Sil Vi Notes
Sil Vi Notes
Sil Vi Notes
The pattern of felling affects the form or character of the new crop. i.e. even
aged and uneven aged. These form the basis of classification of silvicultural
system.
Classification of Silvicultural Systems
B. Coppice system:
Those silvicultural systems in which the crop originates mainly from coppice
and the rotation is short.
The high forest systems and coppice systems are further classified on the
basis of pattern of felling and mode of regeneration as well. A schematic
classification of these systems is given here.
High Forest Systems
The area to be clear-felled each year in uniformly productive sites is l/n of the total area
allotted to this system.
Advantages:
1. It is simplest of all high forest system. It does not require a high degree of skill.
2. As felling is concentrated, the yield per unit area is more and consequently the
cost of felling and extraction is low.
3. Introducing fast growing exotics and regulating composition of new crop through
artificial regeneration is advantageous.
4. It makes the supervision of all operations easy.
5. There is no damage to new crop by felling.
6. If properly tended the even aged crop produced have trees with cleaner and more
cylindrical boles.
7. Entire crop is regenerated in one operation. Its establishment is quicker there by
reducing the cost and rotation.
8. As the regeneration establishes early, the coupe can be opened up for grazing
soon.
9. The distribution of age class is very regular.
10. The success or failure of regeneration is clear by the end of first year or in few
years.
Disadvantages:
1. It is the most artificial system.
2. Soil remain open there is more danger of soil deterioration and erosion
3. The danger of weeds and grass invasion increases.
4. It produces even aged crop, which is less resistant to damage by wind.
5. when the crop is pure it becomes more susceptible to damage by Insects, plant
parasites and pathogens.
6. It sacrifices all immature crops that may still be putting on valuable increment.
7. Growing space and site factors are not fully utilized.
8. Annual yield is less than uneven aged crops.
9. This system is not suitable on hilly area and slopes.
10. The system is aesthetically very bad.
Seed Tree Method
In this method the stand is clear felled except for a few seed trees, which are left standing
singly or in groups to produce seeds for regeneration
After a new crop is established these seed trees may be removed or left indefinitely.
The chief distinction from shelter wood system is that the seed trees are retained only for
seed production and not enough to provide shelter.
On the basis of arrangements of seed trees the seed tree methods may be:
Single Tree Method.
Group Tree Method
Strips or Rows Method
2. Seed producing ability: The best trees are members of Dominant crown class having
wide deep crowns and relatively large live crown ratio.
3. Age: Seed tree must be old enough to produce abundant fertile seeds, The age at which
seed bearing begins in closed stand is the safest criteria.
*Seed Dissemination
*Seed germination
*Seedling establishment
Advantage: Ample opportunity for Phenotypic Selection, suitable for Light demanding
species.
In other words, the shelter wood system involves gradual removal of the entire stand in
two or more successive felling extending over a part of the rotation.
The trees, which are no longer capable of increment in value, are removed to make room
for regeneration to come in
Pattern of felling:
Preparatory felling:
It is a felling made under a high forest system with the object of creating conditions
favorable to seed production and natural regeneration
*Create gaps in the canopy
*Create favorable conditions on the forest floor.
Seeding felling:
It is defined as opening the canopy of a mature stand to provide conditions securing
regeneration from the seed of trees retained
This is the first stage of regeneration felling and the object is to make opening in the
canopy all over the compartment so that favorable conditions are created for regeneration.
There are two important considerations
1.Selection of trees to be retained:
*Genetically superior trees.
*The number of trees varies according to the silvicultural requirement of species.
*The shade bearing sp. and those with heavy seed-retain more seed trees (small
opening)
*The light demanding sp. and those with light seed-retain less seed trees (large
opening)
*For the same sp. opening is lighter in the drier areas than in moist areas.
*Seeding felling is done with caution if there is danger of invasion of grasses and
weeds.
*Large no. of seed bearers on southern aspect and less no. of seed bearers on northern
aspect for the same species.
2.The number of seed bearers:
*The number of seed bearers to be retained depends on:
*Seed requirement of the area.
*Amount of light to be admitted (shelter)
*Moisture condition
*Condition of weed growth
*Altitude and aspect.
Examples:
Species No. of seed bearers Approx. Distance between trees
Pinus roxburghii 12-18 on cooler aspect 24-30m.
20-25 on warmer aspect 20-22m.
Pinus wallichiana 25-30 18-20m.
Cedrus deodara (Deodar) 45-50 14-15m.
Picea smithiana (Spruces) 45-50 14-15m.
Abies pindrow (Fir) 75-87 11-12m
Secondary felling:
It is defined as a regeneration felling carried out between seeding felling and final felling
in order gradually to remove the shelter and admit increasing light to the regenerated crop
Removal of trees in secondary felling depends on progress of regeneration and its light
requirement. It also helps in the manipulation of mixture of crop.
Final felling:
It is defined as the removal of the last shelter or seed trees after regeneration has been
affected. It is the final stage in regeneration felling when the are is completely stocked
with established regeneration which do not require shelter.
Advantages:
1. Marking and felling of trees of the over wood are simpler than in other shelterwood
systems as well as selection system.
2. In this system the soil is not completely denuded so there is little risk of soil
deterioration and erosion.
3. As the regeneration operations are carried out under the shelter of older crop, there is
little danger of invasion of the area by weeds and grasses.
4. The young crop is protected against adverse climatic factors such as cold, frost,
winds, drought etc.
5. As the regeneration is obtained from seeds obtained from best selected trees, the new
crop is superior.
6. It is a suitable system for the regeneration of both light demander and shade bearer
species. In mixed forest it is suitable to regenerate a mixture of different species by
regulating of light reaching on forest floor.
7. As the new crop appears before the old one is harvested, the average length of
rotation is shortened.
8. The growing space is more fully utilized as the regeneration grows under the shelter
of older trees.
9. It makes supervision and control of various operations easy.
10. From aesthetic point of view the system is superior to clear felling system.
Disadvantages:
1. As the over wood is removed in more than one operation there is much damage to
the young crop.
2. In mixed forest with species having different light requirement, the manipulation of
canopy requires skill and knowledge of silvicultural requirement of species
composing the mixture.
3. The isolated seed bearers are susceptible to wind damage.
4. In the species having long intervals between seed years, after seeding felling there
may be invasion by weeds and regeneration may be affected.
5. In species with longer regeneration period, weeding and cleaning has to be done for
longer period and the natural regeneration becomes costly.
The Group System:
Regeneration felling are carried out in scattered groups either because of presence of
advance growth or to induce regeneration de-nova so that there foci of regeneration can
be enlarged centrifugally to merge with each other ultimately.
Advantage:
1. The young crop develops in more natural way.
2. Adjoining trees protects the young regeneration.
3. Little danger of the seed bearers being uprooted by windstorm.
4. Less damage of young crop by regulating the fall of trees in unfelled areas.
Disadvantages:
1. Existing advanced growth has to be located which is difficult in hills.
2. Marking of seeding felling is difficult around group of advanced growth in hilly
terrain.
3. The weeding and cleaning is difficult and costly.
4. As the work gets diffused its supervision and control becomes difficult.
5. Over extensive area, intensive working is not possible.
6. Requires individual attention of a single officer for about 30 years, which is not
possible.
Felling of trees allover the area of a forest is possible when the area is small but if the area is
large it is not possible to fell the trees over the entire area annually. Therefore, the area to be
worked under selection system is divided in to coups and felling is confined to one coup
every year.
Ideal selection system
Periodic selection system
Thus, felling is done in a coup after a certain number of years, which is equal to the number
of coups. This interval is known as felling cycle, which is defined as the time between two
successive main felling on the same area. The length of the felling cycle affects the
silviculture of species, exploitation of forest, and the nature of crop produced.
Method of felling:
1. the stump should neither be too low/high.
2. The lower the stump, the better it is for coppice shoot.
3. but if the trees are cut very low there is a danger of the stump splitting and or drying
up from top.
4. On the other hand, the higher the stumps, the greater the possibility of shoots being
damaged by wind or animals.
5. Stumps are usually kept, 15-25 cm high. (10 cm for eucalyptus)
Tending:
Cleaning is done to remove climbers and inferior sp. and to reduce the no. of shoots to
two or three.
Thinning if necessary is carried out in fifth year and the no. of shoot is reduced to
one/stool. This is called as singling out operation for pole or timber.
Advantage:
1. The system is very simple and does not require any skill in making.
2. The regeneration is more certain.
3. As coppice shoot grow faster in the beginning the cost of weeding, cleaning and
protection is much less than in case of reproduction by seed.
4. The mean annual increment (MAI) of the coppice crop is much higher then that
obtained under high forest.
5. The net returns on investment are relatively higher primarily due to short rotation and
less investment.
6. Although it is shortsighted system but very suitable for producing fuelwood and small
sized timber to fulfill the immediate need of the society.
Disadvantage:
1. The system tends to exhaust mineral substances in the soil.
2. This system is not permanent because the trees can not keep on coppicing
indefinitely.
3. The coppice crop is liable to great damage by frost and wind.
4. This is not a very desirable system from aesthetic point of vies.
5. Risk of site deterioration (Soil erosion, weed invasion etc.)
Coppice with standards system
It is silvicultural system based on coppice in which over wood of standards, usually of
seedling origin and composed of trees of various ages, is kept over coppice for a period
of multiple coppice rotation and as a permanent feature of the crop through out its life.
Purpose of standards:
1. Supply of large size timber
2. Protection against frost
3. Enrichment of coppice
4. To provide seedling regeneration
5. Increase in revenue
Thus, 1) Constitution of crop: lower storey (even aged coppice crop), upper storey (over
wood of standards).
2) Rotation: two rotation- one for coppice and one for standard (multiple of
coppice rotation).
Pattern of felling:
All trees except standards are clear felled and selection of standards depends on
1.Species:
The species of same or different sp. or a mixture of species.
3.No. of standards:
Number of standards depend on following
1. Object of mgt.
2. Climatic factors (frost)
3. Silvicultural characteristics of species (light, frost etc.)
- Standards should not occupy more than one third of the canopy (33%)
- The space allotted to the standards is to be properly distributed amongst the
various age classes.
Disadvantage:
1. It requires great skill in maintaining correct balance between standards and coppice
and between standards of different age classes.
2. This is a combination of simple coppice system and high forest system with the
advantage of none.
3. It has an exhaustive effect on soil.
4. Felling and extraction cost is higher than high forest system.
Example:
It is not likely to be something that has already been invented and can
simply be selected from schematic description of silvicultural systems given
in books
In the first place, a rational silvicultural system for a particular stand should
fit logically in to the over all management plan for the forest of which the
stand is a part
Considerations:
1.Hormony with goals and characteristics of ownership
2.Provision for regeneration
3.Efficient use of growing space and site productivity
4.Control of damaging agencies
5.Provision for sustained yield
6.Optimum use of capital and growing stock
7.Concentration and efficient arrangements of operations
8.Resolution of conflicting objectives
Natural Regeneration
A. Seed Production:
The most important consideration for natural regeneration from seed is the
production of adequate amount of fertile seeds by the trees of the area or in
the vicinity. The production of seed depends on the following
Species, Age of trees, Size of Crown, Climate, and other external factors
1.Species:
All species do not produce seed annually and abundantly.
Some species like Teak, Acacia, and Sissoo etc. Produce seed annually.
2. Age of Trees:
The age of trees also affects the production of adequate amount of fertile
seeds
The seed produced by immature and over mature trees are sometimes
infertile
Abundant amount of fertile seeds are produced from middle aged trees.
Abundant amount of fertile seeds is produced by the trees when height
growth is culminated and during this period carbohydrate produced is
translocated to seed formation.
3. Size of Crown:
The size of the crown of trees also affect seed production
As a general rule, the bigger the crown, the larger the seed production
4. Climate:
Climate also affects the seed production. As a general rule warmer climate
favors larger seed production
Hot dry airs are generally followed by heavy seed years on account of
increase in Photosynthesis
B. Seed Dispersal:
The seed produced by the trees is dispersed by the agency of wind, water,
gravity, birds and animals. Some examples of seed dispersal by various
agencies are given below.
Wind: All conifers and several dicots (Acer, Betula, Populus, Alnus , Salix
Terminalia, Dalbrgia, Acacia , Adina and Bombax.
C. Seed Germination:
After dispersal insect birds and rodents destroy a lot of seeds. The others
germinate provided they are deposited on suitable soil. Germination of
seeds depends upon several internal and external factors listed below.
Internal Factors:
Permeability to water
Permeability to O2
Development of embryo ( ie.Frixinus floribunda takes one year)
After ripening (ie.Juniperus macropoda)
Viability of Seeds
Size of seeds
Germination capacity
Germination energy
External factors:
Moisture
Air
Temperature
Light (ie. Cassia fistula or Albizzia procera requires light)
Seed Bed
D. Seedling establishment:
Even if germination is good it does not mean that natural regeneration would
be good, because a large number of seedlings die at the end of rains or as a
result of frost during winter or drought during summer. In addition there
may be other factors such as weeds, grazing, fire, which may kill them.
Shelterwood System:
The number of seeds required depends on the species
Adina cardifolia 1-2 trees/ha
Shorea robusta 30-40 trees/ha
Pinus roxburghii 12-18 trees/ha on cooler aspect
Pinus roxburghii 20-25 trees/ha on warmer aspect
Pinus wallichiana 25-30 trees/ha
Cedrus deodar 45-50 trees/ha
Picea smithiana 45-50 trees/ha
Abies pindrow 75-87 trees/ha
Selection System:
Abundance of seed bearers and use of every seed year
Light Requirement
Light affects the soil conditions, undergrowth, and seed germination, so adequate light should
reach the forest floor. This is achieved by manipulation of canopy. The requirement of light
varies with species and their variation in light requirement in different conditions and at various
stages of their development.
Light Demander:
Pinus roxburghii, Pinus wallichiana, Populas cilliata, Shorea robusta, Tectona grandis, Dalbergia
sisso, Adina cardifolia, Bombax ceiba, Quercus incana etc.
Shade Bearer:
Picea smithiana, Cedrus deodara, Cupressus torulosa, Quercus glauca, Toona cilliata, Dalbergia
latifolia, Petrocarpus marsupium, Artocarpus sp.
Shade Demander:
Abies pindrow, Taxus buccata, Mallotus phillippinensis, Litsea glutinosa, Syzizium cumini
Light is very important factor in seedling establishment but its requirement varies from species
to species and even in the same species according to climatic conditions and age.
i.e. Teak seedlings must have sufficient light but in dry localities seedlings require protection
from sun.
Sal is able to persist in moderate shade in the beginning but it needs complete overhead light
later.
Soil Condition
Soil moisture affects regeneration. Permeable and non compacted soil is better .
Aeration also affects regeneration. Poor drainage, water logging adversely affects seedling
growth and regeneration
Nutrients: Un-decomposed organic matter thick layer of partly decomposed leaves adversely
affect regeneration.
Sal Forest: In the very moist and moist sal forest annual and periodic burning is used to reduce
the density of shrubs and soil moisture and to burn leaf litter to provide clean seed bed for
natural regeneration.
The controlled burning is again done when the natural regeneration has reached a size that the
area is to be put outside the regeneration area.
So, before carrying out final felling, the natural regeneration is controlled burn for three years to
harden the natural regeneration against accidental fire. (November or December is suitable for
control burning.)
Teak forest: In moist teak forest controlled burning induces regeneration and suppresses weeds.
Slash disposal
Felling of trees for canopy manipulation or timber harvesting results in leaving large quantities
of slash in the regeneration area. This has to be removed to make the area clean for seed
germination as well as to reduce the hazards from fire, insect and fungi.
1. Slash in relation to forest fire.
2. Effects of slash on regeneration.
3. Effect on soil (decomposition of slash onsite)
4. Slash in relation to insects and fungi
5. Slash in relation to Aesthetics and wildlife.
Silvicultural Systems:
1. Selection system (group selection)
2. Irregular shelterwood system
3. Uniform shelterwood system
4. One cut shelterwood system
5. Clearfelling system (plantation by Taungia)
6. Coppice with standards
7. Coppice with reserves
8. Simple coppice
Silvicultural systems:
1. Clearfelling and plantation
2. Simple coppice
3. Coppice with standards
4. Seed tree method
Sisso (Dalbargia sissoo):
Silvicultural characteristics:
1. It is strong light demander
2. It is good coppicer
3. Annual seeder and seeds produced abundantly
4. Seeds dispersed by wind and water
5. Older seedlings can tolerate mild frost
6. It should be protected against grazing and browsing
Silvicultural systems:
1. Seed tree method
2. Cleaerfelling and plantation by Taungia
3. Two storeyed high forest system
4. Simple coppice
5. Coppice with standards
6. Coppice with two rotation system
Silvicultural systems:
1. Single tree selection
2. Coppice with standards
3. Coppice with reserves
4. Shelterwood system
Silvicultural systems:
1. Seed tree method
2. Uniform or irrefgular shelterwood system
3. Group selection
4. Clearfelling with advanced regeneration/One cut Shelterwood
Silvicultural systems:
1. Seed tree method
2. Uniform or irregular shelterwood system
3. Group selection
4. Clear felling with advanced regeneration.
Silvicultural systems:
1. Single tree selection
2. Irregular sheterwood system
3. Uniform shelterwood system (75-87 seed trees/ha.)
Spruce (Picea smithiana):
Silvicultural characteristics:
1. Shade bearer
2. Seeds dispersed by wind
3. Young seedlings do not suffer from frost
4. More of a pioneer often associated with blue pine
Silvicultural systems:
1. Single tree selection
2. Irregular shelterwood system
3. Uniform shelterwood system (45-50 seed trees / ha.)
Silvicultural systems:
4. Single tree selection
5. Irregular shelterwood system
6. Uniform shelterwood system (45-50 seed trees / ha.)
Choice of silvicultural systems and their application procedure (Thompsom, 1990).
NO YES
YES NO
Simple coppice
Harvesting Regeneration
NO YES NO YES
Coppice with
standards
Harvesting Regeneration
NO Yes
Is there a need to
Do you want free access for alter the species
user selection of standards? composition?
Yes No No Yes
No Yes
High forest
system
No Yes
No Yes
No Yes
No Yes
Maintain complete
crown access to Is there regeneration
direct light for of desired species
desired stems Present?
No
Yes