HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL 820-1

September 1, 2006

on spread footings with the streambed serving as

CHAPTER 820 the bottom of the culvert.
CROSS DRAINAGE Bridges are not designed to take advantage of
submergence to increase hydraulic capacity even
Topic 821 - General though some are designed to be inundated under
flood conditions. For economic and hydraulic
Index 821.1 - Introduction efficiency, culverts should be designed to operate
with the inlets submerged during flood flows, if
Cross drainage involves the conveyance of surface conditions permit. At many locations, either a
water and stream flow across or from the highway bridge or a culvert will fulfill both the structural
right of way. This is accomplished by providing and hydraulic requirements of the stream crossing.
either a culvert or a bridge to convey the flow from Structure choice at these locations should be based
one side of the roadway to the other side or past on construction and maintenance costs, risk of
some other type of flow obstruction. failure, risk of property damage, traffic safety, and
In addition to the hydraulic function, a culvert must environmental and aesthetic considerations.
carry construction and highway traffic and earth Culverts are usually considered minor structures,
loads. Culvert design, therefore, involves both but they are of great importance to adequate
hydraulic and structural design. This section of the drainage and the integrity of the highway facility.
manual is basically concerned with the hydraulic Although the cost of individual culverts is
design of culverts. Both the hydraulic and relatively small, the cumulative cost of culvert
structural designs must be consistent with good construction constitutes a substantial share of the
engineering practice and economics. An itemized total cost of highway construction. Similarly, the
listing of good drainage design objectives and cost of maintaining highway drainage features is
economic factors to be considered are listed in substantial, and culvert maintenance is a large
Index 801.4. Information on strength require- share of these costs. Improved service to the
ments, height of fill tables, and other physical public and a reduction in the total cost of highway
characteristics of alternate culvert shapes and construction and maintenance can be achieved by
materials may be found in Chapter 850, Physical judicious choice of design criteria and careful
Standards. attention to the hydraulic design of each culvert.
More complete information on hydraulic principles
and engineering techniques of culvert design may 821.2 Hydrologic Considerations
be found in the FHWA Hydraulic Design Series Before the hydraulic design of a culvert or bridge
No. 5, "Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts". can begin, the design discharge, the quantity (Q) of
Key aspects of culvert design and a good overview water in cubic feet per second, that the facility may
of the subject are more fully discussed in the reasonably be expected to convey must be
AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines. estimated. The most important step is to establish
Structures measuring more than 20 feet along the the appropriate design storm or flood frequency for
roadway centerline are conventionally classified as the specific site and prevailing conditions. Refer to
bridges, assigned a bridge number, and maintained Chapter 810, Hydrology and specifically Topics
and inspected by the Division of Structures. 818 and 819 for useful information on hydrological
However, some structures classified as bridges are analysis methods and considerations.
designed hydraulically and structurally as culverts. When empirical methods are used to estimate the
Some examples are certain multi-barreled box peak rate of runoff, design Q, for important
culverts and arch culverts. Culverts, as distin- culverts, it is recommended that at least two
guished from bridges, are usually covered with methods be tried. By comparing results a more
embankment and have structural material around reliable discharge estimate for the drainage basin
the entire perimeter, although some are supported may be obtained. This is more important for large
820-2 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL
October 4, 2010

basins having areas in excess of 320 acres than for The designer must use discretion in applying the
small basins. above criteria. Design floods selected on this basis
may not be the most appropriate for specific
821.3 Selection of Design Flood project site locations or conditions. The cost of
providing facilities to pass peak discharges
As discussed in Index 818.2, there are two
suggested by these criteria need to be balanced
recognized alternatives to selecting the design
against potential damage to the highway and
flood frequency (probability of exceedance) in the
adjacent properties upstream and downstream of
hydraulic design of bridges and culverts. They are:
the site. The selection of a design flood with a
• By policy - using a preselected recurrence lesser or greater peak discharge may be warranted
interval. and justified by economic analysis. A more
• By analysis - using the recurrence interval frequent design flood than a 4% probability of
that is most cost effective and best satisfies exceedance (25-year) should not be used for the
the specific site conditions and associated hydraulic design of culverts under freeways and
risks. other highways of major importance.
Alternatively, where predictive data is limited, or
Although either of these alternatives may be used
where the risks associated with drainage facility
exclusive of the other, in actual practice both
failure are high, the greatest flood of record or
alternatives are often considered and used jointly
other suitably large event should be evaluated by
to select the flood frequency for hydraulic design.
the designer.
For culverts and bridges, apply the following
general rules for first consideration in the process When channels or drainage facilities under the
for ultimate selection of the design flood. jurisdiction of local flood control agencies or
Corps of Engineers are involved, the design flood
(1) Bridges. The basic rule for the hydraulic must be determined through negotiations with the
design of bridges (but not including those agencies involved.
culvert structures that meet the definition of a
bridge) is that they should pass a 2 percent 821.4 Headwater and Tailwater
probability flood (50-year). Freeboard, vertical (1) Headwater. The term, headwater, refers to the
clearance between the lowest structural depth of the upstream water surface measured
member and the water surface elevation of the from the invert of the culvert entrance. Any
design flood, sufficient to accommodate the culvert which constricts the natural stream
effects of bedload and debris should be flow will cause a rise in the upstream water
provided. Alternatively, a waterway area surface.
sufficient to pass the 1 percent probability It is not always economical or practical to
flood without freeboard should be provided. utilize all the available head. This applies
Two feet of freeboard is often assumed for particularly to situations where debris must
preliminary bridge designs. The effects of pass through the culvert, where a headwater
bedload and debris should be considered in the pool cannot be tolerated, or where the natural
design of the bridge waterway. gradient is steep and high outlet velocities are
(2) Culverts. There are two primary design objectionable.
frequencies that should be considered: The available head may be limited by the fill
• A 10% probability flood (10-year) without height, damage to the highway facility, or the
causing the headwater elevation to rise effects of ponding on upstream property. The
above the inlet top of the culvert and, extent of ponding should be brought to the
attention of all interested functions, including
• A 1% probability flood (100-year) with-out
Project Development, Maintenance, and Right
headwaters rising above an elevation that
of Way.
would cause objectionable backwater
depths or outlet velocities. Full use of available head may develop some
vortex related problems and also develop
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July 1, 2015

objectionable velocities resulting in abrasion of (b) If FEMA models/studies are not available,
the culvert itself or in downstream erosion. In base design on the more severe of the two
most cases, provided the culvert is not flowing following conditions:
under pressure, an increase in the culvert size
• Q100 flood event combined with a
does not appreciably change the outlet
condition of mean sea level, or
velocities.
• Q2 flood event combined with a
(2) Tailwater. The term, tailwater, refers to the
condition of Design High Tide (See
water located just downstream from a
Figure 873.2A)
structure. Its depth or height is dependent
upon the downstream topography and other See Index 814.5 for resources on tide data. Tidal
influences. High tailwater could submerge the data includes the influence of storm surge as part
culvert outlet. of the tidal record, but does not account for waves,
run-up or other wind driven elements that could
821.5 Effects of Tide, Storm Surge and impact structures. From a conveyance perspective,
Wind waves and run-up are not a consideration, but
should be considered for their respective impacts to
Culvert outfalls and bridge openings located where
the physical integrity of the drainage structure and
they may be influenced by ocean tides require
for potential operational impacts to the highway.
special attention to adequately describe the 1%
probability of exceedance event.
Topic 822 - Debris Control
Detailed statistical analysis and use of unsteady
flow models, including two-dimensional models,
provide the most accurate approach to describing 822.1 Introduction
the combined effects of tidal and meteorological Debris, if allowed to accumulate either within a
events. Such special studies are likely warranted culvert or at its inlet, can adversely affect the
for major hydraulic structures (See HEC-25, hydraulic performance of the facility. Damage to
“Highways in the Coastal Environment”), but the roadway and to upstream property may result
would typically be too costly and time consuming from debris obstructing the flow into the culvert.
for lesser facilities. Fortunately, for many Coordination with district maintenance forces can
situations, this detailed analysis already exists in help in identifying areas with high debris potential
the form of FEMA hydraulic models which include and in setting requirements for debris removal
tidal impacts at stream/ocean confluences. where necessary.
For all situations, the following guidelines are The use of any device that can trap debris must be
recommended: thoroughly examined prior to its use. In addition to
(1) Bridges the more common problem of debris accumulation
at the culvert entrance, the use of safety end grates
(a) If available, use information contained in or other appurtenances can also lead to debris
FEMA hydraulic studies. accumulation within the culvert at the outlet end.
(b) If FEMA models/studies are not available, Evaluation of this possibility, and appropriate
conduct site specific analysis of tidal data preventive action, must be made if such end
in conjunction with meteorological storm treatment is proposed.
data to arrive at the exceedance probability 822.2 Debris Control Methods
necessary for design (See Index 821.3).
There are two methods of handling debris:
(2) Culverts
(1) Passing Through Culvert. If economically
(a) If available, use information contained in feasible, culverts should be designed to pass
FEMA hydraulic studies. debris. Culverts which pass debris often have
a higher construction cost. On the other hand,
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retaining solids upstream from the entrance by debris control structures after problems develop.
means of a debris control structure often An assessment of potential damage due to debris
involves substantial maintenance cost and clogging if protection is not provided should be the
could negatively affect fish passage. An basis of design.
economic comparison which includes
evaluation of long term maintenance costs 822.4 Classification of Debris
should be made to determine the most
In order to properly determine methods for debris
reasonable and cost effective method of
control, an evaluation of the characteristics of
handling.
debris within flood flows must be made. Debris
(2) Interception. If it is not economical to pass can be either floating, suspended in the flood flow,
debris, it should be retained upstream from the or dragged/rolled along the channel bottom.
entrance by means of a debris control structure Typically, a flood event will deposit debris from all
or the use of a debris basin when the facility is of these types.
located in the vicinity of alluvial fans.
The FHWA Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 9
If drift and debris are retained upstream, a riser contains a debris classification system to aid the
or chimney may be required. This is a vertical designer in selecting the appropriate type of debris
extension to the culvert which provides relief control structure.
when the main entrance is plugged. The
increased head should not be allowed to 822.5 Types of Debris Control Structures
develop excessive velocities or cause pressure
The FHWA Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 9,
which might induce leakage in the culvert.
"Debris-Control Structures", shows types of debris
If debris control structures are used, access control structures and provides a guide for
must be provided for maintenance equipment selecting the type of structure suitable for various
to reach the site. This can best be handled by debris classifications.
coordination and field review with district
maintenance staff. Details of a pipe riser with
Topic 823 - Culvert Location
debris rack cage are shown on Standard Plan
D93C. See FHWA Hydraulic Engineering
Circular No. 9, "Debris-Control Structures" for 823.1 Introduction
further information. The culvert usually should be located so that the
The use of an upstream debris basin and thalweg of the stream to be accommodated,
downstream concrete lined channels, has often approaches and exits at the approximate centerline
been used by Local Agencies for managing of the culvert. However, for economic reasons, as a
flood flows on alluvial fans in urbanized areas. general rule, small skews should be eliminated,
Experience has shown that this approach is moderate skews retained and large skews reduced.
effective, however, the costs of building and Since the culvert typically acts as a constriction,
maintaining such facilities is high with a local velocities will increase through the barrel and
potential for sediment inflows greater than in the vicinity of the outlet. The location and
anticipated. design must be also sensitive to the environment
The District Hydraulics Engineer should be (fish passage etc).
consulted if a debris basin is being considered As a general rule, flood waters should be
for interception in the vicinity of an alluvial conducted under the highway at first opportunity
fan. minimizing scour of embankment and entrapment
of debris. Therefore, culverts should be placed at
822.3 Economics each defined swale to limit carryover of drainage
Debris problems do not occur at all suspected from one watershed to another.
locations. It is often more economical to construct
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823.2 Alignment and Slope (c) In steep sloping areas such as on hillsides,
the overfill heights can be reduced by
The ideal culvert placement is on straight
designing the culvert on a slope flatter than
alignment and constant slope. Variations from a
natural slope. However, a slope should be
straight alignment should be only to accommodate
used to maintain a velocity sufficient to
unusual conditions. Where conditions require
carry the bedload. A spillway or
deviations from the tangent alignment, abrupt
downdrain can be provided at the outlet.
changes in direction or slope should be avoided in
Outlet protection should be provided to
order to maintain the hydraulic efficiency, and
prevent undermining. For the downdrain
avoid excessive maintenance. Angle points may be
type of installation, consideration must be
permissible in the absence of abrasives in the flow;
given to anchorage. This design is
otherwise, curves should be used. When angle
appropriate only where substantial savings
points are unavoidable, maintenance access may be
will be realized.
necessary. See Index 838.5 for manhole location
criteria.
Topic 824 - Culvert Type Selection
Curvature in pipe culverts is obtained by a series of
angle points. Whenever conditions require these
angle points in culvert barrels, the number of angle 824.1 Introduction
points must be specified either in the plans or in A culvert is a hydraulically short conduit which
the special provisions. The angle can vary conveys stream flow through a roadway
depending upon conditions at the site, hydraulic embankment or past some other type of flow
requirements, and purpose of the culvert. The obstruction. Culverts are constructed from a
angle point requirement is particularly pertinent if variety of materials and are available in many
there is a likelihood that structural steel plate pipe different shapes and configurations. Culvert
will be used. The structural steel plate pipe selection factors include roadway profiles, channel
fabricator must know what the required miters are characteristics, flood damage evaluations,
in order for the plates to be fabricated construction and maintenance costs, and estimates
satisfactorily. Manufacturers' literature should be of service life.
consulted to be sure that what is being specified
can be fabricated without excessive cost. 824.2 Shape and Cross Section
Ordinarily the grade line should coincide with the (1) Numerous cross-sectional shapes are available.
existing streambed. Deviations from this practice The most commonly used shapes include
are permissible under the following conditions: circular, box (rectangular), elliptical, pipe-arch,
(a) On flat grades where sedimentation may and arch. The shape selection is based on the
occur, place the culvert inlet and outlet cost of construction, the limitation on upstream
above the streambed but on the same slope. water surface elevation, roadway embankment
The distance above the streambed depends height, and hydraulic performance.
on the size length and amount of sediment (2) Multiple Barrels. In general, the spacing of
anticipated. pipes in a multiple installation, measured
If possible, a slope should be used that is between outside surfaces, should be at least
sufficient to develop self-cleaning half the nominal diameter with a minimum of 2
velocities. feet.

(b) Under high fills, anticipate greater See Standard Plan D89 for multiple pipe
settlement under the center than the sides headwall details.
of the fill. Where settlement is anticipated, Additional clearance between pipes is required
provisions should be made for camber. to accommodate flared end sections. See
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Standard Plans, D94A & B for width of flared and subcritical flow within the culvert
end sections. barrel. However, it is possible for the
culvert to function with an unsubmerged
Topic 825 - Hydraulic Design of outlet under outlet control where flow
passes through critical depth in the vicinity
Culverts of the outlet.
For each type of control, different factors and
825.1 Introduction
formulas are used to compute the hydraulic
After the design discharge, (Q), has been estimated, capacity of a culvert. Under inlet control, the cross
the conveyance of this water must be investigated. sectional area of the culvert, inlet geometry, and
This aspect is referred to as hydraulic design. elevation of headwater at entrance are of primary
The highway culvert is a special type of hydraulic importance. Outlet control involves the additional
structure. An exact theoretical analysis of culvert consideration of the tailwater elevation of the
flow is extremely complex because the flow is outlet channel and the slope, roughness and length
usually non-uniform with regions of both gradually of the culvert barrel. A discussion of these two
varying and rapidly varying flow. Hydraulic jumps types of control with charts for selecting a culvert
often form inside or downstream of the culvert size for a given set of conditions is included in the
barrel. As the flow rate and tailwater elevations FHWA Hydraulic Design Series No. 5, "Hydraulic
change, the flow type within the barrel changes. Design of Highway Culverts."
An exact hydraulic analysis therefore involves 825.3 Computer Programs
backwater and drawdown calculations, energy and
momentum balance, and application of the results Numerous calculator and computer programs are
of hydraulic studies. available to aid in the design and analysis of
highway culverts. The major advantages of these
An extensive hydraulic analysis is usually programs over the traditional hand calculation
impractical and not warranted for the design of method are:
most highway culverts. The culvert design
procedures presented herein and in the referenced • Increased accuracy over charts and
publications are accurate, in terms of head, to nomographs.
within plus or minus 10 percent. • Rapid comparison of alternative sizes and
inlet configurations.
825.2 Culvert Flow
Familiarity with culvert hydraulics and traditional
The types of flow and control used in the design of methods of solution is necessary to provide a solid
highway culverts are: basis for designers to take advantage of the speed,
• Inlet Control - Most culverts operate under accuracy, and increased capabilities of hydraulic
inlet control which occurs when the culvert design computer programs.
barrel is capable of carrying more flow The hydraulic design calculator and computer
than the inlet will accept. Supercritical programs available from the FHWA are more fully
flow is usually encountered within the described in HDS No. 5, "Hydraulic Design of
culvert barrel. When the outlet is Highway Culverts."
submerged under inlet control, a hydraulic
The HY8 culvert hydraulics program provides
jump will occur within the barrel.
interactive culvert analysis. Given all of the
• Outlet Control - Outlet control occurs appropriate data, the program will compute the
when the culvert barrel is not capable of culvert hydraulics for circular, rectangular,
conveying as much flow as the inlet will elliptical, arch, and user-defined culverts.
accept. Culverts under outlet control
The logic of HY8 involves calculating the inlet and
generally function with submerged outlets
outlet control headwater elevations for the given
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flow. The elevations are then compared and the End treatment, either flared end section or
larger of the two is used as the controlling headwall, is required for circular culverts 60 inches
elevation. In cases where the headwater elevation or more in diameter and for pipe arches of
is greater than the top elevation of the roadway equivalent size.
embankment, an overtopping analysis is done in
which flow is balanced between the culvert 826.3 Conventional Entrance Designs
discharge and the surcharge over the roadway. In
The inlet edge configuration is one of the prime
the cases where the culvert is not full for any part
factors influencing the hydraulic performance of a
of its length, open channel computations are
culvert operating in inlet control. The following
performed.
entrance types are frequently used.
825.4 Coefficient of Roughness (1) Projecting Barrel. A thin edge projecting inlet
can cause a severe contraction of the flow.
Suggested Manning's n values for culvert design
The effective cross sectional area of the barrel
are given in Table 852.1.
may be reduced to about one half the actual
available barrel area.
Topic 826 - Entrance Design The projecting barrel has no end treatment and
is the least desirable hydraulically. It is
826.1 Introduction economical but its appearance is not pleasing
The size and shape of the entrance are among the and use should be limited to culverts with low
factors that control the level of ponding at the velocity flows where head conservation, traffic
entrance. Devices such as rounded or beveled lips safety, and appearance are not important
and expanded entrances help maintain the velocity considerations.
of approach, increase the culvert capacity, and may Typical installations include an equalizer
lower costs by permitting a smaller sized culvert to culvert where ponding beyond the control of
be used. the highway facility occurs on both sides of the
The inherent characteristics of common entrance highway or where the flow is too small to fill
treatments are discussed in Index 826.4. End the minimum culvert opening.
treatment on large culverts is an important The projecting entrance inhibits culvert
consideration. Selecting an appropriate end efficiency. In some situations, the outlet end
treatment for a specific type of culvert and location may project beyond the fill, thus providing
requires the application of sound engineering security against erosion at less expense than
judgment. bank protection work.
The FHWA Hydraulic Design Series No. 5, Projecting ends may prove a maintenance
"Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts" combines nuisance, particularly when clearance to right
culvert design information previously contained in of way fence is limited.
HEC No. 5, No. 10, and No. 13. The hydraulic
performance of various entrance types is described (2) Flared End Sections. This end treatment
in HDS No. 5. provides approximately the same hydraulic
performance as a square-edge headwall and is
826.2 End Treatment Policy used to retain the embankment, improve the
The recommended end treatment for small culverts aesthetics, and enhance safety. Because
is the prefabricated flared end section. For safety, prefabricated flared end sections provide better
aesthetic, and economic reasons, flared end traffic safety features and are considered more
sections should be used at both entrance and outlet attractive than headwalls they are to be used
whenever feasible instead of headwalls. instead of headwalls whenever feasible.
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Details of prefabricated flared end sections for (1) Expanded Entrances. Headwalls with straight
circular pipe in sizes 12 inches through flared wingwalls or warped wingwalls offer a
84 inches in diameter and pipe arches of more highly developed entrance appropriate
equivalent size are shown on Standard Plans for large culverts, regardless of type or shape
D94A & B. of barrel. The effect of such entrances can be
approximated more economically by a shaped
(3) Headwalls and Wingwalls. This end treatment
entrance using air blown mortar, concreted
may be required at the culvert entrance for the
riprap, sacked concrete or slope paving.
following reasons:
Straight flared wingwalls and warped
• To improve hydraulic efficiency.
wingwalls aid in maintaining the approach
• To retain the embankment and reduce velocity, align and guide drift, and funnel the
erosion of slopes. flow into the culvert entrance. To insure
enough velocity to carry drift and debris
• To provide structural stability to the
through the culvert or increase the velocity and
culvert ends and serve as a counterweight
thereby increase the entrance capacity, a
to offset buoyant or uplift forces.
sloping drop down apron at the entrance may
(4) Rounded Lip. This treatment costs little, be used. To minimize snagging drift, the
smoothes flow contraction, increases culvert standard plans require wingwalls to be flush
capacity, and reduces the level of ponding at with the culvert barrel. The flare angle may
the entrance. The box culvert and pipe range from 30 to 75 degrees; the exact angle is
headwall standard plans include a rounded lip. based on the alignment of the approach
The rounded lip is omitted for culverts less channel banks and not the axis of the culvert.
than 48 inches in diameter; however, the Greater efficiency is obtained when the top of
beveled groove end of concrete pipe at the the wingwall is the same elevation as the
entrance produces an effect similar to that of a headwall.
rounded lip.
Whether warped or straight flared wingwalls
(5) Mitered End. A mitered culvert end is formed are used depends on the shape of the approach
when the culvert barrel is cut to conform with channel. Straight flared wingwalls are
the plane of the embankment slope. Mitered appropriate for well defined channels with
entrances are not to be used. They are steep banks. Warped wingwalls are more
hydraulically less efficient than either flared suited to shallow trapezoidal approach
end sections or headwalls, and they are channels.
structurally unstable.
Usually it is more economical to transition
(6) Entrance Risers. At a location where the between the stream section and the culvert by
culvert would be subject to plugging, a vertical means of straight flared wingwalls or warped
pipe riser should be considered. Refer to Index wingwalls than to expand the culvert barrel at
822.2 for discussion on debris-control entrance. For a very wide channel, this
structures. transition may be combined with riprap, dikes,
or channel lining extending upstream to
826.4 Improved Inlet Designs complete the transition.
Entrance geometry refinements can be used to (2) Transitions. Elaborate transitions and throated
reduce the flow contraction at the inlet and openings for culverts may be warranted in
increase the capacity of culverts operating under special cases. Generally a highly developed
inlet control without increasing the headwater entrance is unnecessary if the shape of the
depth. The following entrance types improve culvert fits the approach channel. In wide flat
culvert inlet performance and can be provided at channels where ponding at entrance must be
reasonable cost. restricted, a wide shallow structure or multiple
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conduit should be used if drift and debris are "Design of Riprap Revetment", No. 14, "Hydraulic
not a problem. Design of Energy Dissipators for Culverts and
Channels", and No. 15, "Design of Roadway
Throated or tapered barrels at entrance are
Channels with Flexible Linings", and "Hydraulic
more vulnerable to clogging by debris. They
Design of Stilling Basins and Energy Dissipators",
are not economical unless they are used for
Engineering Monograph No. 25 by the U. S.
corrective measures; for example, where there
Department of Interior, Bureau of Reclamation,
is a severe restriction in right of way width and
1964 (revised 1978). HY-8, within the Hydrain
it is necessary to increase the capacity of an
Integrated Computer Program System, provides
existing culvert structure.
designs for energy dissipators and follows the
For further information refer to HEC-9, HEC-14 method for design.
"Debris-Control Structures" and HDS 5,
Culvert outlet design should provide a transition
"Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts"
for the 100-year flood or design event from the
culvert outlet to a section in the natural channel
Topic 827 - Outlet Design where natural stage, width, and velocity will be
restored, or nearly so, with consideration of
827.1 General stability and security of the natural channel bed
and banks against scour.
The outlet velocity of highway culverts is usually
higher than the maximum natural stream velocity. If an outfall structure is required for transition,
This higher velocity can cause streambed scour and typically it will not have the same design as the
bank erosion for a limited distance downstream entrance.
from the culvert outlet. Wingwalls, if intended for an outlet transition
The slope and roughness of the culvert barrel are (expansion), generally should not flare at an angle
the principle factors affecting outlet velocity. The (in degrees) greater than 150 divided by the outlet
shape and size of a culvert seldom have a velocity in feet per second. However, transition
significant effect on the outlet velocity. When the designs fall into two general categories: those
outlet velocity is believed to be excessive and it applicable to culverts in outlet control (subcritical
cannot be satisfactorily reduced by adjusting the flow) or those applicable to culverts in inlet control
slope or barrel roughness, it may be necessary to (supercritical). The procedure outlined in HEC-14
use some type of outlet protection or energy for subcritical flow expansion design should also
dissipator. A method of predicting and analyzing be used for supercritical flow expansion design if
scour conditions is given in the FHWA publication the culvert exit Froude number (Fr) is less than 3,
"Scour at Culvert Outlets in Mixed Bed Materials", if the location where the flow conditions desired is
FHWA/RD - 82/011. within 3 culvert diameters of the outlet, and if the
slope is less than 10 percent. For supercritical flow
When dealing with erosive velocities at the outlet, expansions outside these limits, the energy
the effect on downstream property should be equation can be used to determine flow conditions
evaluated. leaving the transition.
827.2 Embankment Protection Warped endwalls can be designed to fit trapezoidal
or U-shaped channels, as transitions for moderate-
Improved culvert outlets are designed to restore to-high velocity (10 feet per second – 18 feet per
natural flow conditions downstream. Where second).
erosion is to be expected, corrective measures such
as bank protection, vertical flared wingwalls, For extreme velocity (exceeding 18 feet per
warped wingwalls, transitions, and energy second) the transition can be shortened by using an
dissipators may be considered. See Chapter 870, energy-dissipating structure.
"Channel and Shore Protection-Erosion Control",
FHWA Hydraulic Engineering Circulars No. 11,
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• For fills higher than 12 feet, add 1 foot of

Topic 828 - Diameter and Length length at each end for each 10 foot
increment of fill height or portion thereof.
828.1 Introduction The additional length should not exceed
6 feet on each end.
From a maintenance point of view the minimum
diameter of pipe and the distance between • In cases of high fills with benches, the
convenient cleanout access points are important additional length is based on the height of
considerations. the lowest bench.
The following instructions apply to minimum pipe (c) Use the nearest combination of commercial
diameter and the length of pipe culvert. lengths which equal or exceed the length
obtained in (b) above.
828.2 Minimum Diameter
The minimum diameter for cross culverts under the Topic 829 - Special
roadway is 18 inches. For other than cross pipes, Considerations
the minimum diameter is 12 inches. For
maintenance purposes, where the slope of
829.1 Introduction
longitudinal side drains is not sufficient to produce
self-cleaning velocities, pipe sizes of 18 inches or In addition to the hydraulic design, other factors
more in diameter should be considered. must be considered to assure the integrity of
The minimum diameter of pipe to be used is further culvert installations and the highway.
determined by the length of pipe between
convenient cleanout access points. If pipe runs 829.2 Bedding and Backfill
exceed 100 feet between inlet and outlet, or The height of overfill a culvert will safely sustain
intermediate cleanout access, the minimum depends upon foundation conditions, method of
diameter of pipe to be used is 24 inches. When installation, and its structural strength and rigidity.
practicable, intermediate cleanout points should be
provided for runs of pipe 24 inches in diameter that Uniform settlement under both the culvert and the
exceed 300 feet in length. adjoining fill will not overstress flexible and
segmental rigid culverts. Unequal settlement,
If a choice is to be made between using 18-inch however, can result in distortion and shearing
diameter pipe with an intermediate cleanout in the action in the culvert. For rigid pipes this could
highway median or using 24-inch diameter pipe result in distress and disjointing of the pipe. A
without the median access, the larger diameter pipe flexible culvert accommodates itself to moderate
without the median access is preferred. unequal settlements but is also subject to shearing
action. Monolithic culverts can tolerate only a
828.3 Length minimal amount of unequal settlement, and require
The length of pipe culvert to be installed is favorable foundation conditions. Any unequal
determined as follows: settlement would subject a monolithic culvert to
severe shear stresses.
(a) Establish a theoretical length based on slope
stake requirements making allowance for end (1) Foundation Conditions. A slightly yielding
treatment. foundation under both the culvert and
adjoining fill is the foundation condition
(b) Adjust the theoretical length for height of fill generally encountered. The maximum height
by applying these rules: of cover tables given in Chapter 850 are based
• For fills 12 feet or less, no adjustment is on this foundation condition.
required.
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Unyielding foundation conditions can produce For culverts where overfill requirements
high stresses in the culverts. Such stresses may exceed the limits shown on the tables a special
be counteracted by subexcavation and backfill. design must be prepared. Special designs are
to be submitted to the Division of Structures
The Standard Plans show details for shaped,
for review, or the Division of Structures may
sand, and soil cement bedding treatments.
be directly requested to prepare the design.
Foundation materials capable of supporting
Under any of the following conditions, the
pressures between 1.0 tons per square foot and
Division of Structures is to prepare the special
8.0 tons per square foot are required for
design:
culverts with cast-in-place footing or inverts,
such as reinforced concrete boxes, arches, and • Where foundation material will not support
structural plate arches. When culvert footing footing pressure shown on the Standard
pressures exceed 1.5 tons per square foot or the Plans for concrete arch and structural plate
diameter or span exceeds 10 feet, a geology vehicular undercrossings.
report providing a log of test boring is
required. • Where foundation material will not support
footing pressures shown in the Highway
Adverse foundation and backfill conditions Design Manual for structural plate pipe
may require a specially designed structure. arches or corrugated metal pipe arches.
The allowable overfill heights for concrete
arches, structural plate arches, and structural • Where a culvert will be subjected to
plate vehicular undercrossings are based on unequal lateral pressures, such as at the toe
existing soil withstanding the soil pressures of a fill or adjacent to a retaining wall.
indicated on the Standard Plans. A foundation Special designs usually require that a detailed
investigation should be made to insure that the foundation investigation be made.
supporting soils withstand the design soil
(4) Minimum Cover. When feasible, culverts
pressures for those types of structures.
should be buried at least 1 foot. For
(2) Method of Installation. Under ordinary construction purposes, a minimum cover of
conditions, the methods of installation 6 inches greater than the thickness of the
described in the Standard Specifications and structural cross section is desirable for all types
shown on the Standard Plans should be used. of pipe. The minimum thickness of cover for
For any predictable settlement, provisions for various type culverts under rigid or flexible
camber should be made. pavements is given in Table 856.5.
Excavation and backfill details for circular
concrete pipe, reinforced box and arch 829.3 Piping
culverts, and corrugated metal pipe and arch Piping is a phenomenon caused by seepage along a
culverts are shown on Standard Plans A62-D, culvert barrel which removes fill material, forming
A62DA, A62-E, and A62-F respectively. a hollow similar to a pipe. Fine soil particles are
(3) Height of Cover. There are several alternative washed out freely along the hollow and the erosion
materials from which acceptable culverts may inside the fill may ultimately cause failure of the
be made. Tables of maximum height of cover culvert or the embankment.
recommended for the more frequently used The possibility of piping can be reduced by
culvert shapes, sizes, corrugation decreasing the velocity of the seepage flow. This
configurations, and types of materials are given can be reduced by providing for watertight joints.
in Chapter 850. Not included, but covered in Therefore, if piping through joints could become a
the Standard Plans, are maximum earth cover problem, consideration should be given to
for reinforced concrete box culverts, reinforced providing for watertight joints.
concrete arches, and structural plate vehicular
undercrossing.
820-12 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL
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Piping may be anticipated along the entire length Reinforced concrete pipe should be anchored and
of the culvert when ponding above the culvert is have positive joints specified if either of the
expected for an extended length of time, such as following conditions is present:
when the highway fill is used as a detention dam or
(a) Where the pipe diameter is 60 inches or less,
to form a reservoir. Headwalls, impervious
the pipe slope is 33 percent or greater, and the
materials at the upstream end of the culvert, and
fill over the top of the pipe less than 1.5 times
anti-seep or cutoff collars increase the length of the
the outside diameter of the pipe measured
flow path, decrease the hydraulic gradient and the
perpendicular to the slope.
velocity of flow and thus decreases the probability
of piping developing. Anti-seep collars usually (b) Where the pipe diameter is greater than
consist of bulkhead type plate or blocks around the 60 inches and the pipe slope is 33 percent or
entire perimeter of the culvert. They may be of greater, regardless of the fill over the top of the
metal or concrete, and, if practical, should be pipe.
keyed into impervious material. Where the slopes have been determined by the
Piping could occur where a culvert must be placed geotechnical engineer to be potentially unstable,
in a live stream, and the flow cannot be diverted. regardless of the slope of the pipe, as a minimum,
Under these conditions watertight joints should be the pipes shall have positive joints. Alternative
specified. pipes/anchorage systems shall be investigated
when there is a potential for substantial movement
829.4 Joints of the soil.
The possibility of piping being caused by open Where anchorage is required, there should be a
joints in the culvert barrel may be reduced through minimum of 18 inches cover measured
special attention to the type of pipe joint specified. perpendicular to the slope.
For a more complete discussion of pipe joint Typically buried flexible pipe with corrugations on
requirements see Index 854.1. the exterior surface will not require anchorage,
The two pipe joint types specified for culvert however, a special detail will be required for
installations are identified as "standard" and plastic pipe without corrugations on the exterior
"positive". The "standard" joint is adequate for surface.
ordinary installations and "positive" joints should
be specified where there is a need to withstand soil 829.6 Irregular Treatment
movements or resist disjointing forces. Corrugated (1) Junctions. (Text Later)
metal pipe coupling band details are shown on
Standard Plan sheets D97A through D97G and (2) Bends. (Text Later)
concrete pipe joint details on sheet D97H.
829.7 Siphons and Sag Culverts
If it is necessary for "standard" or "positive" joints
to be watertight they must be specifically specified (1) General Notes. There are two kinds of
as such. Rubber "O" rings or other resilient joint conduits called siphons: the true siphon and the
material provides the watertight seal. Corrugated inverted siphon or sag culvert. The true siphon
metal pipe joints identified as "downdrain" are is a closed conduit, a portion of which lies
watertight joint systems with a tensile strength above the hydraulic grade line. This results in
specification for the coupler. less than atmospheric pressure in that portion.
The sag culvert lies entirely below the
829.5 Anchorage hydraulic grade line; it operates under pressure
without siphonic action.
Refer to Index 834.4(5) for discussion on
anchorage for overside drains. Under the proper conditions, there are
hydraulic and economic advantages to be
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obtained by using the siphon principle in 829.8 – Currently Not In Use

culvert design.
829.9 Dams
(2) Sag Culverts. This type is most often used to
carry an irrigation canal under a highway when Typically, proposed construction which is capable
the available headroom is insufficient for a of impounding water to the extent that it meets the
normal culvert. The top of a sag culvert should legal definition of a dam must be approved by the
be at least 4.5 feet below the finished grade Department of Water Resource (DWR), Division
where possible, to ensure against damage from of Safety of Dams. The legal definition is
heavy construction equipment. The culvert described in Sections 6002 and 6003 of the State
should be on a straight grade and sumps Water Code. Generally, any facility 25 feet or
provided at each end to facilitate maintenance. more in height or capable of impounding 50 acre-
Sag culverts should not be used: feet or more would be considered a dam.
However, any facility 6 feet or less in height,
(a) When the flow carries trash and debris in regardless of capacity, or with a storage capacity of
sufficient quantity to cause heavy deposits, not more than 15 acre-feet, regardless of height,
(b) For intermittent flows where the effects of shall not be considered a dam. Additionally,
standing water are objectionable, or Section 6004 of the State Water Code states "...
and no road or highway fill or structure ... shall be
(c) When any other alternative is possible at considered a dam." Therefore, except for large
reasonable cost. retention or detention facilities there will rarely be
(3) Types of Conduit. Following are two kinds of the need for involvement by the DWR in approval
pipes used for siphons and sag culverts to of Caltrans designs.
prevent leakage: Although most highway designs will be exempt
(a) Reinforced Concrete Pipe - Reinforced from DWR approval, caution should always be
concrete pipe with joint seals is generally exercised in the design of high fills that could
satisfactory. For heads over 20 feet, impound large volumes of water. Even partial
special consideration should be given to plugging of the cross drain could lead to high
hydrostatic pressure. pressures on the upstream side of the fill, creating
seepage through the fill and/or increased potential
(b) Corrugated Metal Pipe - corrugated metal for piping.
pipe must be of the thickness and have the
protective coatings required to provide the The requirements for submitting information to the
design service life. Field joints must be FHWA Division Office in Sacramento as described
watertight. The following additional in Index 805.6 are not affected by the regulations
treatment is recommended. mentioned above.

• When the head is more than 10 feet 829.10 Reinforced Concrete Box
and the flow is continuous or is Modifications
intermittent and of long duration, pipe
fabricated by riveting, spot welding or (1) Extensions. Where an existing box culvert is
continuous helical lockseam should be to be lengthened, it is essential to perform an
soldered. on-site investigation to verify the structural
integrity of the box. If signs of distress are
Pipe fabricated by a continuous helical present, the Division of Structures must be
welded seam need not be soldered. contacted prior to proceeding with the design.
• If the head is 10 feet or less and the (2) Additional Loading. When significant
flow is intermittent and lasts only a additional loading is proposed to be added to
few days, as in storm flows, an existing reinforced concrete box culvert the
unsoldered seams are permissible. Division of Structures must be contacted prior
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July 1, 2015

to proceeding with the design. Overlays of less

than 6 inches in depth, or widenings that do not
increase the per unit loading on the box are not
considered to be significant. Designers should
also check the extent that previous projects
might have increased loading on box culverts,
even if the current project is not adding a
significant amount of loading.