Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 6 (2015) 226–237

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Case Studies in Thermal Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/csite

Thermal and optical efficiency investigation of a parabolic

trough collector
C. Tzivanidis, E. Bellos n, D. Korres, K.A. Antonopoulos, G. Mitsopoulos
National Technical University of Athens, School of Mechanical Engineering, Thermal Department, Heroon Polytehniou 9, Zografou,
157 73 Athens, Greece

a r t i c l e in f o abstract

Article history: Solar energy utilization is a promising Renewable Energy source for covering a variety of
Received 7 October 2015 energy needs of our society. This study presents the most well-known solar concentrating
Received in revised form system, the parabolic trough collector, which is operating efficiently in high temperatures.
18 October 2015
The simulation tool of this analysis is the commercial software Solidworks which simu-
Accepted 18 October 2015
Available online 10 November 2015
lates complicated problems with an easy way using the finite elements method. A small
parabolic trough collector model is designed and simulated for different operating con-
Keywords: ditions. The goal of this study is to predict the efficiency of this model and to analyze the
Parabolic trough collector heat transfer phenomena that take place. The efficiency curve is compared to a one di-
Heat convection coefficient
mensional numerical model in order to make a simple validation. Moreover, the tem-
Thermal efficiency
perature distribution in the absorber and inside the tube is presented while the heat flux
Solidworks
Local concentration ratio distribution in the outer surface of the absorber is given. The heat convection coefficient
Optical efficiency inside the tube is calculated and compared with the theoretical one according to the
literature. Also the angle efficiency modifier is calculated in order to predict the thermal
and optical efficiency for different operating conditions. The final results show that the
PTC model performs efficiently and all the calculations are validated.
& 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction

Fossil fuel depletion and global warming problem lead our society to the use of clean and abundant energy sources.
Renewable energy sources are sustainable by producing zero greenhouse gas emissions and will be always available, so they
seem to be the most suitable energy sources for the future. Solar energy is the oldest energy source ever used and is widely
used by giving solutions in many applications, from industrial hot water supply to electricity production [1–4], especially in
countries with a high solar irradiation level as Greece [5,6]. More specifically, concentrated solar collectors are able to
produce high temperatures (over 400 °C) with high thermal efficiency. This is the fact that makes them a feasible and
promising technology for solar desalination, solar chemistry applications, solar cooling (absorption and adsorption), solar
hydrogen production and of course for Concentrated Solar Plants (CSP) [7].
The main solar technologies for electricity production are Linear Fresnel collectors, parabolic dish combined with a
Stirling engine, parabolic trough collectors and solar tower (central receiver system) [8,9]. Parabolic trough collectors (PTC)
cover the 90% of the total CSP systems [10] because this technology is the most mature among the concentrating collectors;
it leads to light structure systems and is applied since decades [11]. Nowadays, many commercial CSP systems are operating

n
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (E. Bellos).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2015.10.005
2214-157X/& 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 C. Tzivanidis et al. / Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 6 (2015) 226–237 227

Nomenclature θ angular displacement in longitudinal direc-

tion, °
A area, m2 μ dynamic viscosity, Pa s
CL local concentration ratio ρ reflectance
cp specific heat capacity, kJ/kg K s Stefan–Boltzmann constant [¼ 5.67  10  8 W/
D diameter, m m2 K4]
FR heat removal factor (τα) transmittance–absorptance product
F′ collector efficiency factor
F″ flow efficiency factor Subscripts and superscripts
Gb solar beam radiation, W/m2
h convection coefficient, W/m2K a aperture
k thermal conductivity, W/m K abs absorbed
K Angle efficiency modifier am ambient
L tube length, m c cover
m mass flow rate, kg/s ca Cover-ambient
Nu mean Nusselt number ci inner cover
Pr Prandtl number co outer cover
Q Heat flux, W fm Mean fluid
Re Reynolds number in inlet
T Temperature, K loss losses
UL Losses coefficient, W/m2K m mean
W Width, m opt optical
out outlet
Greek symbols r receiver
ri inner receiver
β peripheral absorber angle, ° ro outer receiver
ε emittance s Solar
η efficiency u useful

in countries with high solar energy potential, as U.S.A. [12], Algeria [13,14] and Spain [15]. The basic parts of a PTC are an
evacuated tube and a linear parabolic reflector. The reflector is made by bending a reflecting material into a parabolic shape
and the evacuated tube is located in the focus line of this parabola. The main idea of this technology is the reflection of the
solar beam radiation from the parabolic reflector towards to the evacuated tube in order to heat the working fluid. The
general efficiency improvements and the cost reduction of PTC systems are essential factors for the further development of
CSP systems worldwide [9,16]. Thus, many researches have been working in this field trying new ideas and optimizing the
existing collectors [17,18].
According to the literature, a great amount of parameters that influence the PTC′s efficiency have been studied with
numerical models and simulations tools. Wind influence on thermal efficiency is examined by Hachicha et al. [19] while
extended optical analysis of concentrating collector is studied by many researchers, with Cheng et al. to use the Monte Carlo
ray-tracing optical model in order to simulate a PTC [20] and Binotti et al. [10] to use FirstOPTIC method to calculate the
optical analysis of the examined models. Ouagued et al. [16] solved a system of energy balance differential equations with
Euler method and made an analysis for the influence of HTF price on the thermal energy cost. The use of synthetic oil
nanofluid as the working fluid is studied by Sokhansefat et al. [21] and de Risi et al. [18] with the final results to conclude
that the use of nanoparticles increases the heat transfer coefficient between the absorber and the working fluid.
In thermal performance studies, the majority of numerical studies use one dimensional heat transfer analysis [22–25]
which is the simplest numerical method. Marif et al. [26] by using this method concluded that liquid water performs better
than synthetic oil (TherminolVP-1™). Gong et al. [25] made both one and three dimension heat transfer analysis and proved
that the two methods agree with the test results. Also, three dimensional studies are available in the literature [27–30]. Xu
et al. [31] developed a dynamic model in order to study the performance of a PTC in transient operations and tested it with
experimental data. Many other simulations have been developed with Engineering Equations Solver (EES) and have been
validated with existing results [32–34]. On the other hand, simulations with well-known software exist in literature. Tsai
and Lin [35] used Solidworks to simulate different kinds of reflectors for a PTC collector in order to maximize the thermal
efficiency. Akbarimoosavi and Yaghoubi [36] used ANSYS and concluded that the high thermal conductive absorber ma-
terials lead the reduction of maximum peripheral temperature difference and so the thermal efficiency increases. Moreover,
FLUENT is a very useful tool for simulations and many works have been met in bibliography [37–39]. The simulation by
Mwesigye et al. [40] has a great interest because proves that the use of perforated plate inserts inside the tube increases the
thermal efficiency by 1.2% with significant reduction in the absorber temperature. Also, many experimental works with
numerical validation are available in the literature [41–46].
228 C. Tzivanidis et al. / Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 6 (2015) 226–237

Fig. 1. Parabolic trough collector model designed in Solidworks, (a) trough dimensions (b) evacuated tube dimensions.

In this study, a parabolic trough collector is investigated with the commercial software Solidworks in order to analyze the
efficiency performance in different operating conditions. The model takes into consideration all the observing phenomena
including radiation heat transfer, convection heat transfer, conduction heat transfer and solar beam radiation reflections in
order to simulate the collector performance successfully. Furthermore, a simple 1-D thermal model is developed to validate
the simulation results from Solidworks.

2. Simulation model and analysis

The simulation of a parabolic trough collector is the aim of this study. For this reason, a small model designed and
analyzed in Solidworks in order to reduce the computational time. These results are able to be generalized for a greater
model with similar concentration ratio.

2.1. PTC model description

The parabolic trough collector designed in Solidworks and after analyzed in Flow Simulation Studio. Fig. 1a shows the
examined model and Fig. 1b explains the dimensions of the evacuated tube.
The main dimensions of this model, while important parameters of the simulation are given in Table 1. Typical values are
considered for the heat transfer parameters in order to simulate realistic conditions.
The left column of the Table 1 gives the simulation parameters and the right column contains the basic dimensions of the
model. All these parameters have constant values in all examined cases. The inlet temperature and the solar incident angle
in the longitude direction are the parameters that change in order to simulate different operating conditions. The working
fluid in this analysis is pressurized water which remains in liquid phase in all cases. A pressure over 20 bar (saturation
temperature close to 200 °C) is needed in order to keep water in liquid phase. The water inlet temperature varies from 10 to
180 °C in order to examine a great range of cases.

2.2. Mathematical presentation

In this part the basic mathematical equations of this analysis are given. First of all, the useful energy can be calculated by
Eq. (2.1) and solar energy in the trough aperture by Eq. (2.2). It is important to state that a PTC utilizes only the beam
radiation of the sun.

Table 1
Model dimensions and simulation parameters.

Simulation Value Model Value (m)

parameters dimensions

εp 0.1 W 0.840
εc 0.88 L 1.000
ρ(τα) 0.8015 f 0.300
Gb 500 W/m2 Dri 0.020
m 0.02 kg/s Dro 0.022
Tam 10 °C Dci 0.032
hca 10 W/m2K Dco 0.034
 C. Tzivanidis et al. / Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 6 (2015) 226–237 229

Q u = ṁ ⋅cp⋅( Tout − Tin ), (2.1)

Q s = A a ⋅Gb, (2.2)

By combining these equations, the thermal efficiency of the collector is calculated as:
Qu
η= ,
Qs (2.3)

The thermal losses of the collector are calculated by many ways, by using different reference temperatures in every case.
Eqs. (2.4)–(2.6) present these ways:

Q loss = UL⋅Aro ⋅( Tr − Tam ), (2.4)

Q loss =
(
σ⋅Aro ⋅ T r4 − T c4 ),
1 1 − εc Αro
εr
+ εc
⋅A (2.5)
ci

Q loss = A co ⋅hca⋅( Tc − Tam ) + εc ⋅A co ⋅σ⋅ ( T c4 − 4

T am ), (2.6)

In this study, Eq. (2.4) is used because Solidworks gives as output the thermal losses and the receiver mean temperature
are. The way for calculating the tube and the cover surface are presented in Eq. (2.7):
Ai = π⋅Di ⋅L, (2.7)

where i¼ Dco, Dci, Dro, Dri.

The convection coefficient between pressurized water and receiver is an important parameter which affects the effi-
ciency of the system. The theoretical calculation of this is done by calculating the Nusselt number. According to literature
Nusselt has different values in different flow conditions. More specifically, for laminar flow inside the tube, which means
that the Reynolds number is lower than 2300; the mean Nusselt number is given by the Eq. (2.8) which is presented by
Hausen [47]:
0.0668⋅Re⋅Pr⋅Dri /L
Num = 3.66 + 2/3
,
1 + 0.04⋅( Re⋅Pr⋅Dri /L ) (2.8)

This equation has the assumption of an isothermal tube which is not quite accurate under our circumstances but it is a
very close approximation. Furthermore, a comparison will prove how this model is satisfying for PTC simulation.
And for turbulent flow which means Reynolds number greater than 4000, the Colburn [47] equation gives the Nusselt
Number as:

Num = 0.023⋅Re0.8⋅Pr1/3, (2.9)

The Nusselt number is correlated with the convection coefficient according to the Eq. (2.10):
h⋅Dri
Num = ,
k (2.10)

Also, it is essential to be referred the equation of the Reynolds number. This number is determined by the flow conditions
(temperature and velocity) and geometry (tube inner diameter). Eq. (2.11) presents Reynolds number for the tube internal
flow:
.
4⋅m
Re = ,
π⋅Dri ⋅μ (2.11)

Eq. (2.12) presents the way that the convection coefficient is calculated. The proper data are taken from the simulation
for every case and the coefficient is calculated by the Eq. (2.12):
Qu
hw = ,
( π⋅Dri⋅L)⋅( Tr − Tfm ) (2.12)

where the Tfm is the mean temperature of the water inside the tube and can be approximately calculated by Eq. (2.13)
because the tube is not very long:
Tout + Tin
Tfm = ,
2 (2.13)

Another equation which is very useful at calculations is the local concentration ratio. More specifically this quantity is the
absorbed irradiation in every part of the absorber to the theoretical absorbed irradiation for uniform distribution. Eq. (2.14)
presents this quantity:
230 C. Tzivanidis et al. / Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 6 (2015) 226–237

dQ abs
CL = ,
ρ⋅(τα )⋅G⋅dA (2.14)

Finally the optical efficiency modifier is given by the next equation:

ηopt (θ )
K (θ ) = ,
ηopt ( θ = 0∘) (2.15)

where θ is the angular displacement in longitudinal direction.

2.3. Simulation in Solidworks

The PTC model designed in Solidworks and simulated in Flow Simulation environment. The proper boundary conditions
determination is vital for the analysis. The basic boundary conditions of this problem are the following:

a. The inlet mass flow rate and the corresponding inlet Temperature. The flow is assumed to be fully developed in the inlet.
b. The pressure in the outlet.
c. The heat convection between cover outer surface and environment.

The next important part of the simulation is the determination of the radiative surfaces. Three are the main radiative
surfaces of this problem:

a. The selective absorber outer surface.

b. The cover surfaces (inner and outer).

Fig. 2. Flow chart of numerical model.

 C. Tzivanidis et al. / Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 6 (2015) 226–237 231

c. The reflector surface that was set as “symmetry” surface in order to reflect the solar rays.

The materials for every component can be selected separately in Solidworks. So it is essential to state that:

a. The absorber tube is made of copper.

b. The cover is from glass.
c. The lids in the inlet and in the outlet are from insulation materials (insulators) in order not to take part in the thermal
analysis. It is important to state that the lids are placed in the model in order to determine the fluid domain.

The outputs from Solidworks in every case are selected by the user. The fluid bulk temperature in the outlet, the mean
receiver temperature, the cover mean temperature and the thermal losses of the receiver are the set of output parameters
which are taken in every study-case. The mesh of the analysis is made by Solidworks and emphasis is given to the fluid cells
refinement as much as in the partial cells refinement. The working fluid is pressurized water in order to keep the liquid
phase of it for high temperature levels and their properties are taken by Solidworks data base.

2.4. Numerical simulation

A simple 1-D numerical model with FORTRAN was developed for validating the simulation results. The core of this model
is the energy balance in the absorber in order to determine the useful energy and the heat losses. The receiver and the cover
are supposed to have uniform temperatures in every case which is a good approximation because the length of the tube is
not great and the temperature distribution is close to the mean value. More specifically, the flow chart of the method that
was followed is given in the next figure (Fig. 2).
In the first iteration, the cover temperature was set to be greater that the ambient in order the heat transfer mechanism
to be realistic. The heat losses and the useful energy are calculated in order to predict the water outlet temperature. By
calculating the heat transfer coefficient between water and tube, the receiver temperature is able to be determined. The
knowledge of this temperature leads to calculation of cover temperature. In order this method to be converged; a great
relaxation factor was used. In most cases, 20 iterations was the computational cost in order to predict the suitable cover
temperature.
The properties of water were taken from Solidworks database in order to make a better comparison between the two
methods. The only property that was calculated by a literature approximation was the dynamic viscosity μ [48], with a good
accordance with the Solidworks data. The heat transfer coefficient between water and tube was calculated from Eqs. (2.7)
and (2.8) according the flow chart. In the numerical model, for the transient region, a linear combination of these two
equations was used, something that differs from Solidworks simulation. Moreover, the use of uniform temperature for the
receiver and the cover renders an important difference with Solidworks simulation.

3. Simulation results

In this paragraph the results of the simulation are presented. In every case the fluid temperature was set by the user and
the other parameters, such as outlet temperature, cover mean temperature and absorber mean temperature were calcu-
lated. The solar radiation intensity and the ambient temperature were constant, as are described in Table 1. First of all the
main efficiency parameters are presented.

3.1. Performance of the collector

The efficiency curve of the collector is shown in Fig. 3. In this case the solar irradiation is vertical to the aperture which

Fig. 3. Efficiency curve of the collector and comparison with the numerical model.
232 C. Tzivanidis et al. / Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 6 (2015) 226–237

Fig. 4. Thermal losses coefficient of the collector for different operating conditions. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure, the reader is
referred to the web version of this article.)

means zero incident angle. In this case, the optical efficiency is maximum.
The comparison between the two lines shows that the numerical model gives close enough results with the simulation
tool. It is important to state that efficiency is very high which proves that a PTC is able to produce water in high temperature
levels efficiently. More specifically, the efficiency is greater than 75% for all the operating conditions which proves high
performance of the collector.
Fig. 4 shows the total thermal loss coefficient of the absorber. This parameter is depended on the temperature because
the radiation losses are greater with higher operating temperature. The correlation of this coefficient to the parameter (Tin 
Tam)/Gb seems to be linear according to Fig. 4:
The blue points are the calculated results and the black line is a linear approximation. It is observed that this coefficient
has low values which can be explained by the selective coating and the vacuum between absorber and cover. More spe-
cifically, the loss coefficient is ranges from 0.6 W/m2K to 1.3 W/m2K which are low values and prove the low heat losses.
Fig. 5 shows the heat transfer coefficient inside the tube for different operating conditions. By changing the fluid tem-
perature, water properties, especially dynamic viscosity (μ), change a lot. This leads the Reynolds number to be affected,
according to the Eq. (2.11) and the flow varies from laminar to turbulent, while there is a transitional region according the
next diagram:
Reynolds number in the right axis determines the kind of the flow inside the tube. While the mass flow rate is constant,
Reynolds number changes because of changing the water inlet temperature. It is essential to state that laminar flow is
conjugated with lower heat transfer coefficient (about 300 W/m2K) while turbulent gives greater values of this
(1000 W/m2K). This proves the better heat transfer conditions of the turbulent flow. In the transitional region the heat
coefficient takes an intermediate value according to the Fig. 5. The blue line shows the calculation according to the solid-
works results and the red line gives the convection coefficient according to the theoretical models of Eqs. (2.7) and (2.8) for
the respect temperatures of the water in the inlet. The results are very close to each other fact that validates the Solidworks
results. This proves the better heat transfer conditions of the turbulent flow.

Fig. 5. Heat convection coefficient and Reynolds number for different operating conditions. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure, the
reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
 C. Tzivanidis et al. / Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 6 (2015) 226–237 233

Fig. 6. Local concentration ratio in the absorber surface.

Fig. 6 shows the local concentration ratio in the absorber. The scheme inside the figure shows how the angle β is
determined.
The distribution of this parameter is symmetrical because the sun rays are vertical to the aperture. For low values of
angle β, the concentration ratio has values lower to 1, because no reflected rays reach there. For greater values, the con-
centration ratio is increasing, specifically at 135° it is about 27 but at 180° it is diminished to 25. This is happening because
the rays are concentrated in the bottom of the absorber and specifically the maximum value is in the sides of the lower part.
The mean value of the concentration ration is 12.15 which is near to the mean value of the maximum and minimum value of
the local concentration ratio.
Fig. 7 shows the incident angle modifier of the optical efficiency. When the sun changes position, the angle of rays differs,
something that affects the rays' reflections. This was simulated by changing the direction of beam radiation in general
settings. This parameter is given in Fig. 7 and is a very useful parameter for daily simulation of this collector.
The optical efficiency is reduced for greater values of incident angle and for angles greater than 70°, no rays arrive to the
receiver after the reflections. For incident angles up to 20°, the optical efficiency modifier is greater than 0.8 which leads to
an acceptable efficiency. For this reason a tracking system for this collector is needed in order to keep the incident angle in
low levels.
Table 2 presents equations which approaches the presented curves. In addition, important parameters of the collector are
given in order the analysis to be completed.
The thermal efficiency is a 2nd degree polynomial which is explained by the linear dependence of losses coefficient by
the fluid temperature.

3.2. Distribution over the geometry

In this section some figures which give the temperature and heat flux distribution over the geometry are presented. The
water inlet temperature is at 90 °C in all the following figures. These results are output from Solidworks and the images are
taken from its environment. The water distribution in the outlet is shown in Fig. 8 which follows:
The fluid is warmer in the bottom of the tube because the rays are concentrated on the respective part of the absorber.
The center part of the tube is colder because the peripheral water is heated from the hot tube and after that the heat is
transferred by conduction inside the tube.
Fig. 9 is consisted of two parts. The upper part presents the water temperature profile for 5 different positions inside the

Fig. 7. Optical efficiency modifier for different angular values.

234 C. Tzivanidis et al. / Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 6 (2015) 226–237

Table 2
Final simulation results.

⎛ T − Tam ⎞ ⎛ T − Tam ⎞2
η = 0.8 − 0.008843⋅⎜ in ⎟ − 0.00050558⋅Gb⋅⎜ in ⎟
⎝ Gb ⎠ ⎝ Gb ⎠
⎛ T − Tam ⎞
UL = 0.5222 + 1.8773⋅⎜ in ⎟
⎝ Gb ⎠
K (θ ) = 1.0159 − 0.448⋅θ − 0.2985⋅θ 2
FR = 0.9981 F′ = 0.9984 F″ = 0.9997

Fig. 8. Fluid temperature distribution in the outlet of the tube from Solidworks, with red color is the warmer part of the water. (For interpretation of the
references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

tube and the other the temperature distribution in the absorber surface along the tube.
The red color shows the warmer parts of the schemes in the Fig. 9. According to the part “a” the water is coming warmer
while it flows along the tube and especially the lower part is the hottest part of all the tube. The part “b” presents the
absorber temperature and it is obvious that the lower part is the warmer part. The concentration of solar rays in this area
leads the temperature to be higher and to create a non-isothermal tube. Fig. 10 shows the distribution of temperature in the
absorber surface in a cross section at 70% of the total length.
The maximum value is observed in the bottom of the tube where the radiation is concentrated. This distribution is
symmetrical and the difference between the maximum and the minimum temperature is about 3 K. The following figure
shows the heat flux distribution over the absorber surface. With the blue color are the greater values and with red the lower.
The negative sign in the legend values has not a physical importance (Fig. 11).
The solar radiation is concentrated on the lower part of the tube and especially in the sides of the lower part. The
dimensions of the model determine the exact distribution of the heat flux.
It is obvious that Solidworks flow simulation is able to simulate concentrating solar collectors by an easy way and gives
many features to the users. All the important parameters of the collector's efficiency have been presented in this paragraph,
as the thermal efficiency curve, the incident angle modifier of optical efficiency and the thermal loss coefficient. The cal-
culation of the temperature distribution over the tube surface and of the water in every position is very important and it is
able to be made by Solidworks. Also, the heat flux distribution over the receiver is able to be calculated in every position by
the features of the simulation tool gives. By this way, the user is able know all the quantities in every position of the model.
 C. Tzivanidis et al. / Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 6 (2015) 226–237 235

Fig. 9. Temperature distribution from Solidworks: (a) of the water in 5 different positions along the tube and (b) in the absorber surface. (For interpretation
of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Fig. 10. Temperature absorber distribution in the peripheral line in the 70% of the length.

4. Conclusions

In this study, a simulation of a parabolic trough collector by the commercial software Solidworks is presented. The results
are validated by a simple numerical model which was developed by the laboratory. The final results of the simulation are at
good proximity with the numerical model. Emphasis is given on the calculation of the working fluid convection coefficient
and for this reason a validation with the theoretical value is presented. Moreover, it is proved that Solidworks gives great
features to the users, because it allows the knowledge of all calculated quantities in every position of the model. Also, the
presented numerical model is innovative and leads to accurate results with low computational cost. The relaxation factor is
the key point of this model in order the method to be converged.
The efficiency of the collector is over 75% for high temperature levels, a fact that renders this technology beneficial. This
high efficiency can be explained by the very low heat loss coefficient which varies from 0.6 to 1.3 W/m2K, depending on the
inlet temperature. The next important parameter investigated is the solar heat flux distribution over the absorber surface
236 C. Tzivanidis et al. / Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 6 (2015) 226–237

Fig. 11. Heat flux distribution from Solidworks: (a) for the upper part of the tube and (b) for the lower part of the tube. (For interpretation of the references
to color in this figure, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

because this parameter affects the temperature distribution of the absorber. The solar energy is concentrated on the lower
part of the absorber with the maximum concentration ratio to be observed at 45° from vertical direction. Moreover, the
maximum local concentration ratio is about 27, the mean 12.15 while the upper part concentration ratio is close to one.
The heat flux concentration distribution determines the temperature distribution over the absorber; thus the down part
of it is the warmer one. More specifically, the temperature variation in the peripheral of the absorber is about 3 K degrees
which proves that the temperature distribution is no uniform. The temperature distribution of the water in a cross section
shows that the fluid is warmer in the down part, because the absorber is warmer in the respective part.
The analysis of the heat convection coefficient inside the tube concludes that the Reynolds number is fully dependent on
the water inlet temperature. This means that in low temperature level the flow is laminar with a convection coefficient
about 300 W/m2K and for higher temperature levels the flow becomes turbulent with a greater convection coefficient about
1000 W/m2K.
The solar radiation direction is very important for the efficiency of the collector and especially for its optical part. A
greater incident angle creates higher end losses in the collector which affects the efficiency. When the incident angle, in the
longitude direction, is up to 20°, the angle efficiency modifier is greater than 0.8 and the collector performance is high. After
70°, the solar energy that reaches to the absorber is not sufficient for producing useful energy and the collector is not able to
operate.
Finally, it is important to state, that the determination of the thermal efficiency equation and the optical modifier
equation gives to the user the ability to know the performance of the collector in various operating conditions. As a result,
the input of this model, through these equations, in another simulation tool or code can be easily achieved.

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