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Silvicultural Systems

Silvicultural system may be defined as a method of silvicultural procedure by


which forests are harvested, regenerated and tended.

It is a planed silvicultural treatment, which is applied to a forest crop


throughout its life to get a distinctive form.

It begins with regeneration felling and includes adoption of some suitable


method of regeneration and tending of the new crop throughout of its life.

Thus, it is just a technique perfected on the basis of knowledge of silviculture,


but its application is governed by the requirements of forest management or to
achieve the objectives of forest management.

The pattern of felling to be adopted in harvesting a mature crop to be


regenerated:

It includes felling of a single tree to clear felling

The pattern of felling depends on:

1.Silvicultural requirement of the species to be regenerated.

2.Intensity of demand of forest products

3.Development of communication and other local conditions

The pattern of felling affects the form or character of the new crop. i.e. even
aged and uneven aged. These form the basis of classification of silvicultural
system.
Classification of Silvicultural Systems

Silvicultural systems have been classified in a variety of ways


The most commonly used classification is based primarily on the mode of
regeneration

It is further classified according to the pattern of felling carried out in the


forest crop

According to the method of regeneration silvicultural systems are of following


two types

A. High forest systems:


Those silvicultural systems in which the regeneration is normally of seedling
origin, either natural or artificial or a combination of both and the rotation
is generally long.

B. Coppice system:
Those silvicultural systems in which the crop originates mainly from coppice
and the rotation is short.

The high forest systems and coppice systems are further classified on the
basis of pattern of felling and mode of regeneration as well. A schematic
classification of these systems is given here.
High Forest Systems

Systems of Concentrated Systems of Diffused Accessory Systems


Regeneration Regeneration
1.Two storeyed
High Forest
2. High forest with
reserve
3.Improvement
felling
Clearfelling Shelterwood Systems Selection System
Systems
1. Clearfelling 1. Uniform system 1. Single Tree Selection
System. 2. Group ,, 2. Group Selection
2. The Clear Strip 3. Strip ,,
System 4. Irregular ,,
3. The Alternate 5. Indian Irregular
Strip System. System

Coppice System (Low Forest System)


a. Simple Coppice System.
b. The Coppice of Two Rotation System.
c. The Shelterwood Coppice System.
d. The Coppice with Standards System.
e. The Coppice with Reserves System.
f. The Coppice Selection System.
g. The Pollarding
MAJOR SILVICULTURAL SYSTEMS
A.High Forest Systems:
1. The clear felling system:
The clear felling system is defined as a silvicultural system in which equal or equi-
productive areas of mature crop are successively clear-felled in one operation to be
regenerated most frequently, artificially but sometimes naturally also.

The area to be clear-felled each year in uniformly productive sites is l/n of the total area
allotted to this system.

N = no of years in the rotation and is usually referred to annual coupe.

The coupes to be felled every year are made equi-productive.

Removal or felling of mature crop:


According to definition, the entire crop of the coupe should be felled and removed in one
operation but in practices following variations are observed.
1. Retention of some mature trees as frost protection measures or as an insurance against
failure or as nurse crop to facilitate establishment of forest tender species.
2. Retention of promising groups of saplings and poles to prevent unnecessary sacrifice
of immature crop of the desired species.
3. Isolated saplings and poles are ordinarily not retained as they may develop in to wolf
trees.

Methods of obtaining regeneration:


The area can be regenerated sometimes naturally but mostly artificially
Artificial regeneration is preferred due to following reasons

1.It is the surest and quickest method of improving crop composition.


2.It facilities introduction of fast growing and high yielding exotics.
3.It provides better financial returns.
4.The regeneration is established sooner, so the area can be opened for grazing sooner.

Method of Artificial Regeneration:


*Departmental plantation
*Taungia
Departmental Taungia
Leased Taungia
Village Taungia

Method of Natural Regeneration:


*Natural regeneration from seed
*Seeds stored in the area
*Seeds received from outside
*Natural regeneration from advanced growth
Variations in Clear-felling System:
* The clear strip system
* The alternate strip systems
*Clearfelling in patches
*Clearfelling with advanced regeneration
*Clear-felling with retention of sheltered

Advantages:
1. It is simplest of all high forest system. It does not require a high degree of skill.
2. As felling is concentrated, the yield per unit area is more and consequently the
cost of felling and extraction is low.
3. Introducing fast growing exotics and regulating composition of new crop through
artificial regeneration is advantageous.
4. It makes the supervision of all operations easy.
5. There is no damage to new crop by felling.
6. If properly tended the even aged crop produced have trees with cleaner and more
cylindrical boles.
7. Entire crop is regenerated in one operation. Its establishment is quicker there by
reducing the cost and rotation.
8. As the regeneration establishes early, the coupe can be opened up for grazing
soon.
9. The distribution of age class is very regular.
10. The success or failure of regeneration is clear by the end of first year or in few
years.

Disadvantages:
1. It is the most artificial system.
2. Soil remain open there is more danger of soil deterioration and erosion
3. The danger of weeds and grass invasion increases.
4. It produces even aged crop, which is less resistant to damage by wind.
5. when the crop is pure it becomes more susceptible to damage by Insects, plant
parasites and pathogens.
6. It sacrifices all immature crops that may still be putting on valuable increment.
7. Growing space and site factors are not fully utilized.
8. Annual yield is less than uneven aged crops.
9. This system is not suitable on hilly area and slopes.
10. The system is aesthetically very bad.
Seed Tree Method

In this method the stand is clear felled except for a few seed trees, which are left standing
singly or in groups to produce seeds for regeneration

After a new crop is established these seed trees may be removed or left indefinitely.

The chief distinction from shelter wood system is that the seed trees are retained only for
seed production and not enough to provide shelter.

On the basis of arrangements of seed trees the seed tree methods may be:
Single Tree Method.
Group Tree Method
Strips or Rows Method

Characteristic of Seed Trees.


1. Wind firmness: Trees with tapering boles are more resistant to wind.

2. Seed producing ability: The best trees are members of Dominant crown class having
wide deep crowns and relatively large live crown ratio.

3. Age: Seed tree must be old enough to produce abundant fertile seeds, The age at which
seed bearing begins in closed stand is the safest criteria.

Number and Distribution of Seed Trees: It depends on following factors


*Amount of seed produced/tree

*The no. of seed required

*Seed Dissemination

*Number of viable seed produced (depend on pollination. There will be low no of


viable seed in isolated trees

*Seed germination

*Seedling establishment

Advantage: Ample opportunity for Phenotypic Selection, suitable for Light demanding
species.

Disadvantage: Under stocking, over stocking, damage by forest and drought.


Shelterwood Systems

Shelterwood system is a silvicultural systems in which the over wood is removed


gradually in two or more successive felling depending on the progress of
regeneration.

In other words, the shelter wood system involves gradual removal of the entire stand in
two or more successive felling extending over a part of the rotation.

The trees, which are no longer capable of increment in value, are removed to make room
for regeneration to come in

The trees, which are growing vigorously, are retained to provide


(a) Shelter
(b) Seed
(c) Rapid diameter increment and value increment
(d) Protection of site against deterioration.

Kinds of Shelterwood system:


The varying patterns of regeneration felling and their distribution in space and time,
results in a variety of shelterwood systems.

1.Uniform shelterwood system:


Regeneration felling is done by making uniform opening

2.Group shelterwood system:


Regeneration felling is done in scattered groups

3.The shelterwood strip system:


Regeneration felling is done in strips

4. Irregular Shelterwood System:


Opening is made irregularly.
Uneven aged crop is produced
There is a compromise between shelterwood group system & selection system

5.Indian irregular shelterwood system:


Uneven aged crop is produced and immature trees are retained as future crop
It is a compromise between Uniform System and Selection System.

6.One cut sheltered:


Removal of over wood in one operation if sufficient advance growth is present
1.Uniform Shelterwood System (Uniform System)
The canopy is uniformly opened up over the whole are of a compartment to obtain
uniform regeneration. It is also called as shelterwood compartment system or
compartment system.

Pattern of felling:
Preparatory felling:
It is a felling made under a high forest system with the object of creating conditions
favorable to seed production and natural regeneration
*Create gaps in the canopy
*Create favorable conditions on the forest floor.

Seeding felling:
It is defined as opening the canopy of a mature stand to provide conditions securing
regeneration from the seed of trees retained

This is the first stage of regeneration felling and the object is to make opening in the
canopy all over the compartment so that favorable conditions are created for regeneration.
There are two important considerations
1.Selection of trees to be retained:
*Genetically superior trees.
*The number of trees varies according to the silvicultural requirement of species.
*The shade bearing sp. and those with heavy seed-retain more seed trees (small
opening)
*The light demanding sp. and those with light seed-retain less seed trees (large
opening)
*For the same sp. opening is lighter in the drier areas than in moist areas.
*Seeding felling is done with caution if there is danger of invasion of grasses and
weeds.
*Large no. of seed bearers on southern aspect and less no. of seed bearers on northern
aspect for the same species.
2.The number of seed bearers:
*The number of seed bearers to be retained depends on:
*Seed requirement of the area.
*Amount of light to be admitted (shelter)
*Moisture condition
*Condition of weed growth
*Altitude and aspect.
Examples:
Species No. of seed bearers Approx. Distance between trees
Pinus roxburghii 12-18 on cooler aspect 24-30m.
20-25 on warmer aspect 20-22m.
Pinus wallichiana 25-30 18-20m.
Cedrus deodara (Deodar) 45-50 14-15m.
Picea smithiana (Spruces) 45-50 14-15m.
Abies pindrow (Fir) 75-87 11-12m
Secondary felling:
It is defined as a regeneration felling carried out between seeding felling and final felling
in order gradually to remove the shelter and admit increasing light to the regenerated crop
Removal of trees in secondary felling depends on progress of regeneration and its light
requirement. It also helps in the manipulation of mixture of crop.

Final felling:
It is defined as the removal of the last shelter or seed trees after regeneration has been
affected. It is the final stage in regeneration felling when the are is completely stocked
with established regeneration which do not require shelter.

Advantages:
1. Marking and felling of trees of the over wood are simpler than in other shelterwood
systems as well as selection system.
2. In this system the soil is not completely denuded so there is little risk of soil
deterioration and erosion.
3. As the regeneration operations are carried out under the shelter of older crop, there is
little danger of invasion of the area by weeds and grasses.
4. The young crop is protected against adverse climatic factors such as cold, frost,
winds, drought etc.
5. As the regeneration is obtained from seeds obtained from best selected trees, the new
crop is superior.
6. It is a suitable system for the regeneration of both light demander and shade bearer
species. In mixed forest it is suitable to regenerate a mixture of different species by
regulating of light reaching on forest floor.
7. As the new crop appears before the old one is harvested, the average length of
rotation is shortened.
8. The growing space is more fully utilized as the regeneration grows under the shelter
of older trees.
9. It makes supervision and control of various operations easy.
10. From aesthetic point of view the system is superior to clear felling system.

Disadvantages:
1. As the over wood is removed in more than one operation there is much damage to
the young crop.
2. In mixed forest with species having different light requirement, the manipulation of
canopy requires skill and knowledge of silvicultural requirement of species
composing the mixture.
3. The isolated seed bearers are susceptible to wind damage.
4. In the species having long intervals between seed years, after seeding felling there
may be invasion by weeds and regeneration may be affected.
5. In species with longer regeneration period, weeding and cleaning has to be done for
longer period and the natural regeneration becomes costly.
The Group System:
Regeneration felling are carried out in scattered groups either because of presence of
advance growth or to induce regeneration de-nova so that there foci of regeneration can
be enlarged centrifugally to merge with each other ultimately.

Advantage:
1. The young crop develops in more natural way.
2. Adjoining trees protects the young regeneration.
3. Little danger of the seed bearers being uprooted by windstorm.
4. Less damage of young crop by regulating the fall of trees in unfelled areas.

Disadvantages:
1. Existing advanced growth has to be located which is difficult in hills.
2. Marking of seeding felling is difficult around group of advanced growth in hilly
terrain.
3. The weeding and cleaning is difficult and costly.
4. As the work gets diffused its supervision and control becomes difficult.
5. Over extensive area, intensive working is not possible.
6. Requires individual attention of a single officer for about 30 years, which is not
possible.

Shelterwood strip system:


Regeneration felling are done in the form of strips successively from one side of the
compartment, progressing against the direction of wind.
The width of the strip varies according to local conditions, and may vary from 20 m to 30
or even more.
Advantage:
(1) It provides protection from wind.
Disadvantage:
(1) Laying out of strips, execution of felling, logging, transport of material, tending,
protection against grazing and fire is difficult and not applied in India.
The Irregular Shelterwood System:
Regeneration felling is on the pattern of group system but as the regeneration period is
long, the crop produced is uneven aged or irregular. This is a compromise between
shelterwood group system and selection system.
Indian Irregular Sheltered System:
Silvicultural System is which the crop to be regenerated is open up irregularly and the
resultant crop is uneven aged, a compromise between uniform system and selection
system.
1. It provides for retention of groups of well-grown poles and immature trees (upto 40
cm. diameter) as the future crop.
2. It permits the adoption of selection felling on steep and rugged portion of
compartment being worked under uniform system.

The Selection System


The selection system is defined as a silvicultural system in which felling and regeneration
are distributed over the whole of the area and the resultant crop is so uneven-aged that trees
of all ages are found mixed together over every part of the area. Such a crop is referred to as
selection forest or all-aged forest. the selection system may be of following two types.
*Single tree selection
*Group selection

Felling of trees allover the area of a forest is possible when the area is small but if the area is
large it is not possible to fell the trees over the entire area annually. Therefore, the area to be
worked under selection system is divided in to coups and felling is confined to one coup
every year.
Ideal selection system
Periodic selection system

Thus, felling is done in a coup after a certain number of years, which is equal to the number
of coups. This interval is known as felling cycle, which is defined as the time between two
successive main felling on the same area. The length of the felling cycle affects the
silviculture of species, exploitation of forest, and the nature of crop produced.

Selection forest or all aged forest:


1. The felling and regeneration are distributed over the whole area.
2. Uneven aged - All aged.
3. Regeneration operations are carried out throughout the life of crop.

Conduct of felling: following categories of trees are generally removed.


(1) Dead, dying, diseased, misshapen or otherwise defective trees interfering with the
growth of better trees.
(2) Trees of undesirable species
(3) Immature trees, which can be removed in judicious thinning carried out in different
age classes.
(4) Mature tree of and above the exploitable diameter which will leave gaps for
regeneration to come in
(5) Maintain proper proportion of diameter classes – Maintain reveres ‘J ‘shaped
curve.
Consideration for Application:
(1) Topography
(2) Catchment Areas
(3) Communication
(4) Market Requirement
(5) Silvicultural Considerations
Advantages:
(1) It results in the production of all aged forest. Trees of all ages are mixed together on
each unit of area. Then the growing space and site factors are fully utilized.
(2) By maintaining continuous leaf cover, the selection systems conserves soil and
moisture to the fullest extent possible.
(3) The selection forest produced is most resistant to injuries by insect pests and adverse
climate factors.
(4) It prevents invasion of grass and weeds.
(5) natural regeneration comes up without difficulty due to abundance of seed bearers,
use of every seed year and the protection afforded to seedlings.
(6) The forest regenerate itself continuously, without any time limit.
(7) As the lower age class trees grow below the older trees, the selection system results in
producing more growing stock in large size trees per unit area than the uniform
system.
(8) This is best system of producing large size trees.
(9) It produces a forest which is superior biologically (Bio-diversity) as well as in its
aesthetic and scenic value.
Disadvantages:
(1) Considerable skill is required in carrying out marking and felling to ensure
regeneration to come up in the gaps. This requires knowledge of silviculture of
species.
(2) As the mature trees to be removed are scattered, cost of logging and extraction is
high.
(3) Felling, logging and extraction causes damage to the young crop.
(4) Seed is obtained from good as well as bad trees, there is genetic deterioration of
future crop.
(5) There is much damage to regeneration by grazing.
(6) As the area is extensive, strict fire protection is difficult. Thus accidental fires result
in damaging the new crop.
(7) Success or failure of regeneration is difficult to assess.
(8) In a mixed crop with lower % of valuable species, when valuable sp. are removed
there vacancies are filled up by less valuable species.
(9) Maintaining proper proportion of each diameter classes is very difficult and there will
be Misconception of Reverse J shaped curve.
(10)It is difficult to know exact growing stock, normal distribution of tree sp. and DBH.
(11)Heavy felling.
Coppice Systems
The silvicultural system in which the crop is regenerated mainly from stool coppice and
with short rotation. Reproduction is obtained from the shoots arising from the
adventitious buds of the stump of felled trees.

Types of coppice system:


On the basis of pattern of felling the coppice system is of various types.
1. Simple coppice system.
2. The coppice of two rotation system.
3. The shelterwood coppice system.
4. The coppice with standard system.
5. The coppice with Reserve System.
6. Coppice Selection System.
7. Pollarding

Factors affecting natural regeneration by coppice:


1. Species- coppicing power.
2. Age of tree-pole and young trees.
3. Season of coppicing-before spring.
4. Height of stump-15-25 cm.
5. Rotation-short.
6. Silvicultural system-clear-felling.
Simple coppice system:
The simple coppice system is defined as a silvicultural system based on stool coppice in
which the old crop is clear felled completely with no reservation.
Patter of felling in simple coppice system consists in clear felling a fixed area annually.
Area of coppice coupe = 1/n x total area. Where n is the number of years in rotation.

Season for coppicing:


1. The best season for coppicing is a little before the growth start in spring because at
this time there is a large reserve food material in roots which is utilized by the
coppice shoots.
2. During the dormancy period. (from Nov. – Feb./March)

Method of felling:
1. the stump should neither be too low/high.
2. The lower the stump, the better it is for coppice shoot.
3. but if the trees are cut very low there is a danger of the stump splitting and or drying
up from top.
4. On the other hand, the higher the stumps, the greater the possibility of shoots being
damaged by wind or animals.
5. Stumps are usually kept, 15-25 cm high. (10 cm for eucalyptus)

Precaution during felling:


1. Stump should not split during felling trees.
2. The bark did not get detach from the wood.
3. Stump should slope slightly in one direction.

Tending:
Cleaning is done to remove climbers and inferior sp. and to reduce the no. of shoots to
two or three.

Thinning if necessary is carried out in fifth year and the no. of shoot is reduced to
one/stool. This is called as singling out operation for pole or timber.

Advantage:
1. The system is very simple and does not require any skill in making.
2. The regeneration is more certain.
3. As coppice shoot grow faster in the beginning the cost of weeding, cleaning and
protection is much less than in case of reproduction by seed.
4. The mean annual increment (MAI) of the coppice crop is much higher then that
obtained under high forest.
5. The net returns on investment are relatively higher primarily due to short rotation and
less investment.
6. Although it is shortsighted system but very suitable for producing fuelwood and small
sized timber to fulfill the immediate need of the society.
Disadvantage:
1. The system tends to exhaust mineral substances in the soil.
2. This system is not permanent because the trees can not keep on coppicing
indefinitely.
3. The coppice crop is liable to great damage by frost and wind.
4. This is not a very desirable system from aesthetic point of vies.
5. Risk of site deterioration (Soil erosion, weed invasion etc.)
Coppice with standards system
It is silvicultural system based on coppice in which over wood of standards, usually of
seedling origin and composed of trees of various ages, is kept over coppice for a period
of multiple coppice rotation and as a permanent feature of the crop through out its life.

Purpose of standards:
1. Supply of large size timber
2. Protection against frost
3. Enrichment of coppice
4. To provide seedling regeneration
5. Increase in revenue

Thus, 1) Constitution of crop: lower storey (even aged coppice crop), upper storey (over
wood of standards).
2) Rotation: two rotation- one for coppice and one for standard (multiple of
coppice rotation).

Pattern of felling:
All trees except standards are clear felled and selection of standards depends on

1.Species:
The species of same or different sp. or a mixture of species.

2.Characteristics and quality of standards:


Standards should be as follow
1.most valuable species
2.long, clean bole with light foliage
3.capable of putting on increment and increasing in value
4.wind firm
5.light demanders

3.No. of standards:
Number of standards depend on following
1. Object of mgt.
2. Climatic factors (frost)
3. Silvicultural characteristics of species (light, frost etc.)
- Standards should not occupy more than one third of the canopy (33%)
- The space allotted to the standards is to be properly distributed amongst the
various age classes.

4. Distribution of standards: Uniformly distributed over the whole area.


If .3% of canopy area is occupied by standards and there are three age class present than
each age class will occupy 0.1% of canopy area. It means more no. of trees of lower age
class.
Advantages:
1. There is greater protection to the soil.
2. Advantage of heavy shelterwood felling and selection system.
3. Standards serve as seed bearers and provide seed.
4. The investment is small and the net return is higher.
5. Aesthetically superior than simple coppice.

Disadvantage:
1. It requires great skill in maintaining correct balance between standards and coppice
and between standards of different age classes.
2. This is a combination of simple coppice system and high forest system with the
advantage of none.
3. It has an exhaustive effect on soil.
4. Felling and extraction cost is higher than high forest system.

Conditions of Application of CWS:


1. Where there is demand of firewood, pole, and timber.
2. Where simple coppice is inhibited due to climatic factors and silvicultural
characteristics of species.

C.W. S. Not suitable for:


1. If required no. of standards of desired species are not available.
2. Poles of valuable species have to be coppiced immaturely which can produce large
timber if thinning is done.
3. It does not provide for retention of other trees for economic, silvicultural or
protective consideration, howsoever important and necessary these may be.

Example:

Forest Coppice rotation Standard rotation


1. Sal 30 years 60 years
2. Jamun belt 20 or 30 40 or 60
3. Dry deciduous forest 30 90
4. Anogeissus pendula40 80
FORMULATION OF SILVICULTURAL SYSTEMS

A good silvicultural system is a long-term program of treatment designed to


fit a specific set of circumstances

It is not likely to be something that has already been invented and can
simply be selected from schematic description of silvicultural systems given
in books

In fact there is no cookbook for the application of silvicultural systems. A


silvicultural system evolves over time as circumstance change and
knowledge of them improves.

Formulation of a silvicultural system should start with the analysis of the


natural and socioeconomic factors of the situation

If silvicultural systems are not chosen readymade from a manual or book, it


is logical to examine the various considerations that enter in to their
construction and evolutionary development

In the first place, a rational silvicultural system for a particular stand should
fit logically in to the over all management plan for the forest of which the
stand is a part

Second, it should represent the best possible amalgam of attempts to satisfy


all the following major considerations.

Considerations:
1.Hormony with goals and characteristics of ownership
2.Provision for regeneration
3.Efficient use of growing space and site productivity
4.Control of damaging agencies
5.Provision for sustained yield
6.Optimum use of capital and growing stock
7.Concentration and efficient arrangements of operations
8.Resolution of conflicting objectives
Natural Regeneration

Natural regeneration is defined as the renewal of a forest crop by self-sown


seed or by coppice or root suckers.
It also refers to the crop so obtained.
The natural regeneration can be obtained from the following two source.
1.Natural Regeneration from Seed
2.Natural regeneration from vegetative parts(Coppice)

Natural Regeneration from Seed:


Natural regeneration from seed depends on the following
Seed Production
Seed Dispersal.
Seed Germination
Seedling Establishment

A. Seed Production:
The most important consideration for natural regeneration from seed is the
production of adequate amount of fertile seeds by the trees of the area or in
the vicinity. The production of seed depends on the following
Species, Age of trees, Size of Crown, Climate, and other external factors

1.Species:
All species do not produce seed annually and abundantly.

Some species like Teak, Acacia, and Sissoo etc. Produce seed annually.

While Deodar, Fir and Spruce etc. seed at an interval of years.

The quantity of seed produced by annual seeders varies. This variation in


seed production is the seeding periodicity

Depending on the amount of seed produced, seed years are described as


Good, Moderate, or poor
Moderate and Good seed years of some important species is mentioned as
follows.
Species Moderate Good
Seed years Seed years
Shorea robusta 2 3-5
Terminalia tomentosa 2 3-4
Pinus wallichiana 2 2-3
P. Roxburghi 3 4-5
Cupressus torolosa 3 7-8
Cedrus deodara 3 4-5
Picea smithiana 3 5-6
Abies pindrow 6 10

2. Age of Trees:
The age of trees also affects the production of adequate amount of fertile
seeds
The seed produced by immature and over mature trees are sometimes
infertile

Abundant amount of fertile seeds are produced from middle aged trees.
Abundant amount of fertile seeds is produced by the trees when height
growth is culminated and during this period carbohydrate produced is
translocated to seed formation.

3. Size of Crown:
The size of the crown of trees also affect seed production
As a general rule, the bigger the crown, the larger the seed production

4. Climate:
Climate also affects the seed production. As a general rule warmer climate
favors larger seed production

Hot dry airs are generally followed by heavy seed years on account of
increase in Photosynthesis

Heavy rainstorms at the time of pollen dissemination reduce chances of


pollination and good seed production
Late frost adversely affects seed production.

5. Other external factors:


Injury by fire and insect attack reduces seed production by damaging the
crown

If the damages are only concentrated on barks then it stimulates seed


production by transporting carbohydrate to the seeds and not to the roots

Girdling also favors heavy seeding due to same reason.

B. Seed Dispersal:
The seed produced by the trees is dispersed by the agency of wind, water,
gravity, birds and animals. Some examples of seed dispersal by various
agencies are given below.

Wind: All conifers and several dicots (Acer, Betula, Populus, Alnus , Salix
Terminalia, Dalbrgia, Acacia , Adina and Bombax.

Water: Mangrove , Dalbergia, and Teak.

Bird: Prunus, Mulberry, and Diospyrus

Animals:Acaica arabica, Prosopssis juliflora, Zizyphus, and


Anthocephallus.

Gravity: Oak, Juglans, and Asculus.

C. Seed Germination:
After dispersal insect birds and rodents destroy a lot of seeds. The others
germinate provided they are deposited on suitable soil. Germination of
seeds depends upon several internal and external factors listed below.
Internal Factors:
Permeability to water
Permeability to O2
Development of embryo ( ie.Frixinus floribunda takes one year)
After ripening (ie.Juniperus macropoda)
Viability of Seeds
Size of seeds
Germination capacity
Germination energy

External factors:
Moisture
Air
Temperature
Light (ie. Cassia fistula or Albizzia procera requires light)
Seed Bed

D. Seedling establishment:
Even if germination is good it does not mean that natural regeneration would
be good, because a large number of seedlings die at the end of rains or as a
result of frost during winter or drought during summer. In addition there
may be other factors such as weeds, grazing, fire, which may kill them.

Thus, establishment is defined as the development of new crop ‘naturally or


assisted’ to a stage when the young regeneration ‘natural or artificial’ is
considered safe from normal adverse influences and no longer needs special
protection or tending operation other than cleaning, thinning, and pruning.

The following factors affect establishment of seedlings.


1.Development of root
2.Soil condition
3.Moisture
4.Aeration
5.Nutrients
6.Light
7.Temp.(Frost, Drought)
8.Rainfall.
9.Drip (Slash erosion)
10.Condition of grasses and other competing weeds
11.Grazing, Browsing and Fire
12.Composition of the crop
Natural Regeneration Techniques
1. Seed Supply
2. Soil condition
3. Light requirement
4. Burning
5. Slash disposal
6. Weeding
7. Cleaning
8. Protection
Seed Supply
Clear felling System:
i. From adjacent stands
ii. Seeds already lying dormant on the site
iii. Ripe seeds on the mature tree before felling
iv. Advanced growth already present in the area (site)

Shelterwood System:
The number of seeds required depends on the species
Adina cardifolia 1-2 trees/ha
Shorea robusta 30-40 trees/ha
Pinus roxburghii 12-18 trees/ha on cooler aspect
Pinus roxburghii 20-25 trees/ha on warmer aspect
Pinus wallichiana 25-30 trees/ha
Cedrus deodar 45-50 trees/ha
Picea smithiana 45-50 trees/ha
Abies pindrow 75-87 trees/ha

Selection System:
Abundance of seed bearers and use of every seed year

Light Requirement
Light affects the soil conditions, undergrowth, and seed germination, so adequate light should
reach the forest floor. This is achieved by manipulation of canopy. The requirement of light
varies with species and their variation in light requirement in different conditions and at various
stages of their development.

Light Demander:
Pinus roxburghii, Pinus wallichiana, Populas cilliata, Shorea robusta, Tectona grandis, Dalbergia
sisso, Adina cardifolia, Bombax ceiba, Quercus incana etc.

Shade Bearer:
Picea smithiana, Cedrus deodara, Cupressus torulosa, Quercus glauca, Toona cilliata, Dalbergia
latifolia, Petrocarpus marsupium, Artocarpus sp.

Shade Demander:
Abies pindrow, Taxus buccata, Mallotus phillippinensis, Litsea glutinosa, Syzizium cumini
Light is very important factor in seedling establishment but its requirement varies from species
to species and even in the same species according to climatic conditions and age.
i.e. Teak seedlings must have sufficient light but in dry localities seedlings require protection
from sun.
Sal is able to persist in moderate shade in the beginning but it needs complete overhead light
later.

Soil Condition
Soil moisture affects regeneration. Permeable and non compacted soil is better .

Aeration also affects regeneration. Poor drainage, water logging adversely affects seedling
growth and regeneration

Nutrients: Un-decomposed organic matter thick layer of partly decomposed leaves adversely
affect regeneration.

Control fire (control burning)


Controlled burning is used as a tool to obtain natural regeneration in certain types of Sal, Chir
and Teak forests.

Sal Forest: In the very moist and moist sal forest annual and periodic burning is used to reduce
the density of shrubs and soil moisture and to burn leaf litter to provide clean seed bed for
natural regeneration.

Burning is harmful in dry types of Sal forest.


In Pine Forest controlled burning is done before carrying out seeding felling.
Burning destroys needles and shrubs and provides clean bed.
After a good seed year burning is not done.

The controlled burning is again done when the natural regeneration has reached a size that the
area is to be put outside the regeneration area.

So, before carrying out final felling, the natural regeneration is controlled burn for three years to
harden the natural regeneration against accidental fire. (November or December is suitable for
control burning.)

Teak forest: In moist teak forest controlled burning induces regeneration and suppresses weeds.

Slash disposal
Felling of trees for canopy manipulation or timber harvesting results in leaving large quantities
of slash in the regeneration area. This has to be removed to make the area clean for seed
germination as well as to reduce the hazards from fire, insect and fungi.
1. Slash in relation to forest fire.
2. Effects of slash on regeneration.
3. Effect on soil (decomposition of slash onsite)
4. Slash in relation to insects and fungi
5. Slash in relation to Aesthetics and wildlife.

Methods of Slash disposal:


1. Broadcast burning of slash.
2. Spot burning
3. Lopping and scattering of slash
4. Clipping and Yarding of slash.
Silvicultural Systems Applicable to Important Species
It is not wise to recommend any particular silvicultural system for a species. In fact
silvicultural systems for a particular forest stand should be formulated or selected on the
basis of important silvicultural characteristics of the species, forest condition, forest
owner’s objective of management, and several other consideration described earlier.
However, looking on the important silvicultural characteristics and other considerations
some of the important silvicultural systems, which may be applicable for different forests
in various circumstances is prescribed here.

Sal (Shorea robusta):


Silvicultural Characteristics:
1. Strong Light demander
2. Good coppicer (stems up to 20-30cm in diameter)
1. Seedling die back due to frost, drought, fire, and dense overstorey
2. Annual seeder but good seed years after every 2 years
5. Light winged seeds and seeds dispersed by wind

Silvicultural Systems:
1. Selection system (group selection)
2. Irregular shelterwood system
3. Uniform shelterwood system
4. One cut shelterwood system
5. Clearfelling system (plantation by Taungia)
6. Coppice with standards
7. Coppice with reserves
8. Simple coppice

Khair (Acacia catechu):


Silvicultural characteristics:
1. Strong light demander
2. Seedlings are susceptible to severe frost
3. It is very drought resistant
4. It coppices well unless it is under shade of other species
5. Seeds produced in abundance
6. Seeds dispersed by wind and water
7. It requires protection from grazing and browsing

Silvicultural systems:
1. Clearfelling and plantation
2. Simple coppice
3. Coppice with standards
4. Seed tree method
Sisso (Dalbargia sissoo):
Silvicultural characteristics:
1. It is strong light demander
2. It is good coppicer
3. Annual seeder and seeds produced abundantly
4. Seeds dispersed by wind and water
5. Older seedlings can tolerate mild frost
6. It should be protected against grazing and browsing

Silvicultural systems:
1. Seed tree method
2. Cleaerfelling and plantation by Taungia
3. Two storeyed high forest system
4. Simple coppice
5. Coppice with standards
6. Coppice with two rotation system

Khair and Sisso (Acacia catachu and Dalbergia sissoo):


Silvicultural systems:
1. Coppice with standards
2. Coppice with two rotation
3. Seed tree method
4. Clearfelling and plantation

Chilaune (Schima wallichii):


Silvicultural characteristics:
1. Moderately shade tolerant but later it benefits from full overhead light
2. It is capable of colonizing plantations of other species
3. It is not frost hardy
4. It coppices very well
5. Good seed year are frequent
6. Winged light seeds dispersed by wind
Silvicultural systems:
1. Simple coppice
2. Coppice with two rotation
3. Coppice with standards
4. Selection coppice
5. Selection System
Katus (Castanopsis species):
Silvicultural characteristics:
1. Moderately shade tolerant
2. It benefits from overhead light in later stage
3. It is frost hardy(C. Hystrix)
4. Young seedlings are frost tender(C. Tribuloides)
5. It coppices well
Silvicultural systems:
1. Simple coppice
2. Coppice with two rotation
3. Coppice with standard
4. Selection coppice
5. Selection System

Asna (Terminalia tomentosa):


Silvicultural characteristics:
1. It is light demander
2. Seedlings can withstand moderately side shade but are killed by heavy shade
3. Seedlings are often killed back by frost
4. The tree is fairly tolerant to fire damage
5. It coppices well(up to 40cm. in diameter)

Silvicultural systems:
1. Single tree selection
2. Coppice with standards
3. Coppice with reserves
4. Shelterwood system

Oaks (Quercus species):


Silvicultural characteristics:
1. Tolerate shade when young
2. Seedlings are very shade tolerant(Q. incana)
3. Early frost kills seedlings
4. Seedlings frost resistant(Q. lamelosa and Q. semicarpifolia)
5. Growth of older trees is better in the open
6. It coppices well but above 10cm. diameter coppicing power reduces(Q. floribunda)
7. Seeds (Acorns) are large and have limited distribution by gravity
Silvicultural systems:
1. Simple coppice system
2. Coppice with standards
3. Coppice with two rotation
4. Selection coppice
5. Uniform shelterwood system
Chirpine (Pinus roxberghii):
Silvicultural characteristics:
1. Strong light demander
2. Seedlings require full overhead light
3. Seedlings are reasonably frost hardy
4. It is very fire resistant species
5. Seedlings over one year old killed by fire will send up new shoots
6. Abundant seed production but good seed years come after every 4-5 years
7. Seeds are light and dispersed by wind
8. Certain ability to coppice when small trees are felled but it is of little importance

Silvicultural systems:
1. Seed tree method
2. Uniform or irrefgular shelterwood system
3. Group selection
4. Clearfelling with advanced regeneration/One cut Shelterwood

Bluepine (Pinus wallichiana):


Silvicultural characteristics:
1. Strong light demander
2. Seedlings are frost hardy
3. Less fire resistant than P. Roxburghii
4. Small seedlings may suffer from drought after and before mansoon
5. Seedlings will persist for some year under moderate shade but for good development
full light is needed
6. It regenerates profusely where conditions are favorable
7. Abundant seed production but good seed years come after every 2-3 years
8. Light seeds and seeds dispersed by wind fairly to large distance up to 200m or more

Silvicultural systems:
1. Seed tree method
2. Uniform or irregular shelterwood system
3. Group selection
4. Clear felling with advanced regeneration.

Fir (Abies species):


Silvicultural characteristics:
1. It is highly shade tolerant
2. Prefer cool moist habitat
3. Tolerant to frost and snow
4. Very sensitive to fire
5. Seeds dispersed by wind(winged seeds)
6. Good seed years after every 3-4 years in A. Spectabilis and about 10 years in A.
Pindrow

Silvicultural systems:
1. Single tree selection
2. Irregular sheterwood system
3. Uniform shelterwood system (75-87 seed trees/ha.)
Spruce (Picea smithiana):
Silvicultural characteristics:
1. Shade bearer
2. Seeds dispersed by wind
3. Young seedlings do not suffer from frost
4. More of a pioneer often associated with blue pine

Silvicultural systems:
1. Single tree selection
2. Irregular shelterwood system
3. Uniform shelterwood system (45-50 seed trees / ha.)

Deodar (Cedrus deodara):


Silvicultural characteristics:
1. Shade bearer and young seedlings benefit from side shade
2. Winged seeds dispersed by wind
3. Young seedlings do not suffer from frost
4. Very sensitive to fire
5. Good seed years after every 3 years
6. Most of the seeds fall close to the parent tree
7. Profuse regeneration in favorable sites

Silvicultural systems:
4. Single tree selection
5. Irregular shelterwood system
6. Uniform shelterwood system (45-50 seed trees / ha.)
Choice of silvicultural systems and their application procedure (Thompsom, 1990).

Do the management objectives (user identified)


includes pole or timber production?

NO YES

Simple Are foliage and small


Coppice fuel important?

YES NO

Coppice with High


Standards Forest
Decision making procedure for choosing a system
In this first stage one can identify the main system for the area. As management
continues this decision may be altered or there may be an inherent trend from one system
to another depending on access and the supply: demand situation for different products.

a) Simple coppice system

Simple coppice

Harvesting Regeneration

Is the regeneration low?


Has the canopy (< 1 stool in 10m2)
closed

NO YES NO YES

Only general Fell stand Is there a need Take measure


treatment with the to alter the for regeneration
harvest split species These may
Over two composition include
years protection,
opening of gaps
in the canopy,
NO YES direct sowing,
No special regeneration and ground
measures required working or
planting
(b) Coppice with Standard:

Coppice with
standards

Harvesting Regeneration

Is the canopy closed? Is the stocking low?


( <1 stool in 10m2 )

NO Yes

Only general Select standards to occupy a Yes


treatment maximum of 33% canopy No
cover. Treat the felled stools as
simple coppice.

Is there a need to
Do you want free access for alter the species
user selection of standards? composition?

Yes No No Yes

Select by species; Select by species and No special Take


gives irregular spacing; gives measures measures for
distribution of regular distribution required regeneration
standards of standards

Do the standards occupy more


than the chosen canopy closure
percentage

No Yes

General treatment Have the standards


only reached final timber
size?

Main canopy cover


Yes No at chosen percentage

Fell the Do you want to spread


the yield or keep Clear-fell the
standards in Yes No standards
groups reserve ?
C. High Fore
C. High Forest Systems:

High forest
system

Is the canopy closed? Is the site occupancy low or patchy?

No Yes
No Yes

Is there a need to alter the


Only general Identify species composition?
treatment desired stems

No Yes

Take measure for


Have about 25% of the stems No special regeneration
reached final timber size? measures required

No Yes

Maintain complete
crown access to Is there regeneration
direct light for of desired species
desired stems Present?

No
Yes

Initiate regeneration Initiate timber


felling harvest

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