourself 8 1 2- AE, BK = a In the figure, E and AF Find the length of FB, | nh nen A small notebook tn the left margin of a page reminds you of material that ts related to the topic you are studying It might help you to see your mistakes, t00! A. Definition Answer questions 1-9 by refering to the sight i 1. Name the vertex pertmiiicasheiee The Chapter Summary summarizes al the rmportant material that has been covered in a chapter The Concept Check section contains oral questions. You ‘do not need paper or pen to answer these questions Ifyou answer the Concept Check questions correctly, it means you know that topic! The answers to the questions are in the material you studied. Go back ‘over the material if you are not sure about an answer 10 a Concept Check question Finally, Chapter Review Tests are in increasing order of difficulty and contain multiple-choice questions to help you prepare for exams. The ‘answer key for these tests 1s at the back of the book BQ Fndinetengh xi information provi a's Them Questions 1m Check Yourself sections help you check your understanding of what you have just studied. Solve these questions alone and then compare your auswers with the answer key provided. If your answers are correct, you can ‘move on to the next section. If an answer ts wrong, go through your working again and check back through the examples in the section CECE Dynamic ge software isa power for swasing concepts. G Lesograms allow us. 10 mand matipulate mye can Exercises at the end of each section cover the ‘material in the whole section. You should be able 10 solve all the problems which do not have a star. One star (9) nextt0.a question means the question 48a Dit more difficult. Two stars (9@) next 10 a question mean the question is for students who are looking for a challenge! Answers to selected exercises are given at the back of the book. CHAPTER SUMMARY 1. The Teiangle and Its Elements range hone dos anal dowel sie nthCHAPTER 1; BASIC CONCEPTS AND ANGLES 1, BASIC CONCEPTS ....ce..eeeceseeee 10 A. MATHEMATICAL REASONING: = 10 B. THE BASIS OF GEOMETRIC ARGUMENT ... 2 EXERCISES 1.1 30 SMPANGLES Site py eerie 3 A. DEFINITION 33 B. REGIONS OF AN ANGLE -34 C. MEASURE OF AN ANGLE . 35 D. CONGRUENT ANGLES . 39 E. ANGLE BISECTOR a EMERCISES 1.2. 45 3. TYPES OF ANGLE . er ais) A. TYPES OF ANGLE ACCORDING TO MEASURE ea) sees 48 PAIRS OF ANGLES. . 50 C. PARALLEL LINES. EXERCISES 1.3... 6 ‘CHAPTER SUMMARY 73 CONCEPT CHECK .. 7 ‘CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 1A ........ ‘CHAPTER REVIEW TEST ‘CHAPTER REVIEW TEST IC .. CHAPTER 2 TRIANGLES AND CONGRUENCE V. BASIC CONCEPTS .....ass00 A. THE TRIANGLE AND ITS ELEMENTS 8 TYPES OF TRIANGLE ENERCISES 2.1. 2. PROPERTIES OF A A RELATIONS BETWEEN ANGLES B. RELATIONS BETWEEN ANGLES AND SIDES ==. rrRERGES 2 7a rele 3. CONGRUENCE es ssaseeusore A. THE CONCEPT OF CONGRUENCE B. WORKING WITH CONGRUENT TRIANGLES . C ISOSCELES, EQUILATERAL AND RIGHT TRIANGLES... D. THE TRIANGLE ANGLE BISECTOR THEOREM Compaction Gorey... EXERCISES 2.3 (CHAPTER SUMMARY... CONCEPT CHECK ‘CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 2A ‘CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 28. “CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 2€ ... ‘CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 20. ‘CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 26 CHAPTER 3: SIMILAR TRIANGLES 1. THE CONCEPT OF SIMILARITY A. INTRODUCTION TO SIMILARITY EXERCISES 3.1 — 2. THE ANGLE-ANGLE SIMILARITY POSTULATE... A THE ANGLE-ANGLE (2) PosTULATE . EXERCISES 3.2. 3. WORKING WITH SIMILAR TRIANGLES ... ‘A. THE SIDE-ANGLE-SIDE (SAS) 231 SIMILARITY THEOREM . . 231 1. THE SIDE-SIDE-SIDE SIMILARITY THEOREM... 233 . THE TRIANGLE PROPORTIONALITY THEOREM AND THALES’ THEOREM .. 238 D. FURTHER APPLICATIONS... 243 EXERCISES 3.3 « 4. FURTHER STUDIES ‘A. EUCLIDEAN RELATIONS —.- 250 BL MEDIAN RELATIONS... -- 283 Pramsformationat Geometry 5 EXERCISES 3.4 . ve CHAPTER SUMMARY .......... CONCEPT CHECK ‘CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 3A. CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 22 ‘CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 3¢ ‘CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 3D. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES ...... ANSWERS TO TESTS LOSSARYINTRODUCTION In this book we are going to study the basic concepts and principles of angles and triangles in Euclidean plane geometry. Today we can deseribe geometry as the branch of mathematics which 1s concerned with the properties of shapes and figures m the plane and im space, although the study of geometry 1s a very old practice that began thousands of years ago. The History ef Geometry The word ‘geometry’ comes from the Greek words geos, meaning ‘Earth’, and metros, meaning ‘measure’. We can trace the begmnmgs of geometry back thousands of years to the peoples of ancient Egypt and Babylonia who measured the Earth, land and sky using only smaller measurements and their knowledge of the properties of certain shapes. The measurements they discovered helped knowledge to develop, and so geometry had a very important place in the ancient world. We can divide the history of geometry into three main periods; 1. from empirical geometry to Euclidean geometry: this includes Egyptian, Babylonian and Indian geometry (around 3000-500 BC), ancient Chinese geometry (around 500 BC to 500 AD) and classical Greek geometry (about 600-300 BC); 2. from Euclidean geometry to analytic geometry: this covers Hellenistic geometry (about 300 BC to 300 AD) and. Islamie geometry (about 700-1500 AD): 3. from analytic geometry to modem geometries: this penod includes 17th-century analytic geometsy, the non-Euclidean geometries of the 18th and 19th cemturies, and modern 20th-century geometries, Empirical geometry was based on the properties that ancient people discovered by measuring and comparing lengths, angles and volumes. It had practical uses for astronomy, architecture and the division of land. The ancient Greeks learned about this empirical geometry from the Egyptians, Babylonians and Indians. ‘The ancient Greeks realized that they could determine the properties of shapes using only logic and other simpler properties, instead of using the practical methods of the Egyptians. Beginning with the Greek mathematician Thales, the Greeks imsisted that all statements about geometry should be proved using logical reasoning. This orderly development of theorems and proofs was in fact an important part ofall of Greek mathematics. The biggest work on geometry of this kind in ancient Greece was produced by Euclid, a Greek mathematician bom in around 329 BC who gave his name to the Euclidean geometry that we study today: Euclidean geometry was so influential that it shaped the study of geometry for nearly two thousand years. The subject did not develop much until the seventeenth century, when the famous mathematicians Fermat and Descartes began to ink geometry and algebra. Descartes wrote a description of a new branch of geometry called. analyte geometry (also called coordmate geometry) in 1637, He described how points could be represented by lines, and curves could be descnbed by equations. Fermat made similar discoveries independently. The new analy ue geometry helped mathematicians to solve geometzic problems in a different way, It also led to the study of surfaces by Euler and Monge, and helped Gauss to develop his differential calculus.‘Two years after his work on analytic geometry, Descartes described another type of geometry known as projective geometry, which became popular m the nmeteenth century. Famous nmeteenth-century geometers include Poncelet, who worked on projective geometry; and Cayley, who developed algebraic geometry Also in the nineteenth century, mathematicians finally described geometes that did not follow Euctid’s orignal rules. These geometnes, called non-Euchidean geometnes, were studied and developed by mathematicians such as Lobachevsky, Bolvai, Gauss and Riemann, ‘Today the spread of computer technology and the search for new knowledge has led to the study of new types of geometry, Engineers developing computer graphies, robots, electrical circuits and geographical systems use a branch of geometry called computational geometry in their work. Another branch, called fractal geometry, helps biologists and geologists to describe the world around us, And so, although geomeuy has come a long way from 1s beginnings in ancient times, it still has an amportant place in science and mathematics m the modern would. Euclidean Geometry ‘The Euclidean geometry we will study in this book comes from the work of the Greek mathematician Euchd. Euchid’s biggest work was a book called Elements, and some people say this 1s one of the most important books 1n the history of mathematies. Like the ancient Greeks of his time, Euctid believed that all known geometric properties could be proved using only logical reasoning and a small set of mival definitions and statements, and in Elements he shows how this 1s possible. He began by descnbing plane geometry (the geometry that you will study m this ook), whnich is the study of objects such as shapes and lines that can be drawn on a flat piece of paper. Later m Elements he described space geometry, which covers the properties of solid figures and shapes in space. Plane Geometry Space Geometry ‘This book comes at the begmmning of your high school course in geometry, Studying it will help you to see the world. around you in another way: you will recognize the things you see, but you will see them from a different perspective. ‘This book aims to help you fo understand the relation between real life and geometry, and it will help you to decide for yourself whether geometry is myented or simply discovered. As Galileo said, ‘the book of Nature was written the language of mathematics.”» DBISICCONGERIS AND ANGLESiV A. MATHEMATICAL REASONING Solution ‘Two of the most basic methods of mathematical reasonmg are mduehve and deducrve reasoning, They are both useful ways to arrive at conclusions, and are both very important to the study of geometry, Both mductive and deductive reasonmg are necessary parts of mathematical thinking, inductive reasoning Inductive reasoning 15 the process of observng data, recogmang patterns, and making {generalizations based on your observations. ‘When a mathematician uses mduetive reasoning to make a generalization, the generalization 4s called a conjecture. A conjecture is a statement that may be true, but which has not been proven, After a conjecture 1s formed, a mathematician tests his or her conjecture by either searching for an example which shows the conjecture is wrong, or by using deductive reasoning to try to prove that the conjecture is correct. Use mductve reason to solve each problem. Find the next number in this sequence: 2, 6, 5, 9, 8, 12, 11 b. Find the next geometric shape in the sequence. a, Ifwe study the sequence we can see that its obtained by adding four to the first number to get the second number, and then subtracting one from the second number to get the Unrd, Repeating these steps alternately (adding four and subtracting one) gives us all the terms in the sequence. Therefore the next term is 11 + 4 = 16. b. The first figure has three sides and one star the second figure has four sides and two stars, and the third figure has five sides and three stars, Following ee the pattern, we would expect the next figure to have six sides and four stars. deductive reasoning Deductive reasoning 1s the process of making conclusions based on known facts. Arles rad TranslEXE 2 Solution Basic Comepts and Angles A deductive system consists of a set of accepted facts (called premises) and a set of logical rules. From the premises we can make some basic conjectures. Proven conjectures become theorems, and fom the theorems we prove other conjectures, tummmg them into further theorems, Im each case, use deductive reasoning to state a conclusion based on the given facts, All the students in a particular class are (wo meters tall. Ann 1s 1.80 meters tall. b, Xs taller than Y and X is shorter than Z, ©. Each computer in a room has wireless Internet access and each person who works in the room has a computer. X works in this room. ‘Ann 1s not a member of the class. b, Zis taller than Y. ©. Xhasa computer with wireless Internet access. Check Yourself 1 1. Use nduetve reasonmg to find the next two terms m each sequence. a. 87, 83, 79, 79, 2,7 >. 1,28, 49, 8/27, 2,2 2. Use inductive reasoning to find the next shape in each picture sequence. Tos tt 8. Im each case, use deductive reasoning to state a conclusion based on the given facts. a. All the panents im a particular room have had a heart attack. X 3s a patient who has not a heart attack. . Allthe students na class got an A grade in their math exam, X1s a student in this class, ©. All ving bodies have two eyes. X has one eye. Answers 1a. 71,67 b. 16/81, 32243 2. @ b 3a, Xas mot im this room. b. X gotam Aim the math exam, b, Xi nota living body:B. THE BASIS OF GEOMETRIC ARGUMENT ‘The deductive reasoning system that we use in geometry is built on three elements: 1. Undefined terms and defimtions 2. Geometric postulates Pulte 3, Geomemie theorems. Let us look at each of these in turn. (¢-¢-¢-¢-¢)2. Undefined Terms and Definitions Chalenget . Undefined terms Witout ing eur pene, Grow she, sopmonte {When you first began leaming geometry, you probably learned the concepts of point, ine and plane which pore through all VThese three concepts are the lo lane geometry. But how can we define them: sich pass trough ot These Uuree concepls ae the buldmig blocks of plane geomety. But ho define them? ample gum |When we read a word that we do not know, we usualy ook it up in a dictionary. Sometimes we find another unknown word in the definition, and if we look this new word up, we fn the "word we started with. Of course this x frustrating. Karly mathematicians had simular problems jwhen they tnied to define the terms pomnt, ne and plane. As a result, these terms do not have formal defimition m geometry: mstead, we use general descriptions to make the concept clear. Point A paints the fist of the three baste undefined ¥ terms in geometry, We cannot define the Aaebe concept of point but we can gwve as properties. We cam understand the consepefponciuticely point has no dimensions, 1,1 has no size, length, width or height, It only shows a position, Wher yeu look atthe sky at nigite you see bition, We usually represent a point with a dot (.’) and name it with a capi af stars, each represented ere Many geometrical terms are defined using the conc yom as aamall dot of light in Many geometrical t deamed sins Pt OF pom. the sky Each do of tight Suggests a pot, the sal gee grey letter such as A, B,C, Line Almeis also one of the three basic undefined ; z tenns of geometry. (Ame 1s usually a straight << << Lune, unless we specify otherwise.) A line has only one dimension; 1t has length, but it has no width and height. The arrowheads at the end of every line indicate that the line extends continuously m both directions without ends. In other words, a line has infinite length ‘A line con also be understood intuitively race arn ‘We refer toa hne by naming two points on the Lune, or with a single lower-case letter such as cable d.k,e, ete ra rts art TateA wall, the surface of a table a floor and acetting ‘areal physical models a plane Basic Comepts and Angles Plane A plane is the thrd undefined basic concept in geometry. We can think of a plane as a flat surface with no thickness. that extends without end mn all directions, A plane is two-dimensional: it has length and width, but no thickness. Although a plane has no boundaries, it 4s usually represented im figures by a parallelogram. A plane is named by a single capital or lower-case letter or by three non-colhinear poms, plane E plane ABC of phne me Check Yourself 2 Draw an appropriate diagram m each case, 1, Select points E and F in a plane. Draw a line m that passes through E and does not pass through F, Draw another hne n that passes through F but does not pass through E. Draw a line d that passes through both points E and F. 2. Select three pomts M, N and Dima plane and draw lines a, b and c such that Me aN a, Neb,Deb,MecandDec. 3, Drawa line m which passes through two points A and B im a plane. Point C is not on line m. Does there exast a smigle ne which contains the points A, B and C? Answers 1 » 3. no, there is no line b. Definitions (Once we have defined the concepts of pamt, line and plane mformally, we can build on them to create the preliminary definitions of plane geometry. The next activity will help you to ‘remember some of these important defmitions. Parts of Lines and Planes Many geometric figures such as angles and polygons are formed by parts of lines called. segments and rays,ik Physical modet of line ‘segments iron bars =m —_ A physical model of rays: san rays e Es Solution Ime segment, endpomt Let A and B be two distnet pomts on a hne. Then the set of pounts which contams A, B and all the points between A and B forms line segment AB (or lime segment BA). A and B are called, the endpomts of the segment, and the other points are called the mterior points of the segment. ‘The figure shows a lime segment AB. ray Array 1s a straight line which extends infinitely in one direction from a fixed pomnt The figure at the right shows ray AB. pee opposite ravs. Rays SK and ST are called opposite rays if and only af $ les on the line KT and 1s between Kand T. SK and ST are opposterays Three pomts N, M and K le on the same line such that Nis between M and K. Decide whether each statement is true or false. a, ray NK c ray MN b. ray KM = ray KN ©. ay MK c ray NK d. Me rayNM fe. ray NM = ray NK f Me rvNK Let us draw the points on the Line. Using our figure we can evaluate each statement <1, a tue, tue, false §— dd. tue, false, false (One of the basic relauions between a lime and plane is dividing a plane into parts by a Line to form two half-planes. Argtes and TanglesEna 4 Solution Basic Comepts and Angles half-plane: When a lme d hes na plane P, 1t separates P unto three separate parts. One of them 1s @3tself, and the other two parts are called half planes. d forms the edge of each half plane but 3t1s not contamed in either of them. ‘Two hnes m and n form the edges of the half planes o.and B, respectively, The half planes @ and do not have any pomtsin common and E € 0, Fe 0, Me PB, N@ wand N¢ Bare gven Given that none of these points lie on m or n, draw an appropriate figure showing the points and the lines. Check Yourself 3 1. Rand § are two distinct pomts. State whether each statement is true or false. a. Ime RS C segment RS b. segment SR cline RS ©. segment RS = (R, S} |. segment RS Uline RS = line RS ©, segment SR mlne RS = segment RS, hne RS = ine SR. 2. Name all the line segments in the figure opposite that contain the pomt 7. 3. The figure shows two intersecting lines m and m. a. Name two pairs of opposite rays m the figure. b, Name two rays that have only one pomt in common, ._Name two paits of rays such that each pair has many pots in common, 4, Two pots £ and Fare in the same half plane whose edge is formed by ine m. The pomts F and D lie in different half planes. None of the named points lies on the edge a. Name all the lines which pass through E, F and D. bv. Which of these tmes cross(es) the edge of the half plane? Answers 1 afalse b.tue ¢.false dime cmue f tue 2. segments BT, BC, BA, DT, DC, DA, TC and TA3. a. rays BA and BC; rays BD and BE b. rays BE and BC . rays DE and BE; rays AC and, BC 4. a lines DE, DF and EF m b. DE and DF cxoss the edge congruent fine segments ‘Two Line segments are called congruent Ime segments 1f and only if they have the same Jength, We wnte AB = CD and say ‘AB is congruent to CD’ if AB and CD are congruent | In the figure opposite, AB and CD have the z same length: AB = CD. Therefore segment AB 2 4s congruent to segment CD and we can write &—t— — ‘AB = CD. None thatifAB =CDthenAB=CD. apscp ‘A physical model of Jy the zest of the book we will use these two sonora oeentt ssacementsintershangeshly We cam show congruent segments in a figure by marking them with the same symbol. midpomt of @ geqment The midpoint of a segment 1 the point that divides the segment anto two congruent segments In the figure opposite, AK = KB and so K1s the midpoint of the segment AB. ————— bisector of a segment The bisector af a segment AB 1s a line, plane, ray or other segment that mtersects AB at ts mmdpamt, In the figure opposite, AK = KB and so Ks the midpoint of AB. Since EF and CD intersect AB at K, they are bisectors of segment AB x!) | A physical model of congruent segments rts art TitCheck Yourself 4 Basic Comepts and Angles 1, Two points T and P Ue on a Line segment MN which 1s 34 cm long. Given that MP = 18.3 cmand TN = 21.4 om, find the length of line segment PT. 2. The pots K, M,N, P and Q are collinear on a line m with KM = NP and MN = PQ. Find, all congruent segment pairs on m which are formed by the named points, 3. A point T lies between two points A and B and the distance between the midpoints of line segments AT and TBis 9.5 cm. Find the distance between A and B. Answers 1 8.?em 2 KN=NQ,MP=KN 3. 19cm Positions of Two Lines ‘Two distinct lines in the same plane can be parallel, perpendicular, or neither parallel nor perpendicular. parallel Lines ‘Two lines in the same plane that do not intersect ate called parallel lines. Alternatively, we can say that parallel lines are two coplanar Lines which never meet, Ox we can say that two coplanar lines m and m are parallel if and only if they have no points in common. All of these definitions are equivalent. Trenbol Tae ' ss paral to nlx te minpamtetete In a figure, identical arrow heads m the same darecuion show that the given lines are parallel, In the figure opposite, line a is parallel ro lime b, and line m is parallel to line n Parallel les provide strength, beauty and functionality to the objects and structures which, contain them,The things hanging on shes wall rm intenecoing lines, How many intersection points cam intersecting Imes. intersection ‘Two disunet les which have a common point are called mtersecting Enes, and thei common point 1s called their mtersection. In the figure at the right, lines d and k are imtersecting lines and pomt A is ther ntersection point. Tz Tae the sntnmenon of ‘The intersection ofthe ne d and k ie the polnt A, ce ne d intarsects 20k= (A) tne katpoint A ‘Now let us look at a special ease of mtersecting Imes, perpendicular lines ‘Two lines which intersect and form a 90° angle are called perpendicular lines, In the figure opposite, Imes AB and CD intersect at K and together form a 90° angle By the definition, AB and CD are perpendicular lines. Treads Tae 1 perpendicular to AB LOD AB is perpendicular toCD. perpendicular bisector of a segment A perpendicular bisector of a segment AB 18 a segment, ray, or line that 1s perpendicular t0 AB at its midpoint. In the figure at the right, line CD is the perpendicular bisector of segment AB, and segment KL 1s the perpendicular bisector of segment EF. x b L Argtes and Tangles5 Determine whether the folowing statements about the figure opposite are true or false. {(K} Di nknhak co MN = NP= Mp ahakal (M,N, Py a MPAL=(F e hal tue b, false ¢. true sd. false. false Check Yourself 5 1. Three pomts M, N and £ ie on the parallel lines a and b such that M¢ a, Ne band Ec b, Line m passes through points M and N, and line d passes through points M and E. Draw an appropnate figure and name the pans of intersecting Ines and points of antersecton. 2 A figure contains two Lines m and m and four points B,C, Mand D. Lines m and m intersect and Be mandBe n;Ce mandCen;Me nandM¢ m;De nandD¢ m, Draw the - =e 3. Can you draw Uree Lines that mntersect in pairs such that there 3s no common point to all, three lines? If you can, draw them. 4. Poimts A, Band C are given. Is it possible to draw lines m, wand d such that A= m, Ben, Ce d,m||nand nd? Ifitis, draw an appropriate figure 5. Lane ds parallel to lmes a and b, Ts it possible that lines @ and b are mtersecting hnes? 5 Lines m and m ate parallel but lines n and c intersect. Do Imes m and c intersect? At most how many different regions can be created in a plane using four different Lnes? Answers 1. The bine pairs d and n, d anda, @ and b, mand a, and » and b are intersecung Imes and ‘poms M, N and £ are the mtersection poms. a. BesicConpiendArfey, iBasic Concepts Pome Figure an undefined concept which has mfmite length but no width or height abne two hes in the same plane which never meet a straight ne which extends am one direction from a fixed pomt two distinct lines with a common point ‘wo line segments with the same length planar region made up of all tne points on one side of an anfimte straight Ine pomts on the same Line am undefined concept which has no dimension and only shows a position two Lines which form a 90-degree angle a pomt chat divides a lve segment mio two congruent segments ‘alin which is perpendicular to a segment at its midpoint 4 part of a line that is bounded by (wo endpoints alme which mtersects a segment at 1ts midpoint a flat surface with no thickness that extends without end in all directions The left-hand column lists some important geometne concepts, and figures # to Mlustrate them. Match each concept with a figure and wnite the name of the concept. — £7 oo i Argtes and Tangles2. Geometric Postulates a. Basic postulat postulate, wxiom A postulate (also called an axiom) is a statement that is presumed to be true, and that does not need to be (or cannot be) proven. "Fail bv pula maa The first recorded axiomatic system of plane geometry was based on five postulates known as. tie bd of de gmt be se 2000s Hove it fhe ely" 208 cory ellis eopzed that they did wal only eae sles pomty inca Enlil tid as deity sect be eerie eel "ote nade’ md sete 1 190) the atbonaicine Dosd ibact devlopel raoecn wet of tom at femred thisTacmgletne! rom Ee’ seo Oter eked Diet sed seer Baclaee cael i ek, Euclid’s postulates. Using only these five postulates and analytical reasoning, the geometer Euclid developed the Euclidean plane geometry that we study today, Other geometers throughout history have changed or added to Euchd’s postulates to create different types of geometry. Textbooks also often add postulates to make Euchdean geometry easier to work with: Uhis 1s why some theorems appear as postulates m some textbooks, although the baste Euclidean system remains the same. ‘The following list presents Euchd’s postulates along with some common postulates which are often used without proofin geometry today. We will use these postulates throughout this book. ‘You may want to mark this page so that you can find them easly. Tid] Basic Comepts and Angles Line Postulate For any two distinct pomts, there exists exactly one line which contams them. arallel Postulate If there 1s a line and a pot not on the me, then there exists exactly one line through the point winich 1s parallel to the given line. ‘Through a pot on a he, exactly one line can be drawn which 1s perpendicular to the first une. Perpendicular Postulat Ifthere isa line and a pomt not on the le, then there exists exactly one Line through the pomt which is perpendicular to the given line. 2Bil | trunks growing ler over any yeart aye like line Segments added to teach other ee In thas Book we wall took {i constructions. drawn ‘swag a. compas and suaighiedge 2 Ruler Postulate 1. The points on a line can be put in one-to-one correspondence vith the set of real numbers, so that each point corresponds to a number which is called the coordinate of that point. ‘The distance AB between two points A and B on a line is equal to the absolute value of the difference between the coordinates of A and B Distance Postulate For any two points on a line and a gen unit of measure, there exists a unique positive number which corresponds to the distance between the two points, called the measure of this distance. Segment Addinon Postulate Ifa pomt Bas between points A and C then AB + BC = AC. Midpoint Postulate Every ne segment has exactly one midpoint. Remember that by definition, a postulate does not need to be proven. However, we can use these postulates (0 prove that other statements about geometry are true. We can also explore these postulates in different ways, b. Exploring geometry ‘We can explore geometry in different ways: by sketching, by construction, by paper folding, and by using dynamic geometry sofware. These approaches help us to discover what geometry is by experiencing it. We will use these ways together throughout this book. When we sketch a geometne figure, we make a quick sketch of it without using any geometric tools. When we draw or construct a geometne figure, we draw it accurately by usmg geometric tools. Up to now in your studies you have probably explored geometry by sketching and drawing. In the next section we will look at some of the postulates above using basic ‘constructions and paper folding. ¢. Basic constructions When we construct a geometni figure, we copy or create it using geometnic tools, Many basic constructions can be made with a compass and a ruler without a scale, called a straightedge. The primary basic constructions are constructing a segment, constructing a circle, constructing a congruent segment, constructing the mdpoint of a given segment, construchng. a perpendicular to a line at given point on the line, constructing a perpendicular to a given Ime through a point outside the given Line, and constructing a parallel to a Line through a pomt outside the hne. Argtes and TanglesRadhion dasignses, ‘builders, architects, and engineers use feommunicate their geass, En 6 Solution Basic Concepts and Angles Euchid’s postulates are based on geometnie constructions that are possible with a compass. and a straightedge, as shown in the following table. Relations berwsen Bud's Pectulates and Basie Constructions Postuate Basie Constvetin ‘A-mmaght line segment can be éesum which joins any Becoming thee two to ponte Conemuennga tne gent | constructions we can feoneruct a whole ine ‘Any suaight Ine pment can be extended Extending a line sement | which = deermined sndefniel in a sraght ino sn oithae dsction 1 90 given pants. Giver any straight ine segment wo can draw acisck whieh har the segment ar itr radiue and one | Constructing a circ with a gen cadiue endpoint ofthe sopment as ts center ‘Alright angloe ae congrucnt ‘Constructing 2 congrusnt angle ‘Throuh any point in space, there is exactly one | Constructing a line which passes through a given ‘sraight line which le paralbl toa given straight Une. | external paint and is parallel to the given line Construct a ime through a given pomt P which is parallel to a given line AB (P AB), Look at the figures and the steps. Given Line 4B and point P 1 2 La : “i . Ba Construct: Line m sue that / AB. 3, |. Draw line AP with a straightedge 9. Draw an are with center A and radius AP, and label the intersection point of the are and line ABasC. 3. Draw two arcs with the same radius centered at points P and C, such that they antersect each other, Label the mtersection point T. 4. Draw the Line m by Joining pomts P and T with a straightedge, This line 1s parallel to AB.