Vernacular Tradition and The Islamic Architecture of Bosra 1992

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VERNACULAR TRADITION
AND
THE ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE OF BOSRA
Ph.D. dissertation
The Royal Academy of Fine Arts
School of Architecture
Copenhagen.
Flemming Aalund, architect MAA.
Copenhagen, April 1991.

(revised edition, June 1992)
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LIST OF CONTENTS :
List of maps and drawings......................... 1

List of plates.................................... 4
Preface:
Context and purpose .............................. 7
Contents.......................................... 8
Previous research................................. 9
Acknowledgements.................................. 11
PART I: THE PHYSICAL AND HISTORIC SETTING
The geographical setting.......................... 13
Development of historic townscape and buildings... 16
The Islamic town.................................. 19
The Islamic renaissance........................... 21
PART II: THE VERNACULAR BUILDING TRADITION
Introduction...................................... 27
Casestudies:
- Umm az-Zetun.................................... 29
- Mu'arribeh...................................... 30
- Djemmerin....................................... 30
- Inkhil.......................................... 32
General features:
- The walling: construction and materials......... 34
- The roofing..................................... 35
- The plan and structural form.................... 37
- The sectional form: the iwan.................... 38
- The plan form: the bayt......................... 39
conclusion........................................ 40
PART III: CATALOGUE OF ISLAMIC MONUMENTS IN BOSRA
Introduction...................................... 43
Military architecture:
- The citadel..................................... 44
The mosques:
- Al-Umari Mosque................................. 57
- Al-Khidr Mosque................................. 64
- Al-Fatima Mosque................................ 66
- Masjid Yaqut.................................... 67
- Masjid Shafi'i.................................. 68
The madrasas:
- Al-Mibrak Mosque and Madrasa ................... 70
- Ad-Dabbagha Madrasa............................. 76
- Comparative development of the madrasa.......... 79
Secular architecture:
- Hammam Manjak................................... 82
ABSTRACT................................................... 97
Select biblography.........................................101
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LIST OF MAPS AND DRAWINGS
Fig. 1 Map of the Hauran area.

Fig. 2 Bosra, location map of monuments.
Fig. 3 Bosra, built-up area in the 1950s.
Vernacular building tradition:
Fig. 4 Hatra, main palace: Ground plan and axonometric view, showing
scheme of roof construction (Reuther, 1939).
Fig. 5 Traditional constructions in limestone with wooden gable roofs,

Byzantine period (de Vogüe, 1865-77).
Fig. 6 Traditional constructions in basaltstone with flat roofs of stone

slabs spanned between walls and transverse arches (de Vogüe,
1865-77).
Fig. 7 Details of pediments in limestone, northern Syria, depicting

wooden trusses for roof construction (PPUAES, 1914).
Fig. 8 Umm az-Zetun: Plan and elevation.
Fig. 9 Mu'arribeh: Plan and elevation of facades.
Fig.10 Djemmerin: Plan and elevation of main facade.
Fig.11 Djemmerin: Main section through central hall.
Fig.12 Djemmerin: Plan and sections of 'iwan room'.
Fig.13 Inkhil: Longitudinal section and elevation of main facade of

terraced houses forming 3 bayts.
Fig.14 Inkhil: Gound floor and first floor plan.
Fig.15 Inkhil: Main section through central bayt.
Islamic Monuments of Bosra:
Fig.16 The Citadel: Schematic plan of the Roman Theatre and the citadel
with numbering system of fortified towers (Amy, 1969).
Fig.17 The Citadel: The arsenal and magazine building inside the Roman
cavea before demolition (postcard, reproduction P.Grunwald).
Fig.18 The citadel: The arsenal inside the Roman cavea, (M. de Vogüe,
1865-77).
Fig.19 The citadel: Level 0 with water reservoir in cavea.

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Fig.20 The citadel: Level 1 with arsenal inside the cavea.
Fig.21 The citadel: Level 2 with magazines inside the cavea.
Fig.22 The citadel: Roof plan with structures of cavea
Fig.23 The citadel: Sections through arsenal and magazines.
Fig.24 The citadel: Level 0, present situation.
Fig.27 The citadel: Roof plan, present situation.
Fig.28 The citadel: Main sections, present situation.
Fig.29 The citadel: Detail of masonry, tower no. 9.
Fig.30 The citadel: Detail of masonry, tower no. 5.
Fig.31 The citadel: Detail of masonry, tower, no. 6
Fig.32 The citadel: Detail of box machicola, tower no. 6.
Fig.33 The citadel: Detail of embrasure, tower no. 3.
Fig.34 The citadel: Detail of embrasure, north. curtain wall.
Fig.35 The citadel: Detail of embrasure, tower no. 8.
Fig.36 Al-Umari Mosque: Plan of mosque and Hammam Manjak.
Fig.37 Al-Umari Mosque: Main sections, present situation.
Fig.38 Al-Umari Mosque: Views of courtyard ca.1904 (PPUAES).
Fig.39 Al-Umari Mosque: Umayyad and Seljuk plan, reconstruct.
Fig.40 Al-Umari Mosque: Axonometric view, before 618/1221-22.
Fig.41 Al-Umari Mosque: Reconstruction of main facade.
Fig.42 Al-Umari Mosque: Main sections, reconstructions.
Fig.43 Al-Umari Mosque: Restoration of the Mamluk plan.
Fig.44 Al-Khidr Mosque: Entranceway with double stonedoor
Fig.45 Al-Khidr Mosque: Plan and elevation of main facade.

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Fig.46 Al-Fatima Mosque: Plan and longitudinal section.
Fig.47 Al-Fatima Mosque: Elevation and section of minaret.
Fig.48 Masjid Yaqut: Plan of mosque and funeral chamber.
Fig.49 Masjid Shafi'i: Plan and section.
Fig.50 Al-Mibrak Mosque and madrasa: Ground plan and section.
Fig.51 Al-Mibrak Mosque and madrasa: First floor and section.
Fig.52 Al-Mibrak Mosque and madrasa: Reconstruction.
Fig.54 Al-Mibrak Mosque: Sketch of first Muslim sanctuary.
Fig.55 Al-Mibrak Mosque: Section and elevation of mihrab.
Fig.56 Al-Mibrak Mosque and madrasa: Axonometric view.
Fig.58 Ad-Dabbagha Madrasa: Plan of Birkat al-Hajj
Fig.58 Ad-Dabbagha Madrasa: Axonometry, present situation.
Fig.59 Ad-Dabbagha Madrasa: Ground plan and cross section.
Fig.60 Ad-Dabbagha Madrasa: Roof plan and section N-S.
Fig.61 Ad-Dabbagha Madrasa: Commemorative inscription slab.
Fig.62 Hammam Manjak: Site plan before clearance.
Fig.63 Hammam Manjak: Elevation of west facade.
Fig.64 Hammam Manjak: Plan and section of reception room.
Fig.65 Hammam Manjak: Roofplan and south elevation.
Fig.66 Hammam Manjak: Plan and longitudinal section.
Fig.67 Hammam Manjak: Mastaba and central water basin.
Fig.68 Hammam Manjak: Muqarnas pendentives, restored.
Fig.69 Hammam Manjak: Lintels of door and windows.
Fig.70 Hammam Manjak: Entrance portal, restored.
Fig.71 Hammam Manjak: Details of water niche.

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Fig.72 Hammam Manjak: Details of water niche.
Fig.73 Hammam Manjak: Details of water chute.
Fig.74 Hammam Manjak: Axonometric section, dome restored.
Fig.75 Hammam Manjak: Section, technical installations.
Fig.76 Hammam Manjak: Diagramatic view, technical installations.
Fig.77 Hammam Manjak: Comparative plans.
LIST OF PLATES
Plate 1. Traditional building construction: Transverse stone arches spanned by

stoneslabs supported by stone corbels. Azraq.
Plate 2. Traditional building construction: Double row of corbels, one about

the other to support roofing. Umm al-Jimal.
Plate 3. Traditional building construction: Double-ended corbelstone with

carved floral designs at the corners. Bosra.
Plate 4. Vernacular housing: Two storied main facade with corbelled staircase
to second floor. Umm al-Jimal.
Plate 5. Vernacular housing: Main facade with corbelled steps, balcony and
shade stones. Mu'arribeh.
Plate 6. Traditional building construction: Broken stonesteps and balcony

corbelled from the main facade. Mu'arribeh.
Plate 7. Traditional building construction: Interior showing pier and

tripartite window arrangement above doorway. Bosra.
Plate 8. Traditional building construction: Plain, highly finished and

quadrated masonry framing doorway. Inkhil.
Plate 9. Vernacular housing: Lower part of facades with corbelled steps and
broken balkony, western wing. Mu'arribeh.
Plate 10. Traditional building construction: Double-hinged stonedoor set in

wall of heigly finished masonry. Mu'arribeh.
Plate 11. Vernacular housing: Main facade. Djemmerin.
Plate 12. Traditional building construction: Stone masonry, interior part of

first floor walling. Djemmerin.
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Plate 13. Traditional building construction: Stone vault of basaltslabs, inner

part of room adjoint to main hall. Djemmerin
Plate 14. Traditional building construction: Original and later pier for
support of transverse arches, main hall. Djemmerin.
Plate 15. Vernacular housing: Terraced houses containing three bayts, south
facade. Inkhil.
Plate 16. Traditional building construction: Tripartite window arrangement with

corbelled shade stones, rear facade. Inkhil.
Plate 17. Vernacular building tradition: Central hall of western bayt showing
entranceway to the right. Inkhil.
Plate 18. Traditional building construction: Detail of pier and wall niches,
western bayt. Inkhil.
Plate 19. Destroyed portal of gateway leading to terraced houses. Inkhil.
Plate 20. Traditional housing demolished to give way for new street lay-out.
Stone lintel of portal laying in front. Inkhil.
Plate 21. Facial relief at corbelstone, eastern bayt, Inkhil.
Plate 22. Facial relief at corbelstone, eastern bayt, Inkhil.
Plate 23. Wall niche with conch-shaped lintel decorated with carved classical
ornaments, main facade. Inkhil.
Plate 24. Large, ovoid-shaped stonevault at the rear of main hall, central
bayt. Inkhil.
Plate 25. Muslim monuments of Bosra: Western facade of Masjid Yaqut and portal
with funerary inscription.
Plate 26. Muslim monuments of Bosra: Interior of al-Fatima Mosque, view towards
the mihrab.
Plate 27. Muslim monuments of Bosra: The citadel, view of tower no. 3 and 6,
showing arched openings of theatre behind.
Plate 28. Muslim monuments of Bosra: Foundation inscription and decoration of

donjon, tower no. 11, facing north.
Plate 29. Muslim monuments of Bosra: al-Mibrak Mosque and Madrasa, view from
south.
Plate 30. Muslim monuments of Bosra: View of mihrab, western sanctuary, al-
Mibrak Mosque.
Plate 31. Muslim monuments of Bosra: Interior view of madrasa annex to the al-
Mibrak Mosque.
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Plate 32. Muslim monuments of Bosra: Detail of pierced stone window in eastern
wall of al-Khidr Mosque.
Plate 33. Muslim monuments of Bosra: al-Khidr Mosque, view from south-west.
Plate 34. Muslim monuments of Bosra: Masjid Shafi'i near the al-Mibrak Mosque,
view from north-east.
Plate 35. Muslim monuments of Bosra: Masjid Shafi'i, view from north-west.
Plate 36. Muslim monuments of Bosra: ad-Dabbagha Madrasa, view from south with
facade on the Birkat al-Hajj open cistern.
Plate 37. Muslim monuments of Bosra: ad-Dabbagha Madrasa, interior view towards
the mihrab.
Plate 38. Muslim monuments of Bosra: Hammam Manjak, interior view of reception
room after clearance.
Plate 39. Restoration works: Hammam Manjak, restoration of northern iwan and
muqarnas pendentives, reception room.
Plate 40. Restoration works: Hammam Manjak, restoration of mastaba and central
water basin, reception room.
Plate 41. Restoration works: Hammam Manjak, reception room, view from north
after clearance before excavation.
Plate 42. Restoration works: Hammam Manjak, view from north, external wall of
reception room under restoration.
Plate 43. Restoration works: Hammam Manjak, reception room, muqarnas

pendentives after restoration.
Plate 44. Al-Tayrouzi Bath, Damascus. Interior of central warm-water room with
flat stucco niches forming muqarnas.
Plate 45. Al-Tayrouzi Bath, Damascus. Interior of central warm-water room with
small glass openings of the dome.
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PREFACE
Context and purpose of study:
The research material presented in this dissertation has been

prepared in Syria during a period of six years from 1984 to
1990. During this time I have been working part-time with the
German Archaeological Institute in Damascus, participating in a
cooperation project with the Syrian Antiquities Department.
Centered on the excavation and subsequent restoration of a
Mamluk bath complex, the research extended to include a study
of all Islamic monuments in the ancient city of Bosra as well
as in the neighbouring region of the Hauran.
The project's objectives were to expose the Islamic history of

the town through a thorough study of the historic buildings and
to assist the Syrian Antiquities Department in the preservation
of the cultural heritage as an integrated part of modern
development. This thesis is presenting the architectural
surveys, which were accomplished during the project period, in
a catalogue of Islamic monuments that also deals with relevant
building archaeological observations and historic research.
In the cause of time, working on the Islamic architecture in

Bosra, I became interested in the study of the vernacular
tradition that existed in the Hauran before the conquest of
Islam in 13 A.H./634 A.D. The eras of Roman and Byzantine
superiority have left an imposing number of classical
monuments, representing the importance of the Hauran during
these periods in particular. The monumental buildings have been
extraordinarily well preserved due to the hard basalt stone.
Also the number of extant vernacular structures dating from
Roman and early Christian times are quite astonishing, far
exceeding what can be found in other areas, where building
materials are less durable. On this background it was
interesting to search for characteristic features of the pre-
Islamic building tradition, which have kept integrity in spite
of new architectural styles and fashion in periods of changing
polities.
The recent domestic structures, representing a timeless way of

building, are interesting in their own right as examples of the
rural, pre-industrial habitation, which is about to disappear.
The main interest of this dissertation, however, is centered on
the pre-Islamic vernacular architecture, which are well pres-
erved in a much better condition in the Hauran due to the hard
and durable basalt stone. The investigation endeavours to show
the rich potential of the vernacular building tradition of
Hauran as a means to understand the development of Umayyad
architecture during the formative years of Islam. Appreciation
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of this type of vernacular architecture is even more important,

because the rapidly changing rural economy imposes a severe
threat to the preservation of ancient town quarters throughout
the Hauran.
Contents of study:
The thesis is dealing with two main topics: the vernacular

building tradition of Hauran and the Islamic architecture of
Bosra. The contents is organized into three parts:
(I) The first part provides a general introduction to the

physical and historical setting of Islamic Bosra. On this
background is the Islamic townscape and buildings treated in a
historic context that is based to a large extend on the more
specific details contained in the catalogue of Islamic
monuments.
(II) The second part of the thesis provides a description

of the vernacular architecture of the Hauran. Based on the
survey of anonymous buildings in Umm az-Zetun, il-Mu'arribeh,
Djemmerin and Inkhil, the characteristic features and
construction methods of pre-Islamic housing are discussed.
(III) The third part contains a catalogue of the Islamic

monuments in Bosra, - altogether nine monuments, originating
from three medieval periods: the Seljuk period of the early
6th/12th century, the Ayyubid period of the first half of the
7th/13th century, and the Mamluk period of the 8th/14th
century, when Bosra obviously prospered during a period of
Islamic renaissance.
Objectives:
The study of historical buildings and ruins is multi-

diciplinary, involving many skills which contribute to a
balanced conclusion. As an architect-restorer by profession
this thesis concentrates on the physical appearance of the
monuments, but does also treat them in the context of the
society, which originally has shaped and used them. Without the
proper historic context the architectural, symbolic and
cultural values cannot be fully understood. Generally
architectural monuments associate with grandious design or
heigh architectural quality and performance. This perception is
of limited consequence in relation to the Islamic monuments in
Bosra, ranging from the most grandious scale of the citadel to
the rather squalid appearance of a small ruinous masjid.
Neither of them represents very delicate and sophisticated
design and yet they have a unique historic interest. In the
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forming of a presentation policy for the cultural heritage

these values must be respected and it is in the hope of
contributing towards this aim, that the present work should be
evaluated.
Originally measured and drawn directly on the spot in scale

1:50, the survey drawings are a means of achieving an intimate
knowledge of the building history. The drawings are indispen-
sable for the visual presentation of the buildings and without
such drawings historical analysis are difficult. The many
modifications and alterations, which most often take place
through the lifetime of a building, often become evident during
the work process and presented in neat and accurate line
drawings, may become obvious to every body. All the Islamic
monuments are presented by plan and sections through the most
significant parts of the building so as to show the
construction and to reveal the most prominent architectural
features. Elevations of the facades are less frequent, as the
external appearance of the buildings to some extent can be
appreciated from photographs. Phased building development plans
and reconstructions are prepared, as well as isometric
drawings, to render an intelligible presentation of the
buildings. But the main emphasis has been put on the accurate
survey drawings, providing an authentic documentation of the
monuments that may last, also as a source of future study.
Previous research
The historic monuments of Syria became subject to the first

scientific research by the middle of the last century, when
Guillaume Rey in 1860 and M. De Vogüe in 1865-77 published the
results of their study that included a rich and evocative
visual illustration of the historic environment. These volumes
were followed at the turn of last century by two comprehensive
scientific publications that still remain the major reference
books on ancient architecture in Syria. R.E.Brünnow and A.von
Domaszewski published Die Provincia Arabia in 1904-09.
Subsequently H.C.Butler published Ancient architecture in
Syria, containing the results of the Princeton University
Archaeological Expeditions to Syria in 1904-05 and 1909. The
Arabic inscriptions have been treated in particular by Enno
Littmann, Jean Sauvaget, Max van Berchem and more recently by
Solange Ory.
Many more romantic travellers, archaeologists, architects and

art-historians have followed, producing a rich and variated
corpus of historical material on ancient Syria, which
constitute the background of all research into the ancient
architecture of the Hauran.
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The renowned Getrude Bell is one of these travellers, who was

drawn by the exotic historic environment of the Middle East.
Based on extensive travels through the then Ottoman provinces
of Lebanon, Syria and Palestine, she provides a delightful
presentation of folklore, history and architecture in the
Hauran to the south of Syria around the turn of the century.
Without pretending to give a scientific description of the
history and architecture in the region but in this respect
referring to the relevant, contemporary litterature, she
submits a narrative account on the journey providing a
captivating picture of the country before the rapid technical
development of our time radically changed the rural society in
the Hauran. Certain passages from her book, The desert and the
sown, may conveniently be quoted here as an introduction to the
subject:
'.....The stony foot of the Jebel Hauran is strewn with

villages deserted since the Mohammedan invasion in the seventh
century. I visited two that lay not far from my path, Shabha
and Shabhiyyeh, and found them to be both of the same character
as Umm al-Jimal. From afar they look like well-built towns with
square towers rising above streets of three-storied houses.
Where the walls have fallen they lie as they fell, and no hand
has troubled to clear away the ruins. Monsieur de Vogüé was the
first to describe the architecture of the Hauran; his splendid
volumes are still the principal source of information. The
dwelling-houses are built around a court in which there is
usually an outer stair leading to the upper story. There is no
wood used in their construction, even the doors are of solid
stone, turning on stone hinges, and the windows of stone slabs
pierced with open-work patterns. Sometimes there are traces of
a colonnaded portico, or the walls are broken by a double
window, the arches of which are supported by a small coloumn
and a rough plain capital; frequently the lintels of the doors
are adorned with a cross or a Christian monogram, but otherwise
there is little decoration. The chambers are roofed with stone
slabs resting on the back of transverse arches. So far as can
be said with any certainty, Nabatean inscriptions and tombs are
the oldest monuments that have been discovered in the district;
they are followed by many important remains of pagan Rome, but
the really flourishing period seems to have been the Christian.
After the Mohammedan invasion, which put an end to the
prosperity of the Hauran uplands, few of the villages were
reinhabited, and when the Druzes came about a hundred and fifty
years ago, they found no settled population. They made the
Mountains their own, rebuilt and thereby destroyed the ancient
towns, and extended their lordship over the plains to the
south, though they have not established themselves in the
villages of that debatable land which remains a happy hunting
ground for the archaeologist' (1).
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(1) Gertrude Bell, The desert and the sown, (1907), London 1985, pp.76-77.
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Acknowledgements
The cooperation project between the Bosra Directorate of

Antiquities and the German Archaeological Institute in
Damascus, started in 1981 under the late director, Sulaiman
'Abd Allah al-Mouqdad, the project continued after 1983 up to
its completion in 1990 under joint direction by Riyad Sulaiman
al-Mougdad and dr. Michael Meinecke, since 1988 Director of the
Museum of Islamic Art, Berlin. During the three annual seasons
from 1981 to 1983 Philipp Speiser, Munich, was assisting with
the initial identification of buildings and the very first
clearance of the Hammam Manjak and he also shortly joined in
the 6th season of work in autumn 1986. I was involved in the
project from 1984 onwards, and the reseach presented in this
dissertation has to a large extend been accomplished under the
auspices of the German Archaeological Institute.
I am glad to have the opportunity to express my sincere thanks

to dr. Michael Meinecke, then director of the institute, who
entrusted me with the responsability to survey and investigate
the Islamic monuments and to assist the Syrian counterparts of
the Directorate of Antiquities in the task of restoring the
Hammam Manjak. Without his encouragement this dissertation
would not have been possible. The results of the archaeological
excavations and the historic research, primarily conducted by
Michael Meinecke, will be treated with considerable more detail
in the final project publication, scheduled to appear as a
monograph of the Damaszener Forchungen. Working together on the
project, we have been sharing in many observations. In
particular I have generated much biographical and historic
information from the discussions to which I am much obliged. I
also gratefully acknowledge the many opportunities to go on
several excursions in Syria and Jordan to see the Hauran
architecture in its proper historic perspective and to
experience other aspects of the unique cultural heritage of
Syria.
Neither would the survey of buildings have been possible

singlehanded. Students of architecture from the School of
Architecture in Copenhagen have participated at various stages
in the work programme. Vanja Hellborg assisted in the survey of
the al-Mibrak Mosque and the ad-Dabbagha Madrasa; Eeva-Liisa
Rauthalati and Chalotte Haas took part in the survey of the
citadel together with Thomas Kampmann, who also helped with the
survey of al-Umari Mosque. All four of them contributed with an
enjoyable and competent co-operation. I should also like to
extend my acknowledgements to Anne and Jørn Ørum-Nielsen as
well as to Birthe and Thorkel Dahl. Thirty years ago - at that
time likewise students of architecture in Copenhagen - they
made the survey of the Roman theatre. Their excellent drawings
now reappear incorporated as an integrated part of the
documentation on the Islamic citadel, totally encasing the
Roman theatre. I also appreciate with gratitude the aid of
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Norbert Hagen, Berlin, who made the levelling of the citadel.

Beate Knuth Federspiel assisted by reading through the text
with a critical eye. And not least, I should like to extend my
appreciations to the Syrian co-operation partners, - especially
Mrs. Wafa 'Audad, Riyadh Sulaiman al-Muqdad and the work
foreman Hasan Hummayyir, who helped to make the numerous stays
in Bosra most enjoyable by offerering their support and much
hospitality.
Flemming Aalund.
Unless credited otherwise all drawings, maps and photographs are by the author.
Head piece: Sketch drawing of commemorative stone slab and decoration on the
northern facade of the citadel, tower no. 11.
Vignettes are depichting Islamic floor patterns from the Al-Umari Mosque
as well as decorative features from the buildings concerned.
Tail piece: Elevation of the muqarnas pendentives in the Hammam Manjak.

14
PART I: THE PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL SETTING
The geographical setting
The Hauran region to the south of Syria is extending about 100

kilometres from north to south and 75 kilometres from east to
west forming a large, slightly undulating landscape that has
been shaped mainly from volcanic activities. The volcanic
origin is directly visible to the north of the area, where
several cone-shaped summits of extinct volcanoes rise above
the large basalt plateau of the Laja, the ancient landscape of
Trachonitis. The central area of the lava lands is formed by
the wide, fertile plain of the Nuqra, the former Batanea, where
overlaying reddish soil provides excellent arable land. This
landscape extends southwest to Umm al-Jimal across the border
to Jordan and southeast to the oasis of Azraq, thereafter
continuing into steppe and desert.
To the east the Nuqra plains are sheltered by the volcanic

massif of the Jabal Hauran, the Aurantis of Antiquity, with
several peaks reaching heights of about 1800 meters above sea
level. The mountaneous area is often named Jabel Druze, or the
Druze mountains referring to the present dominant habitation by
the Druze people. During antiquity, the western slopes of the
mountains were the site of the most prosperous settlements and
prestigious sanctuaries taking the best advantage of the
attractive and spectacular landscape, - just as the modern city
of Suweida is doing today. On the west the region borders on
the mountains of the Jaulan and the terrains of the Golan.
Bosra stands in the middle of the Nuqra plains slightly above

the surrounding land at an elevation of 850 meters above sea
level. This particular siting has been mainly determined by
three factors: (i) the surrounding fertile landscape making
Bosra the natural local centre of the many sedentary settle-
ments that are located throughout the Nuqra plains, (ii) the
perennial spring and the nearby watercourses provide sufficient
supply of water to cover the needs throughout the year, and
finally (iii) the ancient caravan transport routes were
converging on Bosra.
Provided that the precipitation and waterresources are suffi-

cient, two annual harvests of mainly cereal crops can be
secured, but also figs, wine and vegetables are important crops
today as they were in antiquity. The siting close to the Wadi
az-Zaidi about 3 kilometres to the north of Bosra eminently
secure the seasonal runnoff from the snowcapped mountains of
the Jabal Hauran. Already in antiquity huge pools were
15
constructed to collect the surplus water for storage awaiting

the dry seasons. Two of these open cisterns are still in use
today serving the modern city of Bosra. The southernmost
cistern, known by the current name Birket al-Hajj (fig.2, no.
10), still alludes to the supply of drinking water for the
Muslim pilgrim caravans using Bosra as the main halting place
on the Darb al-Hajj. The existence of a perennial spring (fig.
2, no. 17) to the northwest of the ancient town furthermore
constitute one of the major preconditions for a continual
supply of the most vital sweet water during periods of severe
drought.
The system of roads converging on Bosra, formulated in

antiquity, remains till today one of the basis features of the
region. The most ambitious road building project was the Via
Nova Traiane accomplished over the years 111-115 A.D. (1).
Throughout antiquity this north-south 'highway' served as the
major line of communication extending southward from Bosra as
far as Aqaba at the Read Sea. The new Arabian frontier between
Bosra and Ma'an to the south of Amman in Jordan was fortified
by a a double line system of Roman forts. One following the Via
Nova and another auxiliary line extending along the edge of the
desert steppe further to the east. Both were traced by roads
with interconnecting crossroads linking the two north-south
lines (2).
The two bridges spanning the Wadi az-Zaidi about 3 kilometres

to the north of Bosra demonstrate the continued importance of
the road network throughout the Middle Ages. The bridge at
Djemmerin, for instance, dated by inscription to about 568/1173
of the Ayyubid dynasty, marks the route passing northward along
the eastern fringes of the Laja to Damascus. Another bridge on
Wadi az-Zaidi further to the west near al-Kharaba, dated by
inscription to 623/1226 is part of the western road system to
Damascus, passing Ezra, as-Sanamain and al-Kiswa (3) (cf. map
of the Hauran area, fig. 1).
After the Muslim conquest Bosra gained importance as a caravan

stop on the Darb al-Hajj, leading from Damascus via Bosra
further south to the Holy Cities of Mecca and Medina. Bosra
itself became a place of pilgrimage due to the several legends
reaching back into the formative years of Islam associated with
the al-Mibrak Mosque (cf. description of the monument in the
catalogue of buildings). A vivid first-hand account on the
pilgrimace dating to the year 726/1326, is provided by the
famous traveller Ibn Battuta:
'... the Hijaz caravan went out to the outskirts of Damascus

and encamped at the village called al-Kiswa...We marched from
Al-Kiswa to a village called 'al-Sanamain, a big place, and
marched on from there to the township of Zur'a, a small place
16
in the district of the Hawran. After a halt in its vicinity we

travelled on to the town of Bosra; it [too] is a small place.
It is the usual practise of the caravan to stop there for four
nights so that any who have remained behind at Damascus to
finish off their business may make up on them. It was at Bosra
that the Apostle of God (God bless and give him peace) came
before his mission, while engaged in trading on Khadija's
account, and in the town [there is shown] the place where his
she-camel couched, over which a great mosque has been erected.
The inhabitants of Hawran flock to this town [with their
produce] and the pilgrims supply themselves here with
provisions for the journey..'(4).
By the 8th/14th century the preferential Hajj route was

possibly going via al-Muzairib and Dera'a as testified by the
new Mamluk travel facilities constructed in al-Muzairib and the
enlargement of the Great Mosques in Dera'a and Ezra (5). But
the general depopulation of the region and the dangers caused
by the marauding nomads during the 11th/17th century, resulted
in a definite shift of the Hajj route away from Bosra in favour
of the western route (6).
These outline topographical and economic features of the Hauran

explain the important strategic position of Bosra. First the
site was choosen as the northern capital of the Nabateans under
Rabbel II (70-106 AD). Subsequently Bosra became the capital of
the Roman Provincia Arabia, the seat of the governor and the
headquarters of the legion III Cyrenaica (7). During Byzantine
times it remained the only city of the Hauran to be the seat of
a bishopric under the patriach of Antioch. Followed by an
interlude of about five centuries Bosra regained prime
strategic importance in the Middle Ages by the construction of
the Ayyubid citadel in the 7th/13th century, designed to ensure
the safety of agriculture and commerce in the region.
Notes and references
(1) Doris S. Miller, 'Bosra in Arabia, Nabatean and Roman City of the
Near East', British Archaeological Report, International Series, Oxford, 1983,
pp. 110-127.
(2) The double limes-system was thorougly surveyed by Brünnow and

Domaszewski, Die Provincia Arabia, Strassburg, 1905, vol. I, P. 470 ff.; vol. II,
pp.221-227. Subsequently treated by A. Poidebard, La trace de Rome dans le désert
de Syrie. Limes de Trajan. Le limes de Trajan à la conquête arabe. Recherces
aériennes (1925-1932), Bibiothèque archéologique et historique vol. XII, Paris,
1934, p. 27 ff. Also S.T.Parker, The Historical development of the Limes
Arabicus, (unpubl. Ph.D. thesis), University of California, Los Angeles, 1979.
17
(3) Enno Littmann, pp. 60-61.
(4) Ibn Battuta, The Travels of Ibn Battuta A.D. 1325-1354, (trans.
H.A.R. Gibb), Cambridge 1958, vol.I, pp. 158-59.
(5) Michael Meinecke, 'The Great Mosques of the Hauran', International

Colloquium on the History and Archaeology of the Suwaida Mohafazat, October 1990,
Les Annales Archéologiques Arabes Syriennes [1991].
(6) Maurice Sartre, Bostra, des origines à l'Islam, Bibliotèque

archéologique et Historique, vol. CXVII, Paris, 1985, p.41.
(7) G.W. Bowersock, 'A report on Arabia Provincia', Journal of Roman

studies, vol.LXI, 1971, pp.219-242.
Outline development of historic townscape and buildings.
Initiated by the Nabateans, the significant architectural

development of Bosra is dating back to the 1th. cent. A.D. The
most conspicuous vestiges of the architectural quality and
exquisite craftmanship from this period is the Nabatean gate
and the one standing column next to it. Otherwise very little
has been preserved testifying to this flourishing period during
the first centuries A.D., when Bosra became the new capital of
the Nabatean kingdom. With the passage of time about 2-3 metres
of deposits have accummulated above the original street level
as it can bee seen at the Nabatean gate situated in the eastern
part of the old town area (1). Among other preserved monuments
the so-called 'Palace of Trajan' is possibly dating from the
2nd cent. A.D., constructed as the royal residence of Rabbel II
(70-106 A.D.), who gave Bosra preference over Petra as the
capital of the Nabatean kingdom (2). If this early dating will
confirmed from archaeological evidence, the 'Palace of Rabbel'
is among the oldest extant building in Bosra providing
interesting clues to the architectural development and the
local building tradition in the region as discussed in the
following chapter.
There is reason to suppose that the Nabatean urban settlement

occupied the eastern parts of the ancient town area and it
would be tempting to suppose that the existing arch originally
marked the western boundary of the Nabatean town. The change of
direction of the street pattern to each side of the gate may
corroborate this hypothesis, providing a close parallel to the
Nabatean plan of Damascus (3). If the Nabatean town was
18
extending further to the west, these parts have been destroyed

anyhow by the subsequent Roman expansion. Today the Nabatean
gate is a landmark defining the eastern end of the main street,
oriented in east-west direction and forming the backbone of the
Roman city.
The Roman urbanization was triggered off by the annexation of

the Nabatean kingdom after the dead of Rabel II in 106 A.D. and
the consequent consolidation of the Roman Provincia Arabia. The
large number of monumental buildings, colonnaded streets and a
distinct town plan testify to the importance of Bosra as the
seat of the Roman colonial headquarters (4). Especially the
Roman main theatre has been remarkably well preserved within
the later, formidable Arab fortress. The true picture of the
excellence of the Roman town may be difficult to visualize due
to the later destructions and much still remain to be
systematically and scientifically uncovered.
The difference in level between the built-up areas and the

surrounding cultivated land in all probability outline the full
extent of the Roman city, firmly secured behind strong
fortifications defining the boundary of the city. The Roman
wall no longer stands, however, having been dismantled and
possibly used for the construction of the Islamic citadel
leaving only masses of stone from the inner core to be seen
along the western and northwestern precincts. Furthermore, the
foundation of the minaret ajoint to the al-Mibrak Mosque
constructed of bossed, cyclopean masonry may be part of the
original Roman fortifications, thus marking the extend of the
classical town towards the north-east (5). The military
encampment of the 3rd Legion of Cyrenaica was situated outside
the fortification, immediately to the north of the civilian
town. A single domed structure, originally forming part of the
North Baths is the only remaining structure, but many stamped
tiles relating to the legion have been discovered by surface
surveys at the site (6). Towards the east and the south-east
where the difference in level is less discernible, some
uncertainty still relates to the boundary of the ancient town.
The schism of the Roman Empire and the subsequent Byzantine

dominance of Syria may not have caused any major changes to the
Hauran. What really mattered in terms of buildings was the
emergence of Christianity and the launching out into ambitious
building schemes of churches, monasteries and related
structures, mainly dating from between mid IVth century and the
early VIIth century. Relying on epigraphic sources and taking
the building activity as a reflection of the general
prosperity, the peak was reached in the VIth century at which
time Bosra had two large Christian cathedrals. Both crowned by
central domes and relating to the size of the ground plan, they
have numbered with the most conspicuous edifices of the
Byzantine empire (7). The plan of the Cathedral of Saints
Sergius, Bacchus and Leontius (512-13 A.D.) measures 49 by 37
19
meters, rivalling the largest of the great Christian martyria

churches. It has even been suggested that the Bosra cathedral
was a model for the Dome of the Roch in Jerusalem, one of the
most celebrated and most remarkable monuments of early Islam
(8). The excavation of the second cathedral, started in 1989 by
the French archaeological mission, so far indicate that the
plan reaches an even bigger size (9).
The ecclesiastical group of buildings including the northern

Cathedral, the socalled Basilica of Bahira and the bishops
palace, formed the Christian center of the ancient city,
whereas the newly discovered cathedral is situated further to
the south, near the 'palace' and the Nabatean Gate. Sited
without any obvious relationship to the great colonnaded
avenues articulating the image of the classical city, the
erection of these large Christian edifices obviously started to
blur the orthogonal plan of the Roman city.
In short, such was the scenario at the time of the Arab

conquest of the Hauran that took place, according to an
inscription that reads: '..in the year 24 (/645 of the Emperor
Heraclius)..the Caliph 'Umar ..captured the city Bostra and
many other cities, even as far as Gabitha'(10). The swift Arab
conquest of Syria and Egypt was possibly facilitated by the
previous war between Persia and Byzantium in the early 7th
century, at which time Syria and Palestine were held by the
Persians for about 15 years (11). In any case, the exodus of
the Christian communities and the gradual transformation of the
society under the impact of Islam was decisive of the
subsequent development in the Hauran. Churches continued to be
built elsewhere in the Hauran for a limited period of time, but
it may be symptomatic of the deminishing Christian population
that the last Christian building activity is recorded in the
year 668 A.D. and at some undetermined date before the middle
of last century, the apse of the large northern cathedral was
modified in the local style of construction possibly serving a
much decimated Christian community (12).
It is beyond the scope of this paper to elaborate upon the

historic circumstances leading to this crucial event. The short
outline of the background centred on the architectural
achievements suffice as a background to a better understanding
of the build environment at the time of the Arab conquest.
20
The historic development of the Islamic town (13)
The role of Bosra during the succeeding period of Umayyad rule

(41/661-132/750) can only be conjectured on the basis of meager
archaeological evidence. Domestic life does not seem to have
been affected all of a sudden according to a new 'Arab' or
'Muslim' taste. There is good reason to believe that the
fertile land and the network of interrelated farming settle-
ments have been capable of supporting a continued urban life
independent of the major political changes.
In Bosra the only structure known so far, originating from the

formative years of Islam, has been excavated recently at the
Northwest Tell, near the perennial spring of al-Jahir to the NW
of the town. According to the pottery and the numismatic
evidence the building can be dated to the late Umayyad period.
The plan opening on an open courtyard exposes a linear arran-
gement of rooms and a construction of walls and door frames
quite similar to current housing in Bosra, providing ample
evidence of a persistent vernacular building tradition in the
Hauran. The excavation also reveals continued human activity up
to about the middle of 2nd/8th century, when the habitation was
interrupted, possibly as a result of an earthquake in 129/747,
and life was not resumed in that part of the town until modern
times (14).
Recent stratigraphical investigations at the Roman South Bath,

sustain this hypothesis (15). The large domed structure has
been used continuously since Umayyad time, serving as
workshops, living quaters and most recently for storing of
animal fodder. The eastern part of the structure obviously
served domestic functions, at least up to the 2nd/8th century.
Thereafter, possibly in consequense of the same earthquake it
was abandonned only to be occupied again during the Ayyubid and
Mamluk period. This view is also corroborated by archaeological
research in other parts of the Hauran, confirming that
occupation continued at least until the fall of the Umayyad
Caliphate in 132/750, whereupon many sites in the Hauran seem
to have been deserted (16).
The absence of monumental buildings dating from the Umayyad and

the following centuries of Abbasid rule, may be indicative of
an economic decline that was further exacerbated by the Abbasid
revolution and the transfer of political power from Damascus to
Mesopotamia, where the newly founded capital of Baghdad
outshone all the ancient cities of Syria (17). The turbulent
political changes of the society would not, however, need to be
imply a total depopulation of the Hauran. Obviously, Bosra
became a centre of pilgrimage to the new faithful Muslims by
virtue of the previous visits of the Prophet and the arrival of
the very first copy of the Holy Koran, which was brought to
Bosra (18). Commemorating these events, the first Muslim
21
sanctuary of unknown date was sited outside the precinct of the

classical city and incorporated, at some later time as part of
the al-Mibrak Mosque (fig. 55).
The most tangible achievements of the Arab Umayyads are located

in the steppe and desert lands of eastern Syria and Jordan,
where a number of large country estates were constructed during
the 1th/7th and 2nd/8th cent., relying on settlements and
irrigation systems that existed before the conquest. At least
to the north of Syria, the rich agrarian settlements of the
Byzantine period (19) had been depending on external markets
for their products outside the Muslim world. Under Umayyad
rule, the economy could not be maintained to the same level as
before and a similar regression can be assumed to have
influenced the economy of the Hauran. The dynastic changes that
came about by the fall of the Umayyads may be given several
interpretations of political and economic character. Of
specific interest to this study, I take note of the theory put
forward by Oleg Grabar (20) that the Umayyads were relying on
the infrastructure already existing in the area, but without a
solid economic basis, it declined and eventually only a few
places survived after the fall of the dynasty.
Relating to the ancient town of Umm al-Jimal, now located to

the north of Jordan, the irregular street pattern and lack of
formal town planning is remarkable and yet, the elaborate
design and high quality of craftmanship resembles houses
generally ascribed to the Roman and Byzantine periods. The
recent archaeological excavations give reason to a later dating
of these buildings than usually assumed, and there is evidence
of an unbroken period of habitation continuing also during
Umayyad time. Furthermore, the numerous gravestones indicate
that the residents were local Arabs nomads, who settled and
possibly built the houses of Umm al-Jimal under the security of
Pax Romana provided by the Roman Empire (21). It is confirmed
from inscriptions in the Christian period elsewhere in the
Hauran that the inhabitants were already Arabs before Islam and
the many instances in the Hauran of buildings which are well-
constructed in the style found in Byznatine times and the
proximity to deposits of Ayyubid or Mamluk wares could argue
for a later Islamic date (22).
Looking further back in time, buildings of Nabatean origin in

the desert of Negev, - especially as demonstrated at the
excavations of Mampsis to the north of Petra (23), have so many
features in common with domestic houses of the Hauran that the
resemblance cannot be accidental. These observations are
interesting and allows for a much more liberal interpretation
of the chronology than previously considered mainly relating to
the influence of the Roman and Byzantine architecture on the
vernacular way of building.
22
The Islamic renaissance of Bosra.
Bosra regained a new importance in the Middle Ages, obviously

reflecting the continued significance of the city as a place of
high strategic importance for the control of southern Syria,
alongside the neighbouring Salkad (24). The major part of
Islamic buildings, erected during a period of Islamic
renaissance owe their form and architectural detailing to the
influence exerted by the ruling classes. Most of the existing
Islamic monuments date from the Seljuk period (late 5th/11th-
6th/12th cent.) and especially from the Ayyubid period, when
Bosra served as the residence of several members of the royal
family, most notable of as-Salih Isma'il, who was in possession
of the city from 615/1218 until 644/1246. Despite the
destruction caused by the Mongol occupation in 658/1260 the
city prospered well into the late 8th/14th century. Althogether
nine monuments have been preserved testifying to the regained
prosperity of the city that culminated in the first half of the
7/13th cent.
The citadel is remaining the most conspicuous building complex

occupying a commanding and dominating position in the town.
Apart from the initial fortification of the Roman theatre in
481/1088 showing local features, all succeeding building
schemes bear an obvious stamp of imperial design, mainly
characterized by the introduction of cross vaults and tunnel
vaults. When the large scale building scheme of the citadel was
launched in 599/1202 in response to the growing threat of the
crusaders, columns and stones were pillaged from the classical
monuments to be re-used for the construction. During half a
century the citadel was enlarged to become one of the chief
military monuments of the Muslim world and still remains till
today an authentic monument of fortification and military
strategy during the Middle Ages.
The Great Mosque (al-Jami) was built according to the new

peristyle plan concept, introduced in Syria by the construction
of the Great Umayyad Mosque of Damascus by the time of al-Walid
(96/714-15) and subsequently enlarged to meet the requirements
of the expanding Muslim community. The Islamic city furthermore
boasts two madrasas, both early examples of this type of
religious institution in Syria, anticipating the development of
the four-iwan plan that became synonymous with this type of
religious structure in Islam, especially in Mamluk Egypt. The
small, local mosques (al-masjid) of which there might have been
a total number of about 36 (25), followed the typical local
style of construction used for housing. The al-Khidr Mosque and
the al-Fatima Mosque are both representatives of these modest
buildings, mainly discernible from the outside due to the free
standing minaret, which became the new landmark of Islam from
the 7th/13th century.
23
Considering the great design of the Roman and Byzantine town

complete with public buildings, triumphal arches, colonnaded
streets and town walls, it is hardly possible to imagine the
contemporary life of Bosra during the Ayyubid and Mamluk Ages
in the middle of a decomposing townscape. Apart from the
buildings serving religious purposes Islamic Bosra displays a
puzzling absence of commercial structures such as
caravanserailles or a suq, which are otherwise characteristic
features of a thriving Islamic town. The great influx of
pilgrims on their yearly hajj to the sacred cities of Mecca and
Medina secured some income from the trade in necessary provi-
sions for the journey. The hajj caravans camped only
temporarily for about 4 to 10 days outside the precincts of the
town, and the commerce generated from this annual event could
hardly have secured the citizens a steady income.
Strategic considerations alone would have caused the Ayyubid

and Mamluk governors to build the citadel of Bosra and Salkhad
leaving the surrounding settlements stripped of outer
fortifications. Otherwise, it is difficult to explain the
demolition of the townwalls in favour of a citadel leaving the
inhabitants devoid of communal defence, which for certain would
imply destruction of domestic quarters in advance of any attack
on the citadel.
Another theory on the destruction of the city walls might be

possible on the basis of a statement by al-Makrizi referring to
the restoration of the citadel 'outside the walls' in
consequence of the Mongol invasion of 659/1260 (26). This chain
of events would imply that materials for the citadel were
originating mainly from the nearby Roman hippodrome and the
second Roman theatre eventually deferring the demolition of the
town walls to a later date. The ultimate restoration of the
citadel by order of the Mamluk sultan az-Zahir Baibars
(658/1260 - 676/1278) did not include works on the town itself
(27), and it is uncertain to which extend the housing quarters
were damaged by the Mongol incursion.
The last documented construction works relate to the erection

of the minaret adjoint to the Fatima mosque in 705/1306 and the
construction of the Mamluk bath complex in 775/1373-74. This
building stands out as a unique and isolated example of a
secular building. The main features and methods of construction
immediately suggest a different architecture closely related to
contemporary Mamluk achievements in Damascus, and thereby
indicating the continued attention, which the governors of
Syria was paying to Bosra well into the later part of the
8th/14th century.
The regional importance of Bosra received a final blow in the

24
13th century when the pilgrim caravan routing was diverted via
Deraa 50 kilometres to the west of Bosra, where the village of
al-Muzairib developed into a major caravan halt on the journey.
The subsequent annexation of Syria into the expanding Ottoman
Empire in 922/1516 relegated the Hauran to the position of a
neglected province. Single, individual monuments, such as the
al-Azem Palace at Damascus, give evidence of high architectural
achievements in this period, but obviously no significant
development took place outside Damascus. The Hauran had an
inferior position providing grassland for tribes of nomadic
Arabs marauding the isolated settlements. Bosra did not even
maintain strategic importance. Only a small Turk garrison (28)
was stationed in the citadel, which had anyhow lost importance
due to the common use of gun powder and long range artillery.
The ruined settlements and scattered monuments were sparsely

occupied when the European travellers reported from the area at
the end of the last century. The very first photographs show a
maze of narrow alleys between haphazard structures, many of
which were built on and into remnants of ancient buildings,
using the abandonned structures as a quarry for basalt blocks
(29). Many sites in the Hauran were obviously abandoned
althogether by the early 19th century allowing of renewed
habitation by the Druze, who took a preference of the Djebel
Hauran. At the turn of the century, the population of Bosra
hardly exceeded five hundred inhabitants. But eventually, the
potential wealth of the fertile Nuqra plains attracted new
interests resulting in the steady growth of the population
during this century rising to some 14.300 inhabitants for Bosra
in 1982 according to the official census (30). The less fertile
region to the south of the Hauran has remained partly deserted.
The ancient town of Umm al-Jimal for example, unaffected of
later developments, remains as a vestige of the medieval
settlement providing a rich assemblage of pre-Islamic and early
Islamic housing and civic structures.
The revival of Bosra in the cause of this century has put a

pressure on housing which resulted in continued destruction of
ancient ruins and monuments. Today, Bosra is a thriving
provicial town serving as the centre of the fertile wheat
fields of the Nuqra. The new development takes place mainly to
the south and southwest of the ancient town. Additionally, the
cultural tourism is recognized as a resource of high economic
potential, eventually rivalling the other classical centres of
Jordan and Syria such as Petra, Jerash, Palmyra and Apamea in
archaeological importance. This ambition has triggered off the
clearance and exposure of the antique town plan and ancient
buildings. The resettlement policy of the Department of
Antiquity has caused a shift in housing as most families have
moved to new houses outside the precincts of the old town. In
this process of transition, once again the old town is
abandoned, ultimately to be turned into a dead city revitalized
25
as an open air museum.
(1) Jean-Marie. Dentzer, Sondages près de l'arc Nabatéen a Bosra,

Berytus, vol. XXXII, Beirut 1984, pp. 163-174. Also by Denzer, 'Les sondages de
l'arc Nabatéen et l'urbanisme de Bosra', Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-
lettres, Jan-Mars, Paris, 1986, pp. 63-87.
(2) Maurice Sartre, Bostra, des origines á l'Islam, Bibliotèque

archéologique et Historique, vol. CXVII, Paris, 1985,p. 94. For a review of the
volume in English confer Henry Innes Macadam, 'Bostra Gloriosa', Berytus, vol.
XXXIV, Beirut, 1986, pp. 169-185.
(3) For a possible comparable development of the Nabatean-Roman town

development in Damascus, cf.: Jean Sauvaget, 'Le plan antique de Damas',Syria,
vol. 26, 1949, pp.344-45. See also F.E.Peters, 'City planning in Greco-Roman
Syria', Damaszener Mitteilungen,vol. I, 1981, pp 269-277.
(4) Doris S. Miller, Bosra in Arabia, Nabatean and Roman city of the Near
East, British Archaeological Report, 1983, p.113. For an overall historic account
confer G.W.Bowersock, Roman Arabia, London 1983.
(5) PPUAES, Div.II,sec.A, part 4, p. 294.
(6) Raymond Brulet, 'Estampilles de la IIIe Légion Cyrénaique a Bostra',

Berytus, vol. XXXII, Beirut 1984, pp. 175-179.
(7) Sartre, op.cit., p. 134 ff.; for a comparative study of the plan form
of the large cathedrals see Michel Écochard, Filiation de monuments Grecs,
Byzantins et Islamiques, Paris, 1977.
(8) H.I. Macadam, op.cit., p. 178; i.a. Oleg Grabar, The formation of
Islamic Art, Yale University, 1987; p. 46.
(9) Concerning the actual excavation of the 'new cathedral', cf.

preliminary report by Jean-Marie Dentzer, 'Fouilles Franco-Syriennes à l'est de
l'arc nabatéen (1985-1987): une nouvelle cathédral à Bosra?', International
colloquium: La Siria araba da Roma a Bisanzio, Ravenna, March 1988.
(10) Macadam, op. cit., p. 178.
(11) The Cambridge Economic History of Europe, vol.I, Cambridge, 1952, p.

136; see also The Cambridge Medieval History, vol.IV, part I, Cambridge 1966,
pp.29-30.
(12) Sartre, op.cit., p. 138. The structure fitted into the apse of the
cathedral is shown in plan by de Vogüe, vol. II, pl. 22. See also Raffaella
Farioli, 'Gli Scavi della chiesa dei SS. Sergio, Bacco e Leonzio a Bostra',
Berytus, vol. XXXIII, 1985, pp. 61-74.
26
(13) Additional to the literature noted below the following chapters on

the historic development of the Islamic town and the Islamic renaissance of Bosra
is a condensed account of the material treated in part III containing a
catalogue of the Muslim monuments in Bosra; see also the treatment of the subject
in Flemming Aalund - Michael Meinecke - Riyadh Sulaiman al-Muqdad, Islamic Bosra:
a brief guide (German Archaeological Institute), Damascus, 1990.
(14) Helga Seeden and Jim Wilson, 'Busra in the Hauran, AUB's
ethnoarchaeological project 1980-85', Berytus, vol. XXXII, 1984, pp. 19-24. Refer
likewise: Jim Wilson and Maria Sa'd, The domestic material culture of Nabataean
to Umayyad Period Busra, Berytus, vol. XXXII, 1984, pp. 35-147.
K.A. Creswell, Early Muslim Architecture, vol. I, Oxford, 1932, p.

124, refers to two major earthquakes in the 8th cent., one lasting for days at
Damascus, Tabor, Tiberias and Moab in 727 A.D. and subsequently in the same area
of Palestine and Transjordanania in 129/747.
(15) Sophie Berthier, 'Sondage dans le secteur des Thermes Sud á Busra
(Syrie) 1985', Berytus, vol XXXIII, Beirut, 1985, pp. 5-46.
(16) Geoffrey R.D.King, 'Two Byzantine churches in Nothern Jordan and

their re-use in the Islamic Period',Damaszener Mitteilungen, band 1, 1983, pp.
111-136; idem., 'Some Churches of the Byzantine Period in the Jordanian Hawran',
Damaszener Mitteilungen, band 3, 1988, pp. 35-75.
(17) Islamic Bosra, p.11; cf. also Jan-Christoph Heusch - Michael

Meinecke, 'Grabung im 'abbasidischen Palastareal von ar-Raqqa/ar-Rafiqa 1982-83',
Damszener Mitteilungen, vol. 2, 1985, pp.85-86.
(18) Ibn Batuta, op.cit, pp. 158-59; Sartre, op.cit., p.136.
(19) George Tchalenko, Villages Antiques de la Syrie du Nord, Paris, vol.

1-II, 1953, vol. III, 1958.
(20) Oleg Grabar, 'Umayyad 'Palace' and the Abbasid 'revolution'', Studia
Islamica, vol. 18, Paris, 1963, pp. 5-18.
(21) B.De Vries, 'Research at Umm el-Jimal, Jordan, 1972-1977', Biblical

Archeologist,1979, pp. 49-55.
(22) G.R.D.King, op. cit., 1983, p.135; 1988, pp. 50-51 .
(23) Avraham Negev,' House and city planning in the Ancient Negev and the
Provincia Arabia', Housing in arid lands, (G. Golany ed.), London, 1980, pp.3-30.
See also idem., Nabatean archaeology Today, (Hagop Kevorkian Series on Near
Eastern Art and Civilization), New York, 1986.
(24) Michael Meinecke, 'La ville de Salkhad pendant le moyen-age

islamique', Le Djebel al-Arab: histoire et patrimoine au Musée de Suweida (Jean-
Marie Dentzer ed.), [Paris, 1991].
(25) Sliman Mougdad and Solange Ory, 'Bosra, cité Islamique', Archéologia,
vol. 148, 1980, pp. 22-32.
27
(26) Al-Makrizi, Histoire des Sultans Mamlouks de l'Egypte,

(M. Quatremère trans. from Arabic), vol. I, Paris, 1837, p. 141.
(27) A. Abel, Bosra, in The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New edition, Leiden

and London, 1954.
(28) Burckhardt describes that the castle was garrisoned by only seven
'Moggrebyns' and only twelfe or fifteen families were living in the ruins by the
time of his visit in 1811. John Lewis Burckhardt, Travels in Syria and the Holy
Land, London, 1822, pp. 235-36.
(29) The early photographic documentation of townscape and buildings is

contained at the Byzantine Collection, Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees of Havard
University, Washington DC. A few prints are published by Seeden et al. op. cit.
(30) For a study of the transition of current housing confer Ghada Azar,
Giovanni Chimienti, Haytham Haddad and Helga Seeden, Busra: Housing in tradition,
Berytus, 1985, pp 103-142.
28
PART II: THE VERNACULAR BUILDING TRADITION.
Introduction
The previous chapter has provided a broad historic outline of

the urban development of Bosra. Under the Roman colonial
influence, the concern for aestetics and feeling for the
monumental had produced a planned city with a distinct network
of colonnaded streets. The Byzantine period had less regard for
the linear lay-out of the street pattern. The large churches
were sited away from the main streets of the Roman town,
considerably influencing the character and appearance of the
townscape. After the Islamic conquest, during a period of
recession, the previous ambitious buildings could no longer be
maintained. Nomades coming from the countryside eventually
occupied the houses left empty by fleeing Christians or
possibly took shelter in abandoned Roman and Byzantine
structures. The cathedral was modified at some undefined date
to accomodate a much smaller christian community, unable to
maintain and repair the large edifices and over time, the
Christian structures gradually fell into ruin and eventually
collapsed.
During the period of Umayyad rule, no monumental building

activity has been recorded in Bosra, but occupation continued
as confirmed by archaeological evidence. In Bosra only one
structure, dating from this period, has been excavated and
extant buildings are difficult to verify, simply because later
building programmes have eradicated or altered much of the
early fabric. But smaller towns in the Hauran - Umm al-Jimal
in particular, still provide valuable possibilities for the
study of the vernacular tradition, possibly influencing the
early Muslim architecture.
Whereas the classical Roman and Byzantine impact on the

architecture often becomes immediately visible at the facades
or from the architectural decoration, the plan and construction
often remain concealed architectural features in need of a more
detailed investigation and surveys. These structural and
functional features may be rooted in a local and regional
architecture that has continued to determine local way of
building quite independent of architectural styles and fashions
of different historic period. As a point of departure I would
like to quote K.A.C.Creswell, referring to the so-called Roman
palace at Bosra: '..the palace of the Roman governor, a monu-
ment, which has been completely ignored in all discussion on
the origin of the Umayyad palace and its bayts' (1). It seems
even more surprising that the vernacular tradition has been
left out of consideration in this discussion. Well knowing that
I am drawing upon a limited reference material, I then
29
endeavour to show the rich potential of the vernacular tradi-

tion of the Hauran as a means to understand the monumental
architecture of the Umayyads.
The chapter will deal with the main features of the vernacular
building tradition of the Hauran, emphasizing on materials,
building techniques and architectural details considered to be
of special importance for the development of the early Islamic
architecture. Firstly, as a case study and as examples of the
local vernacular tradition, four structures located at (a) Umm
az-Zetun, (b) Mu'arribeh, (c) Djemmerin and (d) Inkhil are
treated in some detail, figuring as a reference for the
following discussion. Each of the four buildings feature
special aspects of the vernacular tradition representative of
the ancient housing in the Hauran, which will subsequently be
discussed in more general terms under the following headings:
(i) the walling, (ii) the roofing, (iii) the plan and
structural form. The relevant survey drawings are placed at the
end of the chapter and the respective plates at the end of the
thesis.
(1) K.A.C. Creswell, Early Muslim Architecture, (reprint), New York,

1979, vol. I, part II, pp. 214-15. The monument is published by H.C.Butler, who
dates the building from the early Roman period, see PPUAES, Div.II,A, pp. 255-
260; the reconstruction ill. 229, does not include the staircase in the north-
eastern corner of the building; this structure is similar to early Nabatean
examples at Mampsis (modern Kurnub) possibly corroborating Sartres view, that the
building may be attributed to the nabatean period of Rabbel II; cf. Maurice
Sartre, Bostra, des origines á l'Islam, Biblioteèque archéologique et Historique,
vol. CXVII, Paris, 1985, p.94.
30
Case-studies of the vernacular tradition
A: Umm az-Zetun.
The small village of Umm az-Zetun is situated at the eastern

boundary of the Ladja, about 10 kilometres to the north of
Shahba. The ancient town quarters still preserve a few antique
houses featuring highly finished front walls, ornamented door
lintels, shaded window hoods and similar architectural details
seemingly of Byzantine date.
The building surveyed and included as a case-study (fig.8),

represents one of the very few ancient structures with a
colonnade still standing intact to the full height of two
stories in front of the facade. Of the Doric order, with the
upper architrave moulded in a right-lined profile, this
colonnade represents a perfect piece of classical architecture
executed in conjunction with the traditional use of girder arch
and stone slab roofing that otherwise form the characteristic
features of the local architecture. Appearing without any
architectural decoration only limited clues can help to
establish a possible date of this structure.
In early antiquity, the use of colonnaded front arcades seems

to have been common practise, but the vulnerable construction
would tend to be the first part of the building to deteriorate
and eventually collapse. The so-called 'palace' at Bosra may
have been one of the most elaborate examples of a colonnaded
courtyard, and in quite a number of cases, Butler is relating
to fragmented columns laying among the debris in front of
antique houses, f. ex. the Inkhil mansion (2). Ordinary houses
of a more simple design, however, only have a string course to
mark the horizontal floor division, and access to the upper
floors is provided by external stairs of cantilevered stone
planks extending from the wall and executed in a most daring
construction. This building may then serve as a rare example of
an extant classical colonnade that appear in combination with a
traditional plan and construction.
(1) PPUAES, Div.II, sec. A, part 5, pp. 361-362.
(2) Ibid., part 4, p.255 ff.

31
B: Mu'arribeh.
The small town of Mu'arribeh, situated about eight kilometers

to the west of Bosra, near the road leading to Dera'a, displays
four antique structures of exceptional quality. The one
farmstead surveyed (1), illustrates several characteristic
features of the truly lithic architecture, employing basalt
stone for all parts of the construction, including doors,
window shutters and stairs. One such two-winged stonedoor is
preserved in situ as a vestige of the lithic details together
with the broken stonesteps of stairs projecting from the walls
(plates 9-10).
The preserved parts of the complex is made up of two wings,

each containing one bayt (fig. 15). The one unit may have
served as living quarters, while another was used as stabels.
The partition walls are pierced to give room for the mangers,
while the adjoining space is intended for the livestock. The L-
shaped structure forms the one corner of an open courtyard,
which originally may have been enclosed by additional
structures to all four sides.
Looking through the complete survey of domestic structures in

the Hauran as presented by Butler, it appears that the same
uniform planning and construction has been used for all purpo-
ses, as it is also the case in this example at Mu'arribeh. Each
single bayt consists of one large hall in the middle with the
secondary rooms in two stories adjoint to each side.
Structurally, the compartment is one self-contained unit in
which the two lateral parts counterbalance the outward trust of
the big arch spanning the central hall and functionally, the
bayt serves as a flexible, multipurpose and additive unit that
can be combined and attached next to each other, in a variety
of different ways. This structure may then figure as an example
of the general use of the 'bayt', serving all needs in domestic
architecture.
(1) PPUAES, Div.II, sec.A, part 4, pp. 305-307.
C: Djemmerin.
The village of Djemmerin, located about three kilometres to the

north of Bosra, where the ancient road leading towards the
Ladja is crossing the Wadi az-Zaidi, boasts an exellent example
of an antique 'villa' (1).
32
The front of the antique mansion is preserved to the height of

two stories, displaying a perfect symmetry on either side of
the middle axis (fig. 11-13). The living compartment consists
of a large central space and several separate rooms composing
the traditional Arab bayt. The one single arch of the hall has
originally reached to a height of about 9 meters creating one
large space with a total floor area of 9.50 metres square. At
some undefined date, the room has been modified allowing for
one more story to be added as indicated on the ideal
reconstruction proposed by Butler. Whether the building
originally had a pitched roof with a timber construction
likewise proposed by Butler, remains a moot point. The proposal
can possibly be grounded on the large span reaching to about
four metres and far exceeding the length that was feasible to
span with ceiling slabs of basalt stone. The rafter and purlin
construction would not, however, have occured simultaneously
with the second floor, as it would have been inserted in
connection with the alternative arch, reducing the free span to
2.50 metres and allowing the traditional use of ceiling slabs.
The one separate room to the right of the hall appear with an
excellent quality of stone masonry and a highly articulated
interior finish (fig. 13, plate 13). Divided into two parts,
the front area is ceiled with slabs carried upon deep
overhanging mouldings with a carved floral design at the
corners. The rear portion of the room is covered by a barrel
vault composed of basalt slabs, forming and iwan of exquisite
workmanship. A similar arrangement though less sophisticated,
can be traced at the first floor. To a bigger scale this
feature can be found at Inkhil in the large stone vault of the
main hall.
Originally serving as a farmstead, the stables are located at

the eastern part of the building, being partly ruined however,
the full extend of the structure can only be determined by
archaeological excavation. On the basis of the architectural
detailing and the exellent stone work, Butler dates the
building to the 2nd. cent. A.D. (2), but in my opinion the
construction details may just as well relate the building to
the Byzantine period. Taking one example, the relieving lintel
above the middle doorway features a delicate interlocking
stonework that resembles a similar feature at the facade of the
'bishop's palace' at Bosra contemporary with the Cathedral of
Sergius, Bacchus and Leontius at Bosra (512-13 A.D.). But also
the vertical 'sun hood' above the windows is a common feature.
(1) PPUAES, Div.II, sec.A, part B, pp. 300-303.
The term 'villa' is used by H.C.Butler, ibid.. However, the wording alludes to a
Roman country estate, I therefore prefer to use the term 'mansion' meaning any
large and stately house.
33
(2) Ibid., p. 303.
D: Inkhil.
The town of Inkhil is located south of as-Sanamain, about five

kilometres to the west of the mainroad between Damascus and
Deraa. The ancient quarters of the town include several well
preserved mansions of which the so-called 'palace' is
especially interesting (1).
The mansion, still partly inhabited, is divided into three

compartments (bayts), each composed of a central hall with
secondary rooms in one or two stories adjoint to one or both
sides and together forming terraced houses (fig.8-10, plates
15-24). Only the northern wing is preserved, but the original
complex may have included more wings surrounding a large
courtyard with access at the south-east corner, where now the
fragments of the portal is laying on the ground. Presently, the
ancient town center is endangered by demolitions and several
antique houses in the neighbourhood have already been knocked
down in favour of new road constructions.
The central bayt is of impressive proportions, featuring a

large hall in the middle and most astonishing, the vault of
stone slabs with a slight ovoid shape is rising to a height of
about seven metres measured from floor to ceiling (plate 24).
The central and the eastern bayt have one of the separate rooms
decorated with an elaborated corniche featuring carved floral
motives and facial portraits in the style of the Palmyrene
commemorative funeral reliefs (plates 21-22).
Relating to the classical traits in the ornamental decorations,

Butler dated the building to the 2nd cent. A.D. (2). Dentzer-
Feydy, discussing the chronology of classical ornament in the
Hauran proposes a later dating, possibly 4th or 5th cent.,
arguing that the use of Greco-Roman ornaments ceased by the
beginning of the 6th cent.(3). Certain construction details
corroborate this dating. For example, the interlocking courses
to be seen in the large central hall and the sun hood above the
tripartite window arrangement are typical features of the
Byzantine architecture in the area. Anyhow, the shell-niches
put up at the interior seem to be re-used fragments, whereas
the niches at the exterior facade in a much more convincingly
way are incorporated into the masonry bond scheme.
In general, the Inkhil mansion has many features in common with

the Djemmerin 'villa', but the front facade do not display a
similar perfect symmetry and the extended second-hand use of
architectural fragments for the construction, has not
previously been noted. For example, the string course on the
main facade shows remains of a bead-and-reel moulding, the
34
brackets above the interior doorways feature re-used basalt

blocks with egg-and-dart mouldings and the composite character
of the rich architectural decoration give reason to a well
founded suspicion as to the authenticity of the structure.
Whatever date may be confirmed by proper archaeological

stratifications, the ambiguity of plan and decoration is
puzzling indeed. The planning follows the lay-out of domestic
architecture related to the area and even more, the sligtly
ovoid form of the stonevault points to an eastern origin of the
architectural vocabulary. In spite of the classical traits and
motives, the free composition of the facade and the rich
architectural decoration differs, however, from the traditional
housing. On these grounds I am tempted to suggest that the free
eclectic use of the various stylistic elements dates the
building from the Umayyad period.
(1) PPUAES, Div.II, section A, part B, pp. 312-315.
(2) ibid., p. 315.
(3) Jacqueline Dentzer-Feydy, 'Decor architectural et développement du

Hauran dans l'antiquity', Hauran I, Paris, 1986, pp. 261-309.
35
The vernacular building tradition: General features.
The building form has been determined essentially by two

factors. Firstly by the use of basalt as the sole building
material forming a truly lithic architecture and secondly, by
the extensive use of the semi-circular girder arch as a means
to span any larger space, implying that basalt planks can be
used for roofing. By and large the planning is determined by
the uniform bayt made up by one large space in the middle,
adjoint by secondary rooms to each sides. A brief treatment of
the various features of construction, determining the plan- and
sectional form in the local architecture follows for discussion
under the following headings: (i) the walling,(ii) the roofing,
(iii) the plan and structural form, (iv) the iwan, and (v) the
bayt.
(i) The walling: construction and materials
The basalt stone is everywhere locally available in the region.

The hard and durable stone has been used as building material
during all historic periods quite independent of the type and
function of the building. The solid and heavy stone is forming
a mass construction in which apertures and niches become the
principal motive of the architectural vocabulary.
The double walls reach an average thickness of 70-90 centime-

ters with the front and rear facing of a different quality. The
ashlar masonry of the front facade is generally distinguished
by the degree of surface dressing varying from neatly picked
given by the mason in contrast to the natural or crudely
hammered surface used by the waller. Doorways and window
openings are often accentuated by way of a specially refined
surface treatment. Generally, the quality of the ashlar work is
in keeping with the prominence of the building, and the
buildings presented, display a superior quality of finish.
It remains a moot point to which extent the external facades

have been rendered. The upper part of the minaret of al-Umari
Mosque as well as the front facade of the al-Khidr Mosque in
Bosra still bear patches of a hard, durable limeplaster. In the
southern Hauran, Butler found ample evidence of a general use
of plaster upon surfaces of all kinds in the architecture and
even relates that a hard, thin coating was found covering
highly finished architectural details (1). Looking to the
domestic housing of to-day, it can be noted that the interior
of courtyards generally are whitewashed and sometimes even
plastered. In lack of economic means, mudplaster mixed with
straw is commonly used on both internal and external surfaces.
It might therefore be concluded that many more buildings have
been plastered during more prosperous periods in history,
36
giving a more finished appearance of buildings and townscapes

than the otherwise rather gloomy and dark basalt stonewalls can
show.
The internal surface is always made for rendering. When the

plaster has gone, the stone work shows a very crude finish
apart from significant features and mouldings, which were
intended for exposure.
For reasons of stability header stones were placed as cross

joints perpendicular to the face of the wall at regular inter-
vals providing more coherent strength to the double walls. In
some cases the vertical stone courses have been strengthened by
interlocking, horizontal joints, which may be a characteristic
feature of the Byzantine building construction; this devise is
for example found in the wall construction of the Cathedral of
Saints Sergius, Bacchus and Leontius in Bosra dated to the late
VIth cent. It also appears at the St. George church in Ezra, as
well as in the interior walling of the ancient house in Inkhil
(fig. 8, longitudional section).
Once quarried the stones have been used time and again for
building purposes. Existing buildings have been pillaged and
especially decorative and precious features have become the
hall mark of other buildings, or the stones have been re-
moulded to fill a new purpose making any dating of buildings a
very tricky affair. Even for the construction of such a
prestigious edifice as the Cathedral of Bosra, building stones
with carvings dating from the 2nd.cent.A.D. have been re-used.
Another prominent and recent example can be demonstrated by the
transfer of the door-and window lintels from the Hammam Manjak
to a private house belonging to the local sheikh family (confer
catalog of Islamic buildings). In this particular case, the
stones were easily identified due to the foundation text and
the exceptional carvings of Mamluk origin. In most cases,
however, the building stones remain anonymous.
(ii) The roofing.
The restrictions imposed by the bearing capacity of the

basalt stone has determined the roofing shape. Most common is
the flat roof obtained by spanning stoneplanks between corbel
supports on top of the walls or stone-built arches. Above the
corbels, the walls were carried up to about one metre or less,
to weight the corbels and to hold them in place. Alternatively,
double-ended corbelstones were frequently used for the slabs on
either side of the partition wall to counterbalance each other.
The girder arches are spaced at regular intervals of about 2.5

to 3.3 metres and hardly exceeding 4 metres. Due to the maximum
span of the basalt stone slabs, the load-bearing walls and
37
arches are placed at regular intervals creating an almost

modular design. In exceptional cases double rows of corbels,
one above the other have been used to span larger spaces. The
width of the rooms is determined by the span of the arch, while
the length depends on the number of girder arches used for the
construction. This uniform constuction method has been a
characteristic feature of the Hauran architecture during all
known historic periods up to about the 195o's, when Portland
cement made reinforced concrete the supreme medium of
construction radically changing the building style.
The use of girder arches is recorded in early Nabathean

architecture of the Negev dating to the first centuries A.D.
(3). The Parthian architects of northern Persia were using the
same method of roofing with the only difference that they were
building in lime stone requiring more sturdy dimensions,
providing evidence that the building principle was employed
within the whole of the Middle East at least from the 2nd cent.
B.C. onwards (4). During the Byzantine period, lime stone was
likewise used for girder arch constructions in combination with
stone floor slabs to the north of Syria, as can be discovered
f.ex. at Qalat Seman.
The extent to which wood was used for structural purposes is

not fully documented. The large Roman civic buildings were
generally roofed by vaults constructed of light vulcanic
scorcia firmly set in Roman cement as can be seen at the
partly preserved vaults of the bath buildings at Bosra. Vaults
and domes were likewise constructed by use of cut stones as
demonstrated in the most elaborate fashion in the Roman theatre
(5). However, the large number of tile-stamps with the seal of
the III Cyrenaica Legion identified in a surface survey
immediately to the north of the ancient town, indicate
extensive use of burned bricks and roof tiles, possibly used in
combination with timber pitched roofs (6). But all of these
examples relate to formally planned buildings, which do not
represent the local building tradition.
The limestone buildings of nothern Syria, and probably also the

large Christian buildings of the Byzantine period to the South
of Syria, had single and double rafter roofs in combination
with floor slabs of stone as depicted very illustratively by M.
de Vogüe (fig. 5). Many buildings in nothern Syria are still
standing to such a hight that the gables are preserved intact
showing the holes for the purlins. The farmstead at Djemmerin
(fig. 11 and 12) and the so-called Praetorium at Umm al-Jimal
may have had a similar roofing only to mention a few examples.
But it is evident that timber for building purposes became rare
and expensive leading to the dependence of stone as the only
building material. The pediment in stone at the entrance
porches of the Brâd convent and the Batuta chapel to the north
of Syria, illustrate this process of transformation very
clearly (fig. 7). The relief of the pediments are depicting a
38
wooden truss complete with rafters, tie-beam, king post and

struts. The use of such motifs can only be interpreted as a
reminiscence of an earlier construction method, depicting roof
constructions previously prevailing in the area.
The Christians were forced to restrict the use of timber out of

sheer necessity. After all, the cost of transport would
increase proportionally to the distance from the mountains of
Lebanon and timber would be applied only for the construction
of very prestigious buildings. Strabo in Geographica (7) says
directly that the houses of Babylonia and Sassania were all
vaulted because of the lack of wood fit for roofing.
The ecclesiastical importance and spiritual meaning of the dome

continued to influence the architecture of the great religious
edifices no matter whether they were Christian or Muslim
buildings. The cathedrals of Bosra were originally roofed by
central domes constructed of timber (8). This tradition was
carried on as exemplified by the construction of the dome of
the madrasa at al-Mibrak Mosque (530/1136), indicating that
timber would be available and continued to be used in
exceptional cases (for a reconstruction see fig. 53). The
transition from the square to the circle was provided by blocks
of stone set across the angles. This primitive dome-setting was
used in the Hauran already in Roman time as exemplified at the
so-called Kalybé buildings at Shahba and Umm az-Zetun (9).
(iii) The plan and structural form.
Totally depending upon the basalt stone, the plan and the
structural form of buildings are closely interrelated in the
Hauran leading to a restricted architectural vocabulary. The
semi-circular arch of equal, centripetal stones without a
keystone is the form generally used for the traditional
architecture. Every single stone of the arch is cut to the same
curve giving a direct interdependence between the span and the
rise of the arch and consequently, a large floor area would
result in a similar higher floor-to-ceiling height. These
structural implications can possibly explain the indiscriminate
use of the large central space for different functions. For
example, the one central room of the farmstead at Mu'arribeh
served as a stable, while another of equal size where used as
living quarters (fig. 15). This arrangement is common to many
historic buildings of the Hauran and similar features can be
found in Nabatean houses excavated in Mampsis dating from the
first centuries A.D. (10).
Structurally it is an advantage to keep the springing of the

arch low in order to reduce the outward thrust and to diminish
the subsequent pressure on the external walls. The statical
problem can be solved in various ways as exemplified by the ad-
39
Dabbagha Madrasa (fig. 59), where the walls of the adjoining

rooms or the side-iwans are counterbalancing the outward thrust
of the transverse arches. Alternatively, the combination of
secondary rooms of lesser size in two stories positioned at
both flanks of central hall with double floor-to-ceiling
height, provide for the required counterbalance, possibly
explaining the widespread use of the 'bayt' as the universal
plan form. But generally the low springing of the arches remain
a thoroughly local feature of construction (see f.ex. al-Fatima
Mosque, fig. 46).
(iv) The sectional form: The iwan.
The lofty, open iwan was an integrated feature of the Parthian

and Sasanian housing of Persia. The ruins of the main palace at
Hatra for example, features the open porch in combination with
a girder-and stoneslab roofing construction quite similar to
the construction of vernacular houses in the Hauran. The most
striking and impressive example is that of Ctesiphon, the main
palace at the capital of the Sasanian kingdom in Iraq and
Persia, where the great, open vault is spanning 23 metres. The
climatic conditions may be the main reason for the common use
of this feature as an integrated part of the architecture in
the hot, arid areas. This feature has become almost synonymous
with Islamic architecture, forming an integrated part of the
architectural vocabulary and used as a metaphor to denote the
essentials of the Islamic culture. Ibn Khaldun, the keenest
observer of the medieval society writes (with reference to
Cairo): '..She is the Mother of the World, the Iwan of Is-
lam...'(11).
Using the Arab wording, the great iwan at Ctesiphon could

very well be considered to be 'the Mother of Iwans', which
played such an important role in the formation of medieval
architectural concepts and continued to evoke admiration
throughout the Islamic world. For example, the Egyptian
historian Maqrizi refers to the grandious design of the central
iwan at Ctesiphon as a source of inspiration, when he praises
the Madrasa of Sultan Hasan ibn Muhammed al-Nasir (757-64/1356-
62): 'It was built on the grandest scale in the finest harmony
and stateliest form; no temple of the Muslims in all their
lands is its equal... it is said to be greater by five cubits
than the iwan of Kisra at Ctesiphon...'(12).
The spacious central hall of the Inkhil mansion, having the

innermost bay spanned by a large stone vault (plate 24), is not
an open iwan according to the general interpretation of the
form vocabulary. However, there is good reasons to believe that
the vault with a slight ovoid form, relates to the porch that
can be found in the Sasanian architecture, indicating the
continued eastern influence on the architecture in the Hauran.
40
(v) The plan form: The Bayt.
The Inkhil mansion is composed of three separate compartments,

each with one big central room and several, secondary rooms
adjoint. Obviously the size and decoration of the doorway
accentuates different functions or the relative importance of
the various units. It might have been built as terraced houses,
possibly used for habitation by an extended family of several
individual households, but it is difficult to suggest a
definite function of the individual spaces, as long as the
social organization and contemporary way of living is so little
known.
The elaborate plans of the Umayyad palaces of Qasr al-Hayr and

Mshatta (first half of 8th cent. A.D.) and the Abbasid palace
of Ukhaydir (second half of the 8th cent. A.D.) may be
considered an assemblage of similar smaller uniform housing
units, joined together within a fortified complex of a formal
design. Each of the individual units are typically composed of
one central room or hall adjoint by smaller rooms on each side.
The self-contained compartments are generally refered to as
'bayts', using the Arabic term for 'house' or 'dwelling',
whether it might be the tent of the normads or the house of
sedentary people.
The plan arrangement also shows great resemblance to Parthian

and Sasanian architecture of Persia and a reference to the main
palace of Hatra falls near at hand (fig. 4). This formal
structure of grand design is composed originally of two iwans.
At a later time the palace was extended by adding two more in
succession. Each of the iwans have secondary rooms in two
stories connected with them. Apart from the scale and the open
front of the iwans, the similarity of planning to the terraced
houses at Inkhil is very striking indeed and hardly
accidential.
Textual sources related to Umayyad ceremonies indicate that

next to the formal majlis used for receptions, there was also a
majlis al lahwah intended for entertainments and pleasure
(13).
This description can give a plausible explanation to the plan
form of the Inkhil mansion. The prodigious space of the central
bayt with double floor to ceiling height would then be assigned
to ceremonial functions serving as a reception room, or
alternatively as an all-purpose room providing access to the
secondary rooms, mostly without natural light and possibly
serving as sleeping rooms. The same feature of construction can
be found throughout the Hauran for the planning of domestic
architecture.
The impressive barrel vault of dressed basalt stones spanning

the inner-most bay of the Inkhil mansion (plate 24) accentuates
the perception of a space intended for ceremonial funtions and
41
cannot but give associations to the great vaults of the Umayyad

and Abbasid palaces at for example Mshatta and Ukhadir, if not
relating to the Partian main palace of Hatra or to the great
royal Sasanian palace of Taq-i-Kisra at Ctesiphon. The vaults
of Hauran may then be considered as a more modest reflection of
the grandious design or as a prototype depending on the rela-
tive age of construction, but it seems quite obvious that the
planning are forming part of the same architectural vocabulary,
irrespective of the building materials. The building tradition
of Hauran has always been entirely depending on basalt stone
requiring certain modifications compared to buildings
constructed of bricks, but the principal features prevail,
still available for study in simple house architecture in the
Hauran due to the durability of the basaltstone.
The relationship between early Western Islamic architecture of

the Umayyads and the Sasanian tradition has previously been
indicated (14), but taking the ancient Inkhil mansion as an
example, there is a Syrian vernacular tradition, which form a
link between the Parthian and Sasanian architecture and the
later Umayyad style. This relationship is pointing towards a
pervasive eastern influence at the plan and form of building
manifested quite independently of religious faith and changing
polities.
On this background it is perhaps an underestimation of the

Umayyads to relate to the desert 'palaces' with their spacious
rooms as 'barely organized shelters to which a still partly
nomadic population brought rugs, pots and bundles' (15).
Conclusion:
Centering on the classical Roman and Byzantine architecture of

the Near East, monuments have often been dated too early. Even
today much doubt exists whether the ruins at Anjar in Lebanon
are Umayyad or earlier and due to the many classical traits,
Qasr al-Hayr East in Syria was considered for a long time to be
a Roman fort or city in spite of its fairly well preserved
mosque (16). It might be sensible to assume that these new,
highly sophisticated desert settlements were closely related
and depending on an agrarian community, which persisted in the
Hauran. Assuming that the desert settlements are reflecting a
contemporary building tradition firmly established in the more
fertile parts of the Hauran, it would then be obvious to
conclude that they were part of the same cultural
establishment, which continued to exist within the Hauran also
after the Islamic conquest of 13/634 A.D.
The elaborate facade of the terraced houses at Inkhil is

presenting a puzzling example of re-use as outlined in the
presentation of the building. Supposing that the stones and
42
architectural detailing originate from a higly sophisticated

building dating from the Roman or Byzantine period, it would be
logical to grant it a reasonable span of life before demolition
and the new structure may be considerably later than the IV -
Vth cent. A.D., possibly being erected well into the Umayyad
period (17).
There is no doubt that a good deal of immitation took place

throughout the Hauran, as it is always the case in
architectural development. Especially in a period of
instability with a still undetermined future, the local
craftsmen may have resorted to the use of the previous skills
and traditions, picking up whatever avaiable materials were at
hand and combining the various fragments according to local
taste and likings. In such cases a considerable timelack has to
be reckoned and the arbitrary adaptations of local as well as
imported architectural fashion easily leads to an eclectic
architecture, which cannot alone be dated on basis of a unique
architectural style of a specific historic period.
Very well aware of the limited reference material, but many

more examples can be drawn from the list of buildings published
by Butler, I endeavour to conclude that the bayt was the basic
housing unit in the Syrian vernacular architecture of the
Hauran. The plan and construction can be traced to an eastern
influence of Partian and Sasanian architecture, but only few
monumental buildings are known from these historic periods; not
to speak of the vernacular housing, which have all gone due to
the fragile building materials of bricks. In Syria these
anonymous structures are preserved in a fairly good condition
up to the present day because of the hard and durable basalt
stone, providing a unique possibility to study examples of a
regional architecture that was used in Umayyad and well into
the Abbasid period. What eventually will happen with these
vestiges of the vernacular tradition in consequence of the
current rapid town development is quite another story.
(1) PPUAES, Div.II, sec.A, part 2, p.69.
(2) PPUAES, op. cit., p. 312
(3) Avraham Negev, House and city planning in the Ancient Negev and the
Provincia Arabia, Housing in Arid lands, (G. Golany ed.), London, 1980, pp. 3-32.
(4) Oscar Reuter, 'Partian private houses and palaces', A survey of

Persian Art (A. Upham Pope, ed.), vol.I, London, 1939, pp. 426 ff.
(5) Helge Finsen, Le levé du Theatre Romain, Anelecta Romana Instituti

Danici VI, Supplementum, Copenhagen, 1972.
43
(6) Raymond Brulet, Estampillers de la IIIe légion Cyrénaique à Bostra,

Berytus, vol. 32, 1984, pp. 175-179. See also Henry Macadam, Bostra Gloriosa,
Berytus, vol. 33, 1986, p. 176.
(7) Strabo, Geographica,(1472), book XVI, chapter i.5; as referred by

Oscar Reuther, op.cit., p. 427.
(8) Herzfeld, 1943, vol. III, p.67.
(9) M.de Vogüe, vol. I, pl. 6. The Kalybé at Umm az-Zetun is also
discussed by K.A.Creswell, Early Muslim Architecture, vol.I, Oxford, 1932, p.
308.
(10) A. Negev, op. cit., p. 3-32.
(11) John Alden Williams, 'Urbanization and Monument constructions in

Mamluk Cairo', Muqarnas, An Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture (O. Grabar,
ed.), vol. 2, Yale University Press, 1984, p. 33.
(12) Makrizi, Khitat, quoted by John Alden Williams, ibid. p. 45.
(13) Oleg Grabar,The formation of Islamic Art, Yale University Press,

1987, p.148.
(14) The subject is especially treated by:
- Franz Oelmann, Hilani und Liwan haus, Bonner Jahrbücher, vol. 127, 1922, pp.
189-236.
- K.A.C. Creswell, Early Muslim Architecture, (reprint), New York, 1979, vol. I,
part II, pp. 515-518.
It may be relevant also to compare with the local building tradition of

Khorassan, in present day Afghanistan, showing a quite similar plan and
structural form of buildings quite independent of material testifying to a
widespread use of the bayt as the typical housing unit within the Near East and
Central Asia throughout all historic periods.
(15) O. Grabar, op. cit., p. 143.
(16) ibid., p.168-70.
(17) For a more detailed analysis of the architectural decoration in the

Roman and Byzantine Hauran confer J. Dentzer-Feydy, 'Décor Architectural et
Développement du Hauran dans l'Antiquité', Bibliothéque archéologique et
historique, vol. 124, Hauran I, (J.-M.Dentzer, ed.), Paris, 1985, pp. 261-309.
44
PART III: THE MUSLIM MONUMENTS OF BOSRA.
Introduction
The previous chapters provide a broad outline of the history

of Bosra and the architectural development in the Hauran,
centering on the vernacular tradition in the pre-Islamic
period.The proliferation of historic ruins throughout the
gently sloping countryside of the Hauran and the hilly parts of
the Jabal Hauran give evidence of the rich and varied cultural
influences that shaped the building form and style. The number
of monuments are quite astonishing, considering that the well-
cut stone blocks have been taken from existing buildings to be
used time and again for new constructions. For this reason the
extant buildings do not provide a reliable picture of any
specific historic period. Furthermore, the frequent re-use of
building stones in combination with the durability of the
basaltstone, makes it difficult to establish an exact
chronological reference to the building development in the
region.
Obviously, the plan and sectional form of domestic houses did

not undergo any substantial changes from the Nabatean and well
into the Umayyad period. Only very few vestiges of building
activities in the Abbasid period are recorded and the
subsequent development of the vernacular architecture is
difficult to trace in lack of archaeological evidence, and
anonymous domestic housing can only be verified from authentic
archaeological stratifications, which are still few in the
area. The devastating effect on the entire urban situation that
was caused by several earthquakes in the 2nd/8th cent., may be
one reason to the complete lack of monumental buildings from
this period in the Hauran. But also the shift of the capital
from Damascus to Bagdhad transferred the dynamic development
within Islam further eastwards. This situation, however, would
not necessarily lead to a total depopulation of the Hauran.
Generally the Muslim monuments are dated by foundation

inscriptions. The first inscriptions dating from the formative
years of Islam possibly relate to the construction of the al-
Umari Mosque, but the provenance of the inscription stones
being uncertain, the first affirmative Islamic construction can
be assigned to the year 481/1088, when the initial
fortification of the Roman theatre took place. During the
following three centuries a series of major construction
schemes were accomplished in Bosra testifying to a new
revitalization of the city during the Ayyubid and Mamluk
periods. Each of these monuments will be treated in following
chapter arranged as a catalogue of buildings.
45
The Bosra citadel (481/1088 - 649/1251-52).
Introduction.
The Ayyubid citadel encircling the Roman theatre is the

mightiest and most conspicuous structure of Bosra. Whereas most
of the antique buildings have been pillaged in the course of
time, the Roman theatre of the early 2nd century A.D. ranks
together with the Aspendus (Greek: Aspendos) theatre in Antalya
province in Turkey, among the best preserved buildings of the
kind within the entire Roman world.
The preservation is mainly due to the fact that the theatre

came to serve a new function, justifying its continued
existence: At first the two staircase towers situated at the
flanks of the scaena of the theatre were altered for defence
purposes in 481/1088. Subsequently all the numerous entrances
from the outside were closed off and in a short time, the Roman
theatre was turned into a stronghold. Gradually, during a
period of about 150 years the outer facade of the theatre
became surrounded and strenghtened by the construction of a
subsidiary outer line of defence consisting of altogether nine
towers and intermediate curtain walls. To the inside the cavea
was encapsulated by the construction of a cistern with two
vaulted stories above serving as magazines and arsenal of the
garrison. The final form, with eight massive towers projecting
from the defensive perimetre of the citadel was finally reached
in about 649/1251-52.
To-day the building displays a remarkable example of medieval

fortification, warfare and military strategy testifying to the
important position of Bosra as a stronghold, especially to the
Ayyubid empire under the threath of the crusaders and the
Mongols. From an historic and architectural point of view, the
design and methods of construction display a remarkable
development, allowing for the study of ten centuries of
building history within the same edifice.
Previous studies of the edifice.
Due to the complex origin of the structure any description of

the citadel has to take its point of departure in the original
Roman structure. The very first sketchy survey was prepared by
Guillaume Rey in 1858 (1). Subsequently M. de Vogüe treated the
citadel and presented a drawing in the monumental volumes on
Syrian monumental architecture (2)(fig.18). In 1897-1898
46
Brünnow and von Domaszewski (3) made a more comprehensive

survey, which was subsequently used as a basis for the
publication by H.C. Butler in 1914 (4).
In connection with the restoration efforts by the Directorate

of Antiquities, lasting from 1946 to 1970 various attempts have
been made to accomplish a detailed and correct documentation of
the intriguing and very complex structure. A set of sketch
plans in the approximate scale of 1:500 were completed during
the French mandate period indicating a project of electric
installations. A more thorough study was initiated in the
1950's under the then Director General of Antiquities Dja'far
al Hassani and dr. Selim Abdulhak (5) and the results were
published in 1956 by A. Abel (6), providing a general
presentation of the chronological building development based on
the Arabic inscriptions translated by Enno Littmann (7).
In the 1960's, under the general direction of the late Sulaiman

'Abd Allah al Mouqdad, a comprehensive archaeological campaign
for Bosra was undertaken with the assistance of Unesco (8). As
part of the international assistance, a detailed survey of the
Roman theatre was completed under the direction of Helge Finsen
documenting the accessible parts in an excellent set of
measured drawings in scale 1:100 and related details (9). At
the time of survey, the Ayyubid magazines and arsenal had been
cleared away aiming at the exposure of the Roman cavea and
scaena front. Simultaneously a french architect, L.Bayrou,
working for the 'Groups des Traveaux Archaeologiques de Bosra'
in 1975 and 1976 started to measure the individual towers.
The building survey.
The actual survey of the citadel was accomplished in 1987

aiming at a complete and intelligible presentation of the Roman
theatre and the Islamic Citadel as one building complex.
The plans of the citadel are not easy to comprehend and the
survey is complicated to carry out due to the maze of dark
corridors, ramps, staircases, interrelated rooms and open
plateaus located at different levels. For example, the main
access corridor connecting the north-western and the north-
eastern bastion running along the northern flank of the pro-
scenium forms a ramp with a difference in level of about 6.50
meters. For this reason the plans are not drawn on a level, but
follow the sloping floors with the horizontal section cut about
one meter above the actual level of the individual space. A
shift of level has been required only in a few cases, otherwise
the plans provide a visual presentation of the circulation
pattern throughout the complex. In addition to the main floor
plans, inserted floors are added in the appropriate context.
47
Altogether four plans are drawn:
- Level 0: showing the moat and interrelated rooms below the

main entrance level of the drawbridge, including the water
recervoir inside the cavea of the Roman theatre (fig. 19 and
24).
- Level 1: showing the entrance level of the drawbridge, main

access ramp and adjacent rooms, including the vaulted
spaces that surround the theatre providing access to the
individual towers and the magazines inside the cavea of the
Roman theatre (fig. 20 and 25).
- Level 2: presenting the open plateau from where the towers

rise as individual structures connected by crenellated
curtainwalls. At this level the former arsenal is incorporated
into the cavea of the Roman theatre (fig. 21 and 26).
- level 3: showing the roof plan of the entire citadel and

theatre (fig. 22 and 27).
Additionally, two main sections give an understanding of the

construction and the means of communication between the various
levels.
Essentially the survey provides a documentation of the present

situation. The Roman structure is reproduced from the original
Finsen survey from 1972 as indicated by a dotted marking in all
sections. The two lateral porticoes and staircase towers of
Roman origin have been included in the present survey as well
as other details not previously accessible. In the main, the
authenticity of the Roman structure has been preserved
remakably well and only in a few places makeshift masonry of a
later date have disfigured the excellence of the Roman
craftmanship.
Another set of drawings includes the magazines and arsenal

inside the cavea presenting a reconstruction of the medieval
appearance on the basis of a set of sketch drawings of the
arsenal prepared before the demolition.
The chronological building development.
A : The Seljuk fortification (481/1088 - 541/1147-48).
The initial fortification of the Roman theatre dates from the

year 481/1089 according to an inscription disclosed on a stone
found at the base of the eastern staircase tower during
48
restoration in 1948 (10). The text relates to the construction

carried out under the orders of the military commander, 'Abd al
Malik for the Turkish general Shams ad-Daula Abu Mansur
Kumushtakin. This dating means that the first construction
works took place shortly after the arrival of the Seljuks in
Syria in 468/1067-68. A subsequent commander with the same name
of Kumushtakin (11) initiated comprehensive schemes for the
revival of Bosra during the first half of the 5th/12th cent.,
including works on the al-Umari Mosque, the al-Khidr Mosque and
most notably the erection of the madrasa attached to the al-
Mibrak Mosque was initiated.
A.Abel considers the two flanking staircase towers to the

result of this first Seljuk fortification efforts (12), but
obviously makes the judgement on basis of the upper parts only
and fails to acknowledge the Roman origin. Obviously, the
flight of steps has been reorganized at a certain time,
possibly as a result of restoration works by which parts of the
outer facing has been changed, especially on the eastern
staircase (tower no.2, see schematic plan fig.16). This
restoration may actually relate to works carried out by order
of the Seljuk commander Abu Mansur Kumustakin. However, a close
investigation reveals how well these two symmetrical towers are
incorporated in the original Roman design. Protruding from the
curved external facade of the cavea, both of the staircase
towers form an integrated part of the structures surrounding
the eastern and western portico. Originally there would have
been access from the outside directly into the porticos from
the south, but these entrances to the theatre have been blocked
up (see plan fig. 19). The masonry also binds well into the
courses of the outer facade of the theatre up to a hight of
three courses above the roof terrace of the staircase towers.
This height corresponds to the hight of a parapet, whereas no
sign of bonds appears in the masonry at a higher level.
Obviously, the initial Seljuk fortifications have implied the

addition of the upper parts of the staircase towers only. The
better preserved western staircase tower (no.1) have two
stories added on top of the Roman tower constructed in the
typical Hauran fashion with the floors of stoneslabs carried on
transverse arches (see section, fig. 23). The floor is no
longer existing, but the crenelated parapet wall is preserved
to its original height including several embrasures. The flight
of steps in the eastern staircase tower (no.2) has been altered
and the bossed masonry at the base of the tower appears as the
result of a later rebuilding at some undefined period. At the
top, only remnants of the Roman parapet have been preserved
with traces of a beveled embrasure.
According to an inscription, the tower leaning against the

perimetre wall of the Roman theatre to the south-west was built
49
in 542/1147-48 (tower no.3)(13). Ordered by the ruler of

Damascus Abu Sai'id Abaq only sixty years after the initial
fortification of the theatre, the continued efforts were
possibly speeded up in fear of an attack by the Crusaders. By
simply blocking all openings to the outside, the whole building
very quickly was turned into a stronghold from where the
archers could shoot in all directions. The first unsuccessful
attack was launched the very same year by Boudin III and four
years later, another assault was attempted by the crusaders in
545/1151 (14).
The Seljuk tower displays the same method of construction as

can be seen at the upper part of the western staircase tower
with a simple and rather crude stone masonry. Niches in the
wall with a flat lintel give room for the archer and the narrow
arrowslid with the sides bevelled provides protection and
flexibility at the same time (fig. 33). The horizontal floor
divisions are constructed according to the local tradition by
use of girder arches, stone corbels and stone slabs. The
topmost part facing the theatre is built upon the curved
perimeter wall of the theatre with Roman corbel stones for the
seating of timber masts still in situ.
Brünnow and Domaszewski put forward the opinion that the

theatre originally was surrounded by an outer colonnade, as
commonly found elsewhere on Roman theaters (15). The argument
is based mainly on the fact that the recess on the external
semicircular facade of the theatre could provide the support of
an outer arcade. The proposed reconstruction does not, however,
consider the existence of the pierced corbel stones with holes
for the support of wooden poles along the perimetre wall. The
towering masts would originally give hold to the ropes
extending to support the front of a wooden sloping suspended
above the stage. R. Amy is proposing an outer arcade of lesser
height that possibly can exist in combination with seating of
the timber masts (16), but still a hypothetical suggestion only
an archaeological excavation can give a definite answer.
However, it is not logical that an outer arcade had to be
demolished altogether, before the fortification could be
started and it seems more sensible that the recess running
around the external cavea facade of the theatre has been
supporting a decorative frieze or inscription carved in
limestone or mable, which has been pillaged at a later time.
A. Abel also suggests that the small square openings measuring

about 40 by 40 centimetres in the northern exterior postscaena
facade are made for defense purposes by the Arab archers (17).
However, the holes are positioned on level with the floor
division of the corridor behind. The holes in question are more
likely beam holes supporting a portico or an arcade, which
originally extended along the northern front facade of the
theatre. The full extent of the arcade cannot be confirmed as
most parts of the facade is concealed behind the later Islamic
50
structures. It seems logical, however, that the main facade of

the theatre originally had a colonnade to give emphasis to the
main entrances for actors and prominent guests arriving from
the town via the two colonnaded streets (18).
It can be assumed that the first entrance to the Islamic

stronghold was situated to the north-east, where one of the
original Roman portals leading into the portico has been
modified and made higher by a pointed arch. At a later time,
this entrance-way has been closed off by the construction of
the north-western tower, probably using an older bastion as a
solid base for the new and enlarged tower towards the north-
east (tower no. 10, see fig. 19).
During the following period between 542/1147 and 599/1202 no

building activity is recorded. Judging from the complex and
composite character of the structure, construction works may
have continued during the intermediate time anticipating a more
formalized design. As suggested by A. Abel, it may be assumed
that an outer defence system was encircling the whole of the
theatre and reaching to a height of about one storey only. An
advanced position forming a lower plateau as compared to the
theatre could possibly have improved the capability of defense
and this assumption would anyhow give an explanation to the
many apparently haphazard design solutions that appears
especially at the north-eastern part of the complex.
B : The Ayyubid period (599/1202 - 649/1251-51).
From 599/1202 to 649/1251 the chronological building sequence

can be followed with great accuracy due to the commemorative
inscription slabs and frizes at all towers, providing
epigraphic evidence of the year of completion and name of the
governing ruler. The immense achievement of consolidating and
expanding the citadel was triggered off by the continued threat
exerted by the crusaders and the consequent demand of a
standing army stationed in Bosra to maintain control of the
Hauran. Within a period of only half a century additional eight
towers were erected in an advanced position of the previous
structure to leave room for a complex of interior corridors and
defence installations. Additionally, the required space for
magazines and arsenal was provided by the construction of a
vaulted structure inside the Roman theatre. The major part of
this monumental building programme can be credited to the
Ayyubid ruler of Damascus al-Adil Abu Bakr (592/1196-615/1218),
who commissioned the construction of similar fortications at
the most strategic places throughout Syria and Egypt (20).
The character of the masonry and the architectural form and

detailing of the individual structures indicate two distinct
51
building periods and the chronological building sequence is

furthermore corroborated by epigraphic inscriptions dating the
completion of the individual towers.
The first Ayyubid constructions.
The construction of the north-western bastion (no. 4), named

the 'Tower of Founded Victory', made a start on the new
building scheme in 599/1202-3. As stated by the inscription on
the eastern facade, it was built by the mastermason Ibrahim ibn
'Ali ibn Fuhaid under the supervision of the governor of Bosra,
Sunkur at-Tughrultakini (21). Though considerably altered in
the Ottoman period, the lower storey still demonstrates the use
of barrel vaulting for the floor construction, which is not
previously recognized in the region since the Roman period.
Assuming that defense structures were already existing to the
north-east of the theatre, the two succeeding towers dating
from 608/1211-12 and 610/1213 respectively (tower no.10 and
no.9) are partly constructed on top of the previous structures
with remains of the earlier works incorporated in the fabric.
The cross vaulting used for the construction was for the first
time used in Bosra testifying to the influence of an imperial
design concept transplanted from Damascus (22).
The surrounding moat is then likewise part of the new defence

system that was launced in 509/1202. Consequently, access to
the citadel could take place only by way of the access bridge
spanning the ditch. The drawbridges formerly placed at both
ends of the bridge furthermore helped to repel an attack. This
defensive arrangement necessitated an elevated entrance level,
as compared to the original entrance level of the theatre,
explaining the requirements of the long ramp connecting the
lowest level of the theatre with the new elevated entrance
level. The long sloping corridor running all along the scaena
of the Roman theatre, forms part of the main circulation
pattern designed for easy transport of heavy ordnance and high
mobility of men-at-arms and horses within the citadel.
The tower positioned immediately to the south of the main

entrance (tower no. 9), was terminated within a period of only
eight months in 610/1213 according to the building inscription
(23). By this time, form and function of the Ayyubid
fortification was firmly established. The plan of the
individual tower is characterized by one central space that
allows easy replacement of the bowmen and the possibility of
shooting in all three out-turned directions according to
instant needs. Obviously, the quality of the masonry has
improved in the cause of construction, so far reaching to the
highest quality of stone cutting in the construction of the two
entrance towers guarding the bridge. Especially noteworthy is
52
the elaborate use of squared Roman columns for the quoins

(fig.29). The two lower floors of tower no. 8 and tower no. 6,
facing towards south-east and due south respectively, originate
from the same building period, but they were both enlarged and
the masonry solidified by the middle of the century.
The second Ayyubid construction period.
By the construction in 612/1215 of the big central donjon (24)

facing due north (tower no. 11), a new design was introduced
emphasizing symmetry. The space conception is of compelling
grandeur introducing the four-iwan plan for the lay-out of the
large reception room at the upper floor, obviously intended as
the residence of the military commander and the governor of
Bosra, who then had the large place of parade situated
immediately in front of the tower. The largest lateral iwans
are separated from the central space by a tripartide partition
wall, quite similar to the madrasa attatched to the al-Mibrak
Mosque in 530/1136. This feature, otherwise completely alien to
the general method of constructiuon in Bosra and the Hauran, is
likewise characteristic of the south-western tower constructed
in 615/1218 (tower no. 5) (25) reaching to the highest
perfection of Ayyubid military architecture.
These two towers are almost identical in every single detail.

For example, the one of the secondary rooms next to the main
reception hall have a chimney-like open shaft above, running
through two stories, possibly providing for improved ventila-
tion of a latrine. Built of cyclopean and bossed masonry, the
size reaches the same dimensions of 20 by 25 metres to the
exterior. Both of them make use of Roman columns to span above
corridors and stairways, and the doorways to each side of the
towers, previously connected to wallwalks at the top of the
adjoining curtain walls, indicate how men-at-arms were able to
patrol the entire citadel at roof level.
Displaying similar features, though lesser in size, the tower

facing towards southeast (no. 7) is probably contemporary. But
strangely, there is no building inscription to confirm the
dating. The subsequent enlargement of tower no. 6 in 647/1249
and tower no. 8 in 649/1251 (26) was required to match the
approximate proportions of all eight towers. The wall
construction makes use of Roman columns as headers, possibly in
lack of a genuine bonding with the backing, again indicating
the extensive re-use of building material pillaged from the
classical buildings. This final completion of the exterior
fortifications, commissioned by the last Ayyubid ruler of
Damascus, an-Nasir Yusuf II (648/1250-658/1260) (27), brought
the citadel to its ultimate imposing appearance.
53
The arsenal and magazines (620/1223-24 - 629/1231-32).
The mosque inside the theatre was completed in 620/1223

according to inscriptions (28). Built on top of the proscenium
the mosque takes advantage of the most prominent position
within the theatre using the porta regia as the main entrance.
The construction must have required demolition of parts of the
colonaded frons scaenae and noteworthy, the time of
construction is contemporary with the restoration of the great
Friday Mosque using limestone columns and capitals from the
Roman theatre. The circumstances speak in favour of a co-
ordinated building activity that was initiated by the Ayyubid
prince as-Salih Isma'il during the first years of governorship
when he held the fief of Bosra (615/1218 - 644/1246) and for
most of the time was residing in the Citadel (29). It may then
be supposed that he likewise commissioned the construction of
the bath installed in the eastern portico of the theatre.
The survey drawings prepared by the 'Groups des Traveaux

Archéologiques de Bosra' include only a sketch plan of the bath
(30). As only this incomplete plan is existing, the position
inside the eastern portico of the Roman theatre is conjectured
showing no details of related service rooms and water instal-
lations (fig. 19). Following the demolition of the bath in the
1960's, the water basin was transferred to the exhibition hall
of the ethnographic collection in the south-western tower
(tower no. 5, fig. 21). Placed in a new environment, however,
the elaborate marble facing and polychrome mosaics, depicting
fish and water birds provide some impression of luxury within
the otherwise grim military complex.
Inside the orchestra - and extending to cover the tier of seats

of the cavea, a vaulted structure in three stories was erected
to serve as magazines and arsenal. The ground floor was closed
off and functioned as a water reservoir in case of a siege. The
water was piped in from the nearby open cistern, Birkat al-Hajj
located to the south-east of the ancient town. The two upper
floors were completed in 625/1227 and 629/1231 respectively
(31). Photographs dating from around the turn of the century
show the flat roof of the structure, extending as far as the
upper level of the cavea provided direct access to a an
inferior structure erected in replacement of the arcade at the
western part of the cavea. Furthermore, at roof level direct
access was provided to the roof plateau of the south-western
tower (no.5). The vaults previously spanning between the donjon
and the theatre have disappeared, but the springers of the
reinforcing ribs are still visible in the masonry .
All the structures inside the cavea, are now cleared away in
order to expose again essential parts of the Roman theatre and
54
to make new use of it for public performances.

Construction details.
The construction of the citadel developed over time in quality

and sophistication. For example, the first embrasures in the
walls of the Seljuk tower dating from 542/1147-48 (tower no.
3), are worked out very simple, forming a wall niche covered by
a horizontal stone lintel (fig. 33). At a later time, the
shooting niches are spanned by a rough stone segmental arch
with tapered mortar joints as it can be observed in the
northern curtain wall (fig. 34), probably constructed around
612/1215-16. And finally, during the later periods of
construction, the embrasures were built with pointed arches of
well-jointed voussoirs (fig. 35), as it can be seen at the
south-western tower (tower no. 8) .
A similar refinement in the quality of the external masonry

can be observed. In the description of the initial
modifications of the Roman theatre and the construction of the
Seljuk tower (nr. 3), it has already been noted that the
construction followed the local building tradition and the
masonry of irregular coursing still appear rather casual.
Likewise, the subsequent erection of the north-western and
north-east bastion (tower no. 4 and 10 respectively) make use
of relatively small blocks of stone that vary in size, while
the entrance tower (no. 9) have stone work of even coursing
throughout.
Whereas the masonry of inferior quality at the upper part of

the north-western tower is due to later rebuilding in Ottoman
times, all three towers have the quoins in common, using long
and partly squared Roman columns as cornerstones (fig. 29).
Additionally, there is no bond between the glacis and the wall
behind, indicating a later date of this particular feature of
fortification. The succeeding two towers (no. 5 and no.11) and
the northern curtain wall are built of cyclopean masonry with
large bosses (fig. 30). The north-eastern tower (tower no.7)
has stonework of a similar type, whereas the facing of tower
no. 6 and no. 8 is built with Roman column shafts as headers
(fig. 31). Logically, this special feature of construction can
be explained by the need of creating a stronger and more
cohesive masonry of the outer facing, which have no bond to the
former tower behind. Interestingly, the same technique had been
used 25 years earlier for the northern extention of the Great
Mosque in 618/1221-22, possibly indicating a relationship
between these two building schemes.
Defence measures.
The citadel displays all the characteristic defence measures

invented during the Middle Ages to frustrate an attack. The
single entrance is defensible at the gate by ditch and draw
55
bridge. The access is well overlooked and controlled from the

two flanking towers commanding the bridge. The oblique entrance
makes the use of a battering ram almost impossible. Moreover, a
trapdoor can provide extra protection in combination with
meurtrière holes located in the roof above and eventually, in
the worst of cases a second gateway situated inside the main
access corridor would trap the intruding enemy.
In general, each tower and sector of the citadel would be

individually defensible. The towers would be accessible by
stairs, having doors at each level to isolate one or more
floors or sections of the tower. Likewise, the spacious gun-
platforms at the roof of the towers were fortified only to the
outside prohibiting possible intruders launching further attack
from individual towers on the rest of the citadel. It also
appears that the size of stones used for the external masonry
of the towers is larger than the size generally used for the
facades turned towards the inside.
Maximum command of the curtain walls was secured by the

construction of overhanging crenellations as it can still be
seen at the northern flank of the citadel. Projecting box
machicoulis were situated high on the towers above all corners,
where the curtain walls and towers join each other (fig. 32).
From these secure positions the soldiers could drop molten
lead, boiling oil or projectiles on the attackers. Wallwalks,
well protected by embrasures gave access directly to doors that
are now located high on the walls to each side of the towers.
These doorways and the related flight of stairs are now mainly
blocked and the wallwalks have been demolished. Originally
providing direct access to the gun platforms of each tower,
these internal connections facilitated patrol at roof level of
all parts of the citadel and eased the shift of ordnance
supply.
However, the passive defence behind the stout walls was rende-
red quite deceptive as a consequence of changes and
improvements in weaponry and seige methods. The long range
artillery, especially the counterweight trebuchet, brought
about a revolution in seigecraft throughout the Mediterranean
region in the middle of the 12th century (32). During this
period of armed conflicts many well-fortified cities were taken
with ease. As a retaliatory measure it became necessary to
formulate a new defensive system preventing the enemy to come
at close range of the citadel with their weapons. The
subsequent change of military tactics from defensive to mainly
offensive strategies required large artillery emplacements on
top of the towers to accomodate and support these trebuchets.
Likewise, it could be essential to make a sally out against the
besiegers explaining the position of the doorways opening
directly onto the ditch (see plan of lower level, fig 19).
The new citadel, - how mighty it may still appear, did not
56
maintain military importance for very long. The repeated

onslaughts on the citadel by the Crusaders was abortive, but it
did not withstand the attack of the Mongol army in 658/1260.
Afterwards, major repair was organized by the Mamluk army of
sultan az-Zahir Baibars (33), and that effort remains the last
to ensure the continued military use of citadel. At the later
part of the Middle Ages the cannon necessitated yet a different
defence system and the citadel of Bosra became a vestige only
of medieval warfare.
References and notes
(1) M.E.Guillaume Rey, Voyage dans le Haouran et aux bords de la Mer

Morte (1857-58), Paris, (1860), pl. XII and XIII.
(2) M.de Vogüe, vol.I, pl. 5
(3). Brünnow and Domaszewski, vol. III, pp. 44-84.
(4) PPUAES, Div. II, sect.A, part 4, pp. 274-276. For a general treatment
of the Roman thatres in Syria, cf. M.E. Frézouls, 'Les Théatres Romains de
Syrie', Les Annales Archaeologiques de Syrie, vol. II, 1952, pp.46-100.
(5). Selim Abdul Hak, 'Les Fouilles dans la citadelle et au théatre de

Bosra, Les Annales Archéologique de Syrie (AAS), 1951, vol.I, pp. 107-110.
(6). A. Abel, 'La citadelle Eyyubite de Bosra Eski Cham', Les Annales
Archéologique de Syrie (AAS), vol. VI, 1956, pp. 15-138 + XI pl.
(7). Enno Littmann, pp.41-59.
(8) R. Amy, Mise en valeur de Bosra-Cham, UNESCO, Paris 1969.
(9) Helge Finsen, 'Le levé du Theatre Romain', Analecta Romana Instituti
Danici VI, supplementum, Copenhagen 1972. The survey and drawings were completed
by Anne and Jørn Ørum-Nielsen and Birthe and Thorkel Dahl, Copenhagen.
(10) A.Abel, op. cit., p. 101.
(11) Kumushtakin (died 541/1146-47) held the fiefs of Bosra and Salkhad as
official (atabek) of the Burids (497/1103-549/1154), cf. Enno Littmann, p. 24.
(12) A.Abel, op.cit., p, 101-102.
(13) Islamic Bosra, p.18
(14) A.Abel, op.cit., p. 104.
(15) Brünnow and Domaszewski, vol. III, planche LI, p.64. Also published
by PPUAES, II A, plate XV.
(16) Sulaiman A. Mougdad, Bosra, Historical and archaeological guide,

57
Damascus, 1978, p.
(17) A.Abel,op.cit., p. 115-116.
(18) Starting at the Central Arch the western colonnaded street has
already been excavated, while a matching parallel street starting from the
Nymphaeum and the Kalybé, possibly appears from excavations to the east of the
South Baths presently under excavation by the French Archaéological Mission, cf.
preliminary report: Sophie Berthier, 'Sondage dans le secteur des Thermes Sud á
Busra', Berytus, vol XXXIII, Beirut, 1985, pp. 5-46.
(19) A.Abel,op.cit., p. 122.
(20) P.E.Chevedden, The citadel of Damascus and al-Adil's new system of

defensive planning, 2. vol.,(unpublished Ph.D. diss., University of California),
L.A., 1986.
(21) Enno Littmann, p. 41.
(22) Concerning the imperial design concept cf. Michael Meinecke, 'Der
Hammam Mangak und die Islamische architectur von Busra', Berytus, vol. 32, 1984,
p. 188.
(24) ibid., pp. 43-44.
(25) ibid., pp. 44-45.
(26) ibid., pp. 46-47
(27) A.Abel, op.cit., p. 114, for specific biographical datas, cf. Islamic
Bosra, p.22.
(28) Brünnow und Domaszewski, vol. III, p.214.
(29) Islamic Bosra, p. 21. Roman columns originating from the frons
scaenae and used for the construction of the al-Umari Mosque, cf. K.S.
Freyberger, 'Zur datierung des Theaters in Bosra', Damaszener Mitteilungen, vol.
3, 1988, pp. 17-26.
(30) R.Amy, op.cit., 'plan du bain du XIIIe S.', fig. without number.
(31) A.Abel, op.cit., p.112; Enno Littmann, pp.45-46.
(32) P.E.Chevedden, op.cit., p. 51 ff.
(33) Makrizi, Histoire des Sultans Mamlouks de l'Egypte, vol I-II (M.
Quatremère, trans. from Arabic), vol. I, Paris, 1837, p. 141: 'Bibars fit rebâtir
toutes les forteresses de Syrie, celle de.... Bosrâ, de Balbek, etc. ..toutes
furent reconstruites en entier'. (Makrizi 766/1364-845/1441).
58
Al-Umari Mosque (112/720-21 (?) - 506/1112-13 - enlargement

618/1221-22 - and 'hauranization' 773/1372 (?).
Introduction
The Great Mosque of Bosra is situated at the very centre of the

ancient city along the Roman street leading towards the North
Gate and the former encampment of the Roman legio III
Cyrenaica. Branching off from the Roman Via Sacra at the
junction marked by the Nymphaeum and the Kalybé and passing
along the Central Bath, the street originally formed a
destinctive feature of the Roman city. But so far there is no
indication of the use of the site during the Roman era.
The mosque is of the congregational type, characterized by a

central courtyard surrounded on all four sides by arcades.
The planning comes very close to the other great mosques of the
Hauran, e.g. the great mosques in Dera'a and Ezra. The
contemporary Great Mosque of Salkad (630/1232-33) has been
demolished leaving only the minaret as a solitary tower in the
middle of the townsquare. The great Umayyad mosque in Damascus
(87/706 - 96/714-15) may have served as a model for the design
of these early hypostyle mosques in the Hauran dating mainly
from the Ayyubid period.
The actual appearance of the mosque is resulting from of

numerous alterations and modifications to the original plan.
Furthermore, the puzzling building history is complicated by
the extensive re-use of columns and building materials pillaged
from older buildings. The first cursory description dating from
the 1920s is due to Buckingham: '.. a large building entirely
constructed out of the ruins of more ancient edifices. In som
parts of this were columns of white marble in one solid shaft;
in others, pillars of black basalt, formed out of several
distinct pieces, and curious capitals of different ages,
orders, and materials......Some of the stucco work on the wall
was extremely rich, while the paintings on the same surface
were the most miserable performances. The pavement was formed
of large flat stones laid in diagonal squares, and other parts
were entirely neglected; so that throughout the whole there was
a mixture of antiquity and freshness, of wealth and poverty, of
skill and ignorance, of care and neglect, which rendered it
more puzzling to decide on its original purpose and intention,
than any other building I had yet seen'(1).
In the intermediate time various studies have been dealing with

the puzzling history of the al-Umari Mosque (2). With these
studies as a point of departure and supplemented by direct
observation, four major building phases can be identified. In
the main each phase can be verified and dated by commemorative
59
inscriptions. The following description gives an outline of the

chronological development with reference to the survey drawings
and suggested reconstructions of the building (fig. 36-43).
The initial mosque: 506/1112-13 and before.
The al-Umari Mosque in Bosra is attributed by local tradition

to the formative years of Islam in the time of the second
caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab relating the foundation of the
building to the first half of the 7th century A.D. There is no
clear evidence, however, for this popular assumption. The
earliest inscription was detected in the fill during
restoration in 1938/39, mentioning a certain al-Harith and the
year 102/720-21. Another inscription once engraved on a pillar
in the eastern middle colonnade adjoining the marble column of
the qibla colonnade. The text runs: 'In the name of God etc.
This is among what was ordered by Emir Othman ibn al Hakam -
may God render illustrious his victory'. On another stone the
inscription gives the year 128/745-46. Consequently it was
assumed that the present mosque was of an early Umayyad origin
(3), but the provenance of these inscriptions cannot be
verified and the actual date of construction still remains
obscure.
Another inscription dated to the year 506/1112-13 was formerly

incorporated in the masonry partly blocking the window above
the east entrance. The text, written in an elaborate Kufic
script relates to a restoration of the structure by the officer
ad-Din Abu Mansur Kumushtakin (4). It may then be assumed that
the first mosque is earlier than this date, possibly built as a
hypostyle mosque with two aisles to the south facing onto a
rectangular open courtyard (fig. 39).
Building phase II: The rebuilding of 506/1112-13.
The restoration in 506/1112-13 was commissioned by the same

Governor Abu Mansur Kumushtakin, who was responsible for the
erection of the madrasa attached to the al-Mibrak Mosque
(530/1136) as well as the restoration of the al-Khidr Mosque
(528/1134). The restoration has probably involved the
construction of the courtyard arcades within the confines of
the already existing plan as well as the subsequent erection of
the external portico in front of the east facade (fig. 39-40).
The argument for this assumption is based partly on two obser-
vations:
(i) From the early photographs by Butler showing the

ruinous condition of the mosque (fig. 38, above), it appears
60
that the southern aisle facing the courtyard has a more

elaborate, profiled cornice as compared to the simple cornice
of the courtyard archades that may indicate two different
building phases. Likewise, the columns of the side arcades are
set up against the main aisle in a rather crude fashion
speeking in favour of a later addition.
(ii) The inscription relating to a restoration in 506/1112-13

was blocking the lower parts of the window above the eastern
main entrance and as the external arcade has been attatched
against the existing wall, the construction is likely to have
necessitated the blocking of the lower part of the window. In
any case, the arcade extends only as far as the shift in
masonry that can be observed near the minaret, affirming that
the construction predates the subsequent enlargement of
618/1221-22 (fig. 41).
It may then be assumed that the mosque had a rectangular plan

measuring about 36 by 29 metres to the outside. The 16 columns
and the numerous Corinthian capitals in the prayerhall appear
to be carried off from the proscenium of the Roman theatre and
re-used for the new purpose (6). On the qibla axis the spacing
of columns is changed and the larger span is supported by
pillers incorporating the columns. The transverse nave thus
produced by the large, slightly pointed arches, emphasizes the
importance of the mihrab on the courtyard.
Most probably, the two aisles of the prayer hall had timber
gable roofs in the fashion of the great mosque in Damascus,
still having preserved the large timber constructions. The
width of the southern aisles is 4.80 meters exceeding the span
of the basalt stone 'planks' normally used for the traditional
Hauran roof constructions. As an example, the best preserved
traditional roofing can be seen at the madrasa Kumushtakin with
a span of 3.80 meters, which is hardly exceeded elsewhere (fig.
50-51). In al-Umari Mosque no traces give a direct indication
that the original roofs were carried on a large timber
construction, but as long as the rich timber resources of the
Lebanon mountains had not yet been exhausted, the monumental,
antique buildings were nearly always covered by pitched roofs.
The rectangular courtyard measuring about 10 x 16 meters was

surrounded by double arcades to the east and west. To judge
from the smaller width of the side arcades, they were probably
roofed in the style of the traditional Hauran architecture
right from the outset, whereas the northern arcade may have had
one single range only covered by a gable roof (see proposal for
reconstruction, fig. 40).
The symmetrical plan of the building was emphasized in two

directions: to the interior the dividing line is the north-
south axis corresponding to the qibla direction, whereas the
61
east-west dividing line was emphasized to the outside by the

window openings equally spaced and centered around the main
entrances. Likewise the external portico along the eastern
facade contributed to the symmetry by the even distribution of
four arches to each side of the main entrance.
Building phase III: The Ayyubid extension (618/1221-22).
The massive northern wall reaches a thickness of about 2.40

metres incorporating antique Roman column shafts as headers in
the masonry. The square minaret stands firmly on the solid
foundation at the north-eastern corner of the building forming
an integrated part of the masonry bond scheme. The minaret is
then contemporary with the extension of the mosque dated to the
year 618/1221-22 (7). The building inscription still in situ to
the left side of the middle entrance of the north facade,
commemorates the renewal and restoration of the courtyard
(sahn) by the pilgrim Yahya ibn 'Ali ibn Hind(?) but strangely,
the text omits the name of the Ayyubid ruler, prince as-Salih
Isma'il, in possession of the city between 615/1218 and
644/1246 (8).
The extension shows clearly from the missing bond in line with
the termination of the arcade in front of the eastern facade
(fig. 41), whereas the corresponding change of masonry in the
western facade is no longer visible due to restorations of the
north-western corner of the mosque in 1949-50. One more aisle
was added by the extension, possibly in replacement of another
aisle which was demolished enlarging the courtyard to an almost
square size.
The early photographs by Butler, documenting the condition of

the ruinous structure before the 1938 restoration, clearly show
that the cornice of the eastern aisle only extends along two
bays and the bond of masonry above the springing of the arch is
still clearly marked (fig. 38). Alternatively, this observation
could suggest a later enlargement of the courtyard, leaving the
Ayyubid mosque with the relative small rectangular courtyard.
The enlargement of the mosque in 618/1221-22 may have been

required in consequence of the growth of the population figure
and relative prosperity of the society. Islam distinguishes
between masjid , denoting a 'local mosque' and masjid al-jami,
generally referred to as the Friday Mosque or the Great Mosque,
intended for the collective prayer on fridays of all the
faithful within the community. Indirectly, the size of the
Great Mosque then manifest the size of the male population.
Many such examples of modifications to the existing mosques
does exist coinciding with a change in the city's population
figure (9).
62
The enlargement of the Great Mosque in Bosra took place

simultanously with the ambitious building programme initiated
and commissioned by al-Salih Ismail for the citadel during the
time he held the fief of Bosra from 615/1218 to 644/1246.
During this period the barracks inside the cavea, the mosque
and the bath was constructed. And to the exterior, the
fortifications were further consolidated by the construction of
the large donjon towards the south-west, the masterpiece of the
citadel (tower no. 5).
Building phase IV: Mamluk modifications (possibly 773/1373).
Obviously the original timber construction has been altered at

some undetermined date, when the wooden structure had
deteriorated. This medieval restoration using basalt stones
supported by corbel stones follows the traditional methods of
construction in the Hauran. The restoration may possibly be
simultaneously with the erection of the Hammam Manjak in
773/1372, when new attention was directed towards the most
prominent Islamic buildings in Bosra by the Mamluk governor of
the Damascus province, Manjak al-Yusufi. On the other hand, the
employment of a purely local building tradition does not equal
the imperial design that is the hallmark of the bath complex.
As the width of the aisles, reaching about 4.50 meters is too

large to be spanned by basalt slabs, additional rows of columns
and pillars had to be introduced for support reducing the free
span to about 4.00 meters. The plan published by Butler (10)
shows two additional rows of columns in the prayerhall reducing
the free span of the aisles to about 3.80 meters. This system
of roofing still existed at the turn of the century when the
building had fallen into ruin. One of this later ceiling
stones, probably originating from one of the many other monu-
ments of the city, inscribed with the signature of a certain
Haidara and dated 469/1067-68, was found among the debris
during restoration in the 1930's (10). Assuming that only the
main aisles originally had gable roofs as shown on the
axonometric reconstruction (fig. 40), the stoneslab may
actually be part of the initial structure, alternatively the
dating is due to second-hand materials related to another
structure.
The interior decoration.
The architecture of the Umayyad period was generally committed

to lavish stucco decorations, often of a polychrome design. The
beautiful bands of inscriptions of the great mosques in
Damascus and Mekka have disappeared, but authors have preserved
the memory of them (12). The interior of al-Umari Mosque
63
followed this tradition of decoration using high relief carving

and inscriptions on large areas of wall surfaces. A few traces
of the original floral and geometric decoration and bands of
inscriptions in Cufic characters still remain on the mihrab
wall. Due to the columns and pillars, which were placed against
the wall to support the later Hauran roofing, some areas have
been concealed and preserved. These later structures were
removed during the rebuilding of the mosque in 1930s and the
stucco panels were brought to light providing some idea of the
original lavish wall decorations originating from 506/1112-13.
The amazing similarities to stucco decorations of the 6th/12th
century in Eastern Iran and Afghanistan testify to the
importation of such stylistic features from the homelands of
the Seljuks appropriate for a military commander of Turkish
origin (13).
Building phase V: The rebuilding program of this century.
The mosque obviously was disused long before the nineteenth

century. Due to the collapse of most of the arcades, the
courtyard and parts of the exterior walls on the north-west
corner had collapsed.
The Syrian Department of Antiquities, cleaning a great part of

the interior during 1938-39, commissioned the restoration to
Michel Ecochard, a French architect, who initiated the
restoration of the prayerhall in1938-40. Subsequently, in 1949-
50 the side arcades (riwaq) were reconstructed, including the
external western wall. And finally, during the last phase of
restoration from 1963 to 1965, the northern side of the
courtyard was rebuilt following traces of the previous
foundations. The rectangular courtyard was thereby restored to
the almost square plan measuring 15 x 16 meters (14).
The courtyard flooring with contrasting stripes of limestone

and basalt may be partly of Mamluk origin, including the
individual geometrical patterns of interlacing stonework.
However, the flagstones in the arcades have been replaced by
new floor tiles of modern make. For practical reasons, the
court was covered by a newly designed steel and glass structure
and reinforced concrete slab was used to roof the arcades. The
later columns and pillars, supporting the traditional roof of
stone slabs were removed in the cause of this operation and the
preserved stucco decoration came to light.
(1) J.S. Buckingham, Travels among the Arab tribes inhabiting the
64
countries east of Syria and Palestine, London, 1925, p.198-199.
(2) - PPUAES, Div.II, sect.A, part 4, pp. 288-292.

- Enno Littmann, pp. 24-25.
- K.A.C. Creswell, Early Muslim Architecture,(reprint), New York,
1979, vol.I, part II, pp. 484-490.
(3) Sulaiman al-Muqdad, Bosra: Historical and archaeological guide,

Damascus, 1978, p. 22.
The early dating of the mosque is based on the inscriptions published by Jean
Sauvaget,'Les inscriptions Arabes de la mosquée de Bosra', Syria, vol. 22, 1941,
pp. 53-65.
(5) ibid., p. 24.
(6) Klaus. S. Freyberger, 'Zur datierung des Theaters in Bosra',

Damaszener Mitteilungen, vol. 3, 1988, p. 21.
(7) This observation by Michael Meinecke is opposing the theory put

forward by Jean Sauvaget, op.cit., pp.56-58, and repeated by Creswell, op. cit.,
p.490: '..our minaret therefore was built in 102 H./ 721-21, and it is
consequently the earliest in Islam. It is tempting to take this as the foundation
inscription of the mosque also'.
(9) Oleg Grabar, The formation of Islamic Art, Yale University (1973),
1987, p. 108.
(10) PPUAES, IIA, part 4, ill.
(11) Jean Sauvaget, op. cit.
(12) Max van Berchem, Journal des savants, 1909, p.406.
(13) Islamic Bosra, p. 26
(14) R. Amy, Mise en valeur de Bosra-Cham, Unesco, Paris, 1969, p. 39.

65
THE LOCAL MOSQUES
Introduction
Whereas the Great Mosque (al-Jami) is intended for the communal

prayer of all who profess Islam within the society, the local
mosques (al-masjid) are built to serve the needs of each
individual neighbourhood. In Bosra a total of five medieval
mosques have survived to the present day, and another three
local mosques are known from inscriptions only. The dating of
the very first Muslim sanctuary possibly related to the
foundation of the later al-Mibrak Mosque as well as the
foundation of the al-Umari Mosque is a source of speculation.
All other mosques are dated according to inscriptions between
528/1134 and 705/1306 relating to the Ayyubid and Mamluk
periods. Generally the benefactor's name appears from the
commemorative inscriptions, and significantly, in most cases
the construction has been commissioned by the contemporary
governors of Bosra.
Generally, these local mosques are built according to the local

tradition using girder arches with a low springing line to
support the roof of stone slabs. For structural reasons, the
massive, double walling is pierced by a limited number of
openings and the solid facades produce a rather austere
appearance mainly devoid of ornament apart from the
commemorative inscription slabs. Only the minarets stand out in
destinct relief against the monotony of the low skyline of the
town.
Four local mosques forming part of the historic environment

will be discussed in the following pages; additionally two
mosques are related to the madrasas, which will be treated
separately.
Al-Khidr Mosque (528/1134).
Al-Khidr Mosque (fig. 45) is situated in the western part of

the ancient town, 200 metres south of the al-Jahir spring. The
historic name of the building refers to the Muslim saint al-
Khidr especially popular in medieval Bosra, and still
associated by local tradition with some ancient ruins to the
north-west of the mosque. The name is also rooted in the Arabic
word that denotes 'to be green', possibly alluding to the
neighbouring perennial spring (1).
The inscription, cut in a stone set above the front door

mentions the restoration of the Masjid al-Khidr by 'Izz ad-Din
Abu Mansur Kumushtakin, who commissioned the work in 528/1134.
66
The full text reads as follows: 'In the name of God etc.! (He
who) ordered its restoration (was) the emir, the most noble
general, the grand seigneur, the sincere, the chosen, 'Izz ad-
Din, the prime of Islam, the faithful man of the state, the
strength of religion, the sword of the nation, the hero of the
kings, the crown of the emirs, the honour of the courtiers, the
glory of the armies, the aid of the champions, the man of the
two resolutions, 'Abu Mansur Kumushtakin, the official of the
atabek Zahir ad-Din, the supporter of the Commander of the
Faithful, destinguished among his freedmen. (It was brought to
perfection) in the month of Ramadan of the year 528'. And in
the dovetails: 'Mosque of al-Khidr' (2).
The founder, Abu Mansur Kumushtakin, had already patronized the

rebuilding of the Great Mosque (506/1112-13), and later he
commissioned the construction of the madrasa attached to the
al-Mibrak Mosque (530/1136).
The North-west Tell, located further to the north-west of the

al-Khidr Mosque, was the possible site of the very first
settlement in Bosra still forming part of the classical city,
but as a recent archaeological excavation has revealed,
domestic occupation in this part of the town came to an end
during the Umayyad period, possibly as a result of the
earthquake in 129/747 (3). The location of the al-Khidr Mosque,
one of the oldest surviving Islamic monuments, is then
indicating the western boundary of the medieval town, extending
at least as far as the Roman Spring Street and covering an area
of about 600 by 800 metres at the time of the Islamic revival
of Bosra in the 6th/12th cent.
The building has an almost square plan measuring 9 by 10 metres

to the outside. The interior space is divided into 3 bays by 2
transverse arches supporting the stone slabs of the flat
ceiling. Several of the rounded and well carved stone windows
remain in the original position. The entrance gateway,
providing access to the yard, as well as the doorway to the
mosque and the minaret have the original stone shutters pres-
erved (fig. 44). The small masjid is then featuring many
remarkable architectural details and remains a unique example
of the archaic building construction in the Hauran. Large
patches of plaster still appear on the northern facade of the
mosque, suggesting that the exterior originally were plastered,
except perhaps for the most prominent features. In private
houses today, the interior of the courtyards are often
plastered and whitewashed, likewise indicating that the rende-
ring of external facades was common practice during more
prosperous periods in history.
The massive minaret, still preserved to a height of 12 metres,

is set apart from the mosque. The isolated position to the
67
western side of the building is due to a later date of

construction, possibly in the 7th/13th century, when the
impressive minaret of the Great Mosque seems to have initiated
the erection of a series of square towers added to the existing
religious buildings as a new symbol of Islam.
Al-Fatima Mosque (date effaced, the minaret 705/1306).
The al-Fatima Mosque, located near the early Christian centre

of the ancient city, hardly stands out from the surrounding
domestic housing quarter, apart from the towering minaret. The
traditional name of the mosque refers to the venerated daughter
of the Prophet Mohammed, but the structure is undoubtedly of
medieval origin. The name of the patron and the year of
construction have been effaced from the building inscription on
the front facade, but the style of the calligraphy, carved in
Naskhi script relates to the Ayyubid period in the first half
of the 7th/13th century. The construction is then possibly
commissioned during the time of the Ayyubid prince al-Salih
Isma'il, in possession of the city between 615/1218 and
644/1246.
During the time he held the fief of Bosra, extensive

construction works were accomplished at the citadel as well as
the enlargement of the the Great Mosque, including the erection
of the minaret (618/1221-22) and the construction of the ad-
Dabbagha Madrasa (622/1225-26).
The readable parts of the inscription runs as follows: 'In the

name of God etc., He only shall repair to the mosques of God
who believes in God. (He who) erected this blessed mosque
(was)......... - may God (the Supreme) cover him with mercy and
blessings - needing God's mercy ..... 'Abu..... - may God have
mercy upon him. In the year......'(4).
Effaced purposely, it seems that not everyone was allowing God

to have mercy upon him. Anyhow, van Berchem has treated of
Isma'il and of his governorship of Bosra and relates that some
words in his inscriptions have been erased by order of his
nephew, who succeeded him as a governor (5). This incident then
possibly concerns the foundation inscriptions at the al-Fatima
Mosque and the al-Umari Mosque.
Truly local in character the plan and sectional form of the

mosque resembles the al-Khidr Mosque taking a simple cubical
shape and to a large extend re-using building stones from older
structures. The elongated prayer hall, originally measuring
about 13.50 by 11 metres was divided into four bays by three
transverse arches.
68
The minaret, erected at the north-eastern corner of the Mosque

as a solitary structure, is a later addition dated by
inscription to the year 705/1306. Set upon a solid, square base
and rising to a total height of about 18 metres, the structure
is modelled on the minaret of the Great Mosque, likewise taking
a form deriving from the church towers of the Christian period.
At the turn of the last century it was the only mosque still in
use, indicating the marked depopulation of Bosra and the Hauran
during the Ottoman period. Only a few decades ago the mosque
was extended, adding three more arches in southern direction in
response to the new revitalization of the city in this century.
Masjid Yaqut (655/1257-58)
The small Masjid Yaqut (fig. 48) is located immediately to the

east of ad-Dabbagha Madrasa at the north-eastern corner of the
water recervoir, Birkat al-Hajj. Measuring 7 x 14 meters at the
exterior, this small unpretentious building encloses a small
funerary chamber (turbah) and a mosque erected in 655/1257-58
by the emir Yaqut, governor of Bosra.
The full text of the foundation inscription reads: 'In the name
of God etc. And praise be to God, Lord of the inhabitants of
the world. This blessed mosque was built in the year 655
(/1257-58). And may God have mercy upon those, who pray for
mercy for Yakut, who needs the mercy of his Lord'. Another
inscription commemorates the death of the founder's son the
year before (6).
The entrance portal has been put up as an independent structure

at the north-western corner of the building. The arch, with a
slightly accentuated horseshoe form is an alien feature to the
local building tradition in Bosra, and so is the crossvaulting
of the funeral chamber and the masjid. In Bosra, this design
was introduced only for the palatial design of the Ayyubid
citadel in the first half of the 7th/12th cent. As the
construction of the tomb was ordered by the governor of the
fortress, it can be assumed that stone masons working on the
citadel have directed the construction of this small building.
The little holes in the carved inscriptions of the foundation

stone is yet another indication of the close connection to
construction works on the citadel. Made to fasten small metal
pieces enhancing the text, this detail is otherwise only to be
seen at the long horizontal inscription bands of white
limestone adding distinction to tower no. 5 and 6, constructed
in 615/1218-19 and 647/1249-50 respectively (cf. fig. 31). At a
69
later time, crossvaults were likewise used for the construction

of the Mamluk bath complex 773/1372 yet another example of
imperial design implanted in the more modest Bosra environment.
Masjid Shafi'i (656/1254).
The small ruined structure (fig. 49) located at the south-

eastern corner of the cemetery related to the al-Mibrak Mosque
and Madrasa can in the present condition hardly be identified
as a historic structure of any significance. The foundation
text of the structure, carved in a block of limestone situated
on the western facade is hardly readable and certain parts have
been entirely effaced (7). So much can be read that founded as
a Koranic school, the building was entrusted in waqf to the al-
Mibrak Madrasa with the date of construction given to the year
656/1254. Also the name of a certain 'Abd al-Wahid ash-Shafi'i
is readable, giving the name of the founding patron.
The semi-circular arch, spanning the entranceway and

corresponding to the curve of the cornice at the top of the
back wall, appears as the most prominent feature of the
structure. Only fragments of the original roofing are laying on
the ground, but photographs from around the turn of the century
show parts of the stoneslab roofing in situ (8). The lateral
parts of the ceiling flat, the central part follows the curve
accentuating the mihrab in the centre of the south wall.
The profile of the cornice stones, the cantilevered sun-hood

above the foundation stone on the western wall, as well as the
conch above the mihrab are all features that possibly originate
from an earlier Byzantine structure. The makeshift and
composite character of the structure can be considered an
example of the thoroughly local tradition resorting to second-
hand use of stone materials so plentiful in the surroundings.
From a constructional point of view, the stoneslab vaulting is
particularly interesting as a sectional form adapted to the
local conditions. Known already from Roman time, this roofing
method was used for the so-called Praetorium in Mismiya (Roman
Phaena) in the Ladja dated by inscription to 160-169 A.D. (9).
This building unfortunately no longer exists, but the stone
vaulting is common in the vernacular architecture, possibly as
an adaptation of the Near-Eastern brick vaulting to the local
conditions of the Hauran (cf. surveys of Inkhil, fig. 8-10 and
Djemmerin, fig. 13).
(1) S. Ory and S. Mougdad, 'Bosra, cité Islamique', Archéologia, no. 148,
70
1980, pp. 22-32.
(2) PPUAES, Div.IV, Sect. D, p. 30; quoted acording to the translation of

Van Berchem, 1896.
(3) Jim Wilson and Maria Sa'd, 'The domestic material culture of the
Nabataean to Umayyad Period Busra', Berytus, vol. XXXII, Beirut, 1984, p. 79.
(4) Enno Littmann, p. 27-28.
(5) Max van Berchem in Brünnow and von Domaszewski, vol. III, p. 215. See
also Enno Littmann, p. 38.
(7) The foundation text is unpublished, quoted from written communication

to Michael Meinecke from Solance Ory, University of Provence, Aix-Marseille.
(8) Brünnow and von Domaszewski, vol.III, fig. 924, p.41.
(9) K.A.C. Creswell, Erly Muslim Architecture, vol. I, Oxford, 1932, p.

308; drawing by M. de Vogüe, vol.I, pl. 7.
71
THE AL-MIBRAK MOSQUE AND MADRASA (the madrasa 530/1136)
Introduction.
The al-Mibrak Mosque and madrasa are situated immediately to

the north-east of the ancient city precinct. The minaret is
possibly built on top of a redout forming parts of the original
fortification of the Roman city (1). A small section of what
might be the original, bossed masonry is visible incorporated
at the west wall of the sanctuary forming the solid base of the
minaret. The difference in the levels of the terrain, clearly
marked to the west of the monument is corroborating this
hypothesis, but further to the east or south of the monument,
where now an Islamic graveyard is located, no obvious
indication of the alignment of the city boundary is visible.
The building consists of three separate parts forming one

intricate building structure: a sanctuary and a mosque, each
composed of a prayer hall with an open courtyard in front, and
a madrasa. Additionally, a minaret and an openair mosque
immediately to the east of the madrasa make up the whole
complex (fig. 50).
The western sanctuary.
According to oral tradition, the construction of the western

sanctuary is associated with the arrival of the first copy of
the Holy Koran that was brought into Syria during the time of
the caliph Uthman ibn Affan. The name of the mosque alludes to
a halting place or a spot where a camel bends down, and it is
commonly believed that the camel caravan stopped at this very
site, that was chosen for the construction of the first Muslim
sanctuary in Syria. Another tradition relates to the visit of
Mohammed, the Prophet, who visited Bosra as a child once
accompanying his uncle on a caravan to Syria (2).
Obviously, the makeshift structure is the result of many

alterations representing a phased building development that can
only be conjectured: A square stone slab with several cavities
supposedly alludes to the imprints of the kneeling camel.
Taking this general belief as the point of departure, the
western mihrab has been set in the wall to mark the spot where
the camel was kneeling. It is likely then that a simple shelter
was constructed next to this sacred place, when the site
developed to be a place of pilgrimage extra muros. This first
structure serving as a mosque (fig. 55), is constructed with
one single arch to support the flat roof of basalt slabs
following the vernacular tradition. The section of the southern
wall of the mosque (fig. 54) clearly shows that the floor-to-
72
ceiling height has been increased at a later time; possibly at

the same time as the open sanctuary was roofed. In any case, it
would not have been possible to erect the two columns and to
construct the girder arch supporting the roof above the
sanctuary, without the possibility of spanning the arch between
two existing structures and obviously, the girder arch has been
put up against the enclosing walls without any bond to the
sidewalls.
The dividing wall in front of the western sanctuary is then

contemporary with the roof. The finely dressed surface, the
decorative features of the lintel and the superb masonry all
point to second-hand use of masonry originating from the
Byzantine period. The direction of the mihrab is forming an
oblique angle with the south wall, possibly because the mihrab
was set into the existing wall before the sanctuary was
enclosed and roofed over. The straightened wall with the niche
in front of the mihrab is then relating to the later building
phase. The former arched openings between the mosque and the
sanctuary have been blocked and the whole of the interior has
been plastered as indicated by the remaining plaster.
Likewise, the mosque has an open courtyard in front of the

prayerhall. The enclosing walls are constructed of second-hand
masonry forming a symmetrical square with a wall niche to each
side. The southern wall is built up against the exterior wall
of the mosque and the original semi-circular opening has been
closed off leaving traces of the original arch incorporated in
the masonry above the new doorway (fig. 50 above).
The Madrasa of Kumushtakin (530 A.H/1136 A.D.).
The madrasa forming the eastern part of the structure is

obviously a deliberately planned building dated to the year
530/1136 according to the foundation inscription (3).
The madrasa was commissioned by Izz ad-Din Abu Mansur
Kumushtakin, the governor of Bosra under the Atabeks of
Damascus. The early date of construction implies that the
building is the oldest surviving example in Syria of a
religious college, a function which was first introduced in
Iran in the middle of the 5th/11th cent. In fact, the axial
plan lay-out, not recorded previously on any Syrian monument of
religious use, clearly depends on Iranian models (4).
To the exterior the building has an austere appearance without

decoration, apart from the commemorative inscription slab above
the doorway and a round, pierced stone window placed in the
middle high up on the northern facade. Indeed, the building
displays no liking of superfluous decoration, but impresses
from sheer solidity as most of the early medieval Syrian
73
buildings. The appreciation of solid masonry during the time of

the Ayyubids is not only dictated by structural needs, but
reflects the rigorous taste of the Syrian military rulers, who
commissioned these buildings. For example, Al-Fadl b. Marwan,
first vizier of al-Mu'tasim tells that al-Mu'tasim had no
liking for the decoration (tazyin), of the buildings; his mind
aimed entirely at their solidity (ihkam)'(5).
This stern and pragmatic attitude to architecture is dominating

also in Bosra until the Mamluks eventually introduced a more
extravagant fashion of bichrome masonry. The alternate use of
white limestone and black basaltstone utilized for decorative
purpose at the facade of the Hamam Manjak is the only example
of the new ostentatious architecture, which came to flourish in
Damascus and Cairo under imperial Mamluk patronage.
The symmetrical plan (one single axis) is centered around a

little court, only 6.o meters at each side, with the lateral
iwans opening directly on to the court. The arches take a
horseshoe form, slightly pointed and raised on impost blocks of
Roman or Byzantine origin. The entrance vestibule to the north
and the prolonged prayer hall to the south open on to the court
through a group of three doorways. This tripartite arrangement
is foreshadowing the typical plan of the madrasas of northern
Syria about a century later; f. ex. Dar al Hadith al-Nuriya and
Madrasa al-Rukniya, Salihiya, Damascus. The four corners of the
building are occupied by secondary rooms. To the north-west
traces of the staircase can be seen leading up to the roof. All
other secondary rooms have two stories, but the horizontal
divisions of stone slabs have all gone. Access to the second
storey of the rooms to the south-east and south-west has been
by way of simple accomodation ladders through a hole in the
floor divisions, as indicated by the placing of the supporting
corbel stones in the one corner of the room. The upper room in
the north-east corner of the building has been reached through
a doorway opening directly on to the entrance vestibule at
first floor.
The roof is constructed of basalt slabs supported by stone

corbels according to the local method of construction that is
used throughout the Hauran. The parts of the roof above the
prayer hall still in situ suffice to show the extraordinary
good quality of the original roof structure. The individual
slabs are precisely joined to each other with a free span of
3.80 m. and the surface dressing shows a quality of finish
equal to the best of Byzantine works.
Originally, the open courtyard was crowned by a dome,

noteworthy as the only known example in Syria to cover a
madrasa. The transition from the square space beneath to the
octagonal base of the dome structure was managed by means of
cantilevered stone beams of which only a few courses remain. J.
L. Burckhardt is relating that the dome or 'kubbe' had been
74
destroyed by the Wahabi in 1810 when they made an incursion

into the Hauran (6). About half a century later G. Rey related
that the building had been disfigured by a restoration, which
apparently took place in December, three years before his visit
to Bosra in 1857. He gives no details about the actual
character of the work, which was initiated by Abbas Pasha, the
vice-roy of Egypt, in connection with the burial of one of his
sons in 1270/1854 (7).
The interior as a whole must have been richly decorated at one

time. Burckhardt describes that 'the interior was embellished,
like that of the great mosque, with Cufic inscriptions, of
which a few specimens yet remain over the Mehrab' (8). The
present traces of stucco at the interior walls give indications
of three different layers of plaster originating from succes-
sive applications. The relative age shows that the oldest
rendering was a hard, durable lime plaster with a deep red hue.
The subsequent layer of plaster, presently covering large areas
of the interior walls is yellowish, soft and mixed with
cattle's hair. This additive has been a quite common
reinforcement to lime plasters giving flexible working proper-
ties that helps to avoid cracks and fissures in the finished
surface. The sample analyses show a content of lime as high as
85 per cent by weight for both these plasters (9). The most
recent layer is a simple clay plaster, mixed with straw and
whitewashed. The floral design decoration above the mihrab is
executed in this material. The raised floors (mastaba) of the
prayer hall and of the two lateral iwans must be a rather
recent modification to the original structure, possibly
originating from the restoration in the middle of last century,
as it appears that the lime plaster continues down below the
present floor level.
As long as forests were abundant in the Lebanese mountains wood

was used extensively for building construction throughout Roman
and Byzantine time and ample evidence does exist on the great
wooden domes of Bosra, Damascus and Jerusalem in the classical
periods. The dome maintained symbolic importance and the
domeshape was carrying on a Syrian tradition, which has been
kept alive also during Islamic periods (10). The Kumusthakin
Madrasa is noteworthy as the first known example of a madrasa
with the courtyard covered by a dome and remained a rare
example of this type in Syria. However, exceptional as it may
be in Syria, the dome became a normal feature for the Seljuk
madrasas in Anatolia forshadowing the large Ottoman structures
with a central dome.
The transition from the square base to the round form of the
dome is managed in a simple way by cantilevered stone beams put
across the corners providing for a primitive dome-setting. As
the plaster has gone from the projecting stones, no informa-
tions remain of possible 'false' pendentives with muqarnas or
75
similar decorative features that might have adorned the

transitional zone, when the dome was still in position. Anyhow,
the oversailing courses of stonebeams were later carved with
niches to simulate tiers of muqarnas pendentives as for example
at Ramla in 666/1267-68 (11). The reconstruction proposal (fig.
52-53 and 57) is mainly based on the form and construction of
the Sct. George at Ezra (12).
The first visual documentation of the structure is owing to the

photographs taken by the Princeton University expedition in
1904 (13). By that time the building had fallen into ruin and
the building condition further deteriorated during the first
decades of this century. When Creswell visited Bosra on his
reconnaissance in Syria, the minaret was in serious danger of
collapse and during the intermediate time the upper courses of
the transition zone of the dome have disappeared. The first
measures of consolidation and preservation of the structure
involving the partly rebuilding of the minaret were implemented
in the late 1960's (14) and recently the monument has been
entirely restored between 1986 and 1989 by the Bosra
Directorate of Antiquities in co-operation with the German
Archaeological Institute, Damascus, to be used again for
religious purposes.
(1) PPUAES, IIA, part 4, pp. 294-295, see also Brünnow and Domaszewski,
vol. 3, pp. 39-40.
(2) The reference to the early visit of the Prophet to Bosra see i.a.
Guillaume Rey, Voyage dans le Haouran et aux Bords de la Mer Morte, 1857-1858,
Paris, (1860), p. 180; S. Mougdad and S. Oly, Bosra cite Islamique, Archeologia,
no 148, November 1980, pp. 22-32. Mibrak an Naqa litterary means a bending camel
and the hollows in the large stone positioned in front of the mihrab is commonly
believed to be the imprints of the camels's knees.
(3) J. Sauvaget, Notes sur quelques monuments musulmans de Syrie, Syria,

XXIV, 1944-45, p. 231.
(4) M. Meinecke, 'Rückschlüsse auf die Form der seldschukischen Madrasa

in Iran', Damaszener Mitteilungen, vol. 3, 1988, pp. 185-202.
R. Hillenbrand, 'The Madrasa', especially sec.III, architecture, in The
Encyclopaedia of Islam, new edition, Leiden 1986.
(5) Quotated from Ernst Hertzfeld, 'Damascus Studies in architecture,

III', Ars Islamica, vol. 11-12, 1946, p.38.
(6) J.L.Burckhardt, Travels in Syria and the Holy Land, London, 1822,
p.235.
76
(7) Guillaume Rey, op.cit., pp.180-181.
(8) Burckhardt, op. cit., p.235
(9) Sample survey for the determination of contents of lime is carried

out by 'Kalk og Teglværkslaboratoriet, Denmark, in 1985.
(10) For a detailed discussion on the use of the wooden dome in Syria and
the Near East cf. E. Baldwin Smith; The dome, a study in the history of ideas,
Princeton University Press, 1950; esp. p. 43-44.
(11) K.A.C.Creswell, Problems in Islamic architecture, The Art Bulletin,

1953, XXXV, no.1, p. 5. Cf. also the chapter on 'The evolution of the pendentive'
in K.A.C. Creswell, Early Muslim Architecture, vol. I, Oxford, 1932, pp. 304-323.
Already de Vogüe (vol. I, pp. 44-45) has suggested that the stalactite
pendentives developed from the primitive dome setting by cantilevered stone
planks spanning across the corners. The Creswell photographs of the Kumushtakin
Madrasa are deposited at The Creswell archive, Dept. of Eastern Art, Ashmolean
Museum, Oxford.
(12) The present dome of Sct. George at Ezra dates from a restoration in
about 1940 according to informations from the churchwarden. According to Creswell
it happened before 1932. Previously the central space was covered by a stone dome
built of rubble; K.A.C. Creswell, Early Muslim Architecture (reprint), New York,
1979, vol.I, part I, p. 119. The original shape and construction of the dome of
Sct. George has been discussed by H.E. Messerer, Die Centralbauten des Hauran.
Das kuppelproblem, Dissertation, Münich 1953; and W. Karnapp, 'Das kuppelproblem
von St. Georg in Ezra',Tortulae, 1966, pp. 178-186.
(13) PPUAES, IIA, part 4, ill 264-266, pp.294 ff.
(14) R. Amy, Mise en valeur de Bosra-Cham, Unesco, technical report, Paris

1969, p.41.
77
AD-DABBAGHA MADRASA (622/1225-26, the mausoleum 630/1232-33).
The ad-Dabbagha Madrasa is situated at the very edge of the al-

Hajj water reservoir to the south-east of ancient Bosra,
in close vicinity to the remains of a Muslim cemetery bordering
the open cistern to the east (plate 36). Indirectly, the
location tells of the Eastern extension of the medieval city.
The traditional name, meaning a 'tannery' remains obscure.
However, depending on the easy access to water the textile
dyeing and leather crafts have possibly been located in the
neighbourhood. These circumstances may as well explain the
puzzling cavities in the stone masonry at the lowest course,
which is facing on to the cistern. Previously, the openings
were connected by a drain that continued into an open channel
running along the northern brink of the water recervoir.
Anyhow, the foundation inscription carved on two blocks of

white limestone endows the building to serve as a madrasa and
commemorates the inaguration in 622/1225-26. The order of
construction is attributed to the contemporary governor of
Bosra, as Salih Isma'il, but the true founder obviously was the
military commander Sham ad-Din Sunqur al-Hakim, who endowed the
building to serve as a madrasa during his lifetime and as
funerary monument after his death. The full text runs as
follows:
'In the name of God etc... The erection of this blessed

building was ordered by our master, the sultan, the most
illustrious grand seigneur, the wise, the just, the champion of
faith, the warrior, strengthened by God, the [conquering], the
victorious al-Malik as-Salih 'Imad ad-Dunya wad-Din, the sultan
of Islam and of the Moslems, 'Abu l-Fida Isma'il, the son of
the defunct sultan al-Malik al'Adil Saif ad-Din Abu Bakr ibn
Aiyub, the friend of the Commander of the Faithful - may God
hallow his soul. And it was constituted as a pious bequest
[and given as mortmain...his Lord] by the most illustrious
emir, the great general Shams ad-Din Sunkur ibn 'Abdallah as-
Salihi, known as al-Hakim, a madrasa during the days of his
life and a tomb at the time of his decease according to what is
contained in the act of bequest and according to the specified
description recorded in it. May God let them profit by it 'on
the day when wealth shall profit not, nor sons, but only he who
cometh to God with a sound heart'. And this was in the year 622
of the hegira of the Prophet'. A secondary text placed on the
upper left corner of the inscription slabs reads: ' Work of
'Mukanna ibn Abbad', possibly the architect of this conspicous
monument (1).
On the exterior the building appears with an aloof, almost

fortified character, due to the solid stone walling and squared
building forms devoid of decorative features, except for the
78
commemorative inscription slab placed high on the southern

facade (fig. 61). The planning represents a mixture of the
local building tradition of the Hauran and a formal design
related to an axial lay-out characteristic of the Seljuk
madrasa.
The original structure has an elongated plan with four iwans

opening on the courtyard. The present composite flooring of
limestones clearly shows a square formation of about 3 by 3
metres, indicating the original position of a water basin quite
similar to the plan of contemporary madrasa buildings in
Damascus. The two lateral iwans have pointed vaults, quite
unusual features in the Hauran, just like the pointed arches
spanning the elongated prayerhall, but otherwise the roofing
resort to the local tradition using stone planks and corbels.
With the imposts of Roman origin raised high on limestone
columns set against the side walls, the interior space aquires
a lofty and truly impressive character compared to the ordinary
Islamic buildings in Bosra that cannot but associate to the
great reception halls of the Umayyad and Abbasid palaces, as
can be seen at Qasr el Kharanah (possibly 92/711) and Ukhadir
(possibly 161/778). These features, alien to the local building
tradition, are possibly relating to an even earlier Sasanian
tradition. At Sarvistan, for example, the side walls have
buttresses placed perpendicular to the vaults and likewise
resting on free-standing columns (2).
Compared with the local mosques the interior space reaches a

truly impressive scale (plate 37). The high springing lines and
the pointed arches require some kind of buttresses to ground
the outward trust that converge on the walls at some point
above the imposts. This structual problem is solved by the
adjoining rooms intended for the accommodation of the students
and teachers originally living in the madrasa.
The cruciform plan is not easily recognizable because of the

elongated qibla iwan and the later building alterations. At
some undetermined date, the court has been spanned by two
transverse arches and roofed in the traditional way by stone
slabs (fig. 59). The springers of the arches have clearly been
incorporated into the original masonry. Also the semi-circular
shape is different from the sligtly pointed profile of the
original arches showing the local origin of this later
modification of the building.
Further to the modification of the open court, two later

additions have shaped the present form of the building.
The mausoleum attached on the south-eastern corner of the
complex is clearly a later addition as the masonry shows no
bonding to the original parts. The dating can be established on
the basis of an inscription on the under side of a sarcophagus
cover found in the Masjid Yaqut nearby giving the year
630/1232-33 and comemmorating the erection of tomb for the
79
great emir al-Hakim (3). The attachment of a funeral chamber

(turbah) to a madrasa connected with a mosque became common
practise in the capitals of Damascus and Cairo during the time
of the Ayyubids and the Mamluks and obviously, a military
commander in the province also cared for the name he left
behind. Attached to the madrasa, one of the former window
openings now provide the access to the tomb. The chamber,
approximately 4.20 metres on the one side, supports a dome
resting on corner pendentives that remain an isolated
architectural feature in Bosra reflecting the contemporary
Ayyubid development of the capital.
Originally, the funeral chamber had an arched recess to the

eastern side, which has been closed off at a later time,
probably to provide a solid foundation to the minaret erected
on the roof of the mausoleum at some later date. The minaret of
the al-Umari Mosque from 618/1221-22 was the first to be
constructed in Bosra, followed by that of al-Fatima Mosque from
705/1306. It must then be expected that the minaret is added in
the last decades of Ayyubid rule, or in the early Mamluk
period.
The madrasa was put to use as an ordinary school building

during a few decades of this century during which period the
main access was made from the north and the lintel of limestone
can still be seen at the ground outside the building. The most
recent alteration of the building took place between 1982 and
1985, when the whole structure was roofed by a reinforced
concrete slab in replacement of the original roofing of
stoneslabs resting on corbel supports. Simultaneous with the
renovation of the roof, the former octagonal transition zone
was changed to form a simple, square base supporting a cupola
of reinforced concrete.
(1) Enno Littmann, pp. 32-34. Cf. also PPUAES, IIA, part 4,
pp. 293-94, for a general description of the monument.
(2) K.A.C. Creswell, Early Islamic Architecture, vol. 2, Oxford, 1940, p.

88.

80
Comparative development of the madrasa.
Giving the early dates of the al-Mibrak Madrasa (530/1136) and

ad-Dabbagha Madrasa (622/1225-26), these two monuments have
special interest to the history of Muslim architecture. Erected
within an interval of about one century, the two monuments
represent different solutions to the architectural form
complying with the various needs of worship and religious
teaching as well as accomodating teachers and students.
Furthermore, the al-Mibrak Madrasa has the specific distinction
to be the oldest example of this type of building in existence
within the entire Islamic world (1).
It seems unquestionable that the madrasa as a mosque and a

theological school originates from Khurasan, where it was
founded as an Islamic institution by the wazir Nizam al Mulk
in Nishapur about the middle of the 5th/11th century (2). The
theological institution gained momentum and spread to the
western parts of the Seljuk realm, including Iran, Iraq and
Syria in the course of the 6th/12th cent. The importance of the
madrasa grew as a means of propagating the ortodox Sunni faith
of Islam throughout the Seljuk empire. Especially the Baghdad
Caliphate needed a loyal body of followers at a crucial time of
conflicts with the Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt. Syria was a
place of conflict not only because of the heresy of the Shia
muslims, but was threatened also by the incursion of the
Crusaders possibly explaining the great popularity of the new
institution that resulted in the erection of a great number of
madrasas throughout Syria as a means of educating loyal
subjects (3).
The possible origin and the architectural evolution of the

four-iwan plan has caused much discussion among art historians.
Van Berchem has formulated the most authoritative theory on the
advancement of the madrasa scheme as a political institution
forwarding the conclusion that 'since the madrasa has entered
Egypt by way of Syria, it is there that we must seek the origin
of the crusiform plan' (4). This hypothesis was opposed by
K.A.C. Creswell, who strongly argued that the cruciform plan
was Egyptian in origin and practically unknown outside Egypt
(5). Based on a limited reference material collected in Syria
in 1918 his conclusion does not keep valid, however, since he
only refers to eight madrasas located in Aleppo dating between
1168 and 1270.
Typically, these buildings have an open courtyard with a tank

in the middle and symmetrical prayer halls opening onto the
courtyard by a tripartite archway. The number of iwans is
limited to one or two and the the prayer hall in front of the
mihrab is often domed. It is noteworthy that several design
features are antedated by al-Mibrak Madrasa in Bosra. The dome
81
above the courtyard, however, appears to be an isolated example

in Syria as compared to the later development in Anatolia. For
example, the madrasas at Tokat (546-52/1151-7) and at Niksar
(552/1157-8) were built with central domes above the courtyard
and this feature became a typical feature in Anatolia during
the succeeding centuries (6). Whether the remainding parts of
the building are roofed by vaults or stone slabs depend mainly
on the available material and has not much bearing on the
planning. Also the tripartite archway is clearly a common
design feature relating the Bosra madrasa to the succeeding
architectural evolution in northern Syria and Anatolia.
Ad-Dabbagha Madrasa, dating about one century later than al-

Mibrak Madrasa, is more clearly related to the subsequent
development of the cruciform plan type, which reached to full
maturity in the perfect, double symmetry of the madrasas
erected under royal patronage in Mamluk Cairo. The two lateral
iwans with pointed vaults are very unusual in Hauran and
represent the first example of this type of construction to be
found in Bosra. Likewise, this feature is found at the citadel
indicating the foreign influence on the construction of these
monuments in Bosra. Divided into three bays and roofed in the
local fashion, the elongated qibla iwan is explicitly
associated with the traditional architecture of the local
mosque. The plan, however, is explicitly representing the four-
iwan type centering on an open courtyard. This fact has
possibly escaped the notice of Creswell due to the later
roofing of the courtyard. Constructed in 622/1225-26 it then
appears that the four-iwan plan of the ad-Dabbagha Madrasa is
antedating the related development of the cruciform madrasa in
Cairo with 37 years (7).
(1) R. Hillenbrand, 'the Madrasa', Encyclopaedia of Islam, vol. V.

Leiden, 1979, p. 1138.
(2) In that area of Khurasan, the earliest madrasa identified by

inscription is the ruined structure dated 571/1175-76 at Shah-i Mashad in the
north-western part of Afghanistan. Cf. Casimir and Glatzer, 'Shah-i Mashad, a
recently discovered Madrasa of the Ghurid Period in Gargistan', East and West,
Rome 1971, pp. 53-68. The earliest example of the madrasa in Iran is the Madrasa
Imami in Isfahan (755/1354).
(3) R. Hillenbrand, op. cit., is pointing to some 14 surviving madrasas

in Syria all datable before 700/1300, and ..'the literary ecidence confirms that
these are only a fraction of what was built in this period and has since vanished
- 82 madrasas are mentioned in the detailed chronicle of mediaeval Damascus, for
example, and 46 in the more summary account of medieval Aleppo.... the area with
82
the largest number of surviving madrasas datable before 1300 is Sejuk Anatolia,
which boasts no less than 50 examples'.
(4) Max van Berchem, Matériaux pour un Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum,

part I, Egypte, Mémoires mission arch. franc. au Caire, vol. XIX, Paris, 1903,
pp. 254-68. The assumption that Syria played a decisive role in the formation of
the four-iwan madrasa as a specific building type was already put forward by
Stanley Lane Poole, The art of the Sarecens in Egypt, (London, 1886), reprint,
Beirut, no year, pp. 52-53.
(5) K.A.C.Creswell, 'The origin of the cruciform plan of the Cairene

Madrasas', Bulletin de l'Institut Francais d'Archéologie Orientale, vol.XXI,
Cairo, 1922, pp. 1-54.
(6) Oktay Aslanapa, Turkish art and architecture, London, 1971, p.83.
(7) K.A.C. Creswell, op. cit., p.36, refers to the Zahiriya in Cairo as
the first madrasa with a cruciform plan dating from the year 1262.
For a detailed discussion on development of the madrasa in Syria, cf. especially:
- Jean Sauvaget, 'L'architecture Muselmane en Syrie', Revue des Arts Asiatiques,

vol VIII, I, 1934, pp. 35-46.
- E. Herzfeld, 'Damascus - Studies in architecture', Ars Islamica, vol.IX, 1942,

pp. 1-53; vol. X, 1943, pp. 13-70; vol. XI-XII, 1946, pp. 1-71.
- André Godard, 'L'origine de la madrasa, de la mosquée et du caravansérail à

quatre Iwans', Ars Islamica, vol. XV-XVI, 1951, pp. 1-9.
- M.Meinecke, 'Rükschlüsse auf die Form der Seldschukischen Madrasa in Iran',

Damaszener Mitteilungen, vol. 3, 1988, pp. 185-202.
83
Hammam Manjak (773/1372)
The Mamluk bath complex is situated immediately to the east of

the great Friday Mosque in the very centre of ancient Bosra.
Located in the middle of the former Roman street that branches
off from the Nymphaeum and the Kalybé leading to the North Gate
(1), this particular siting is obviously owing to the
prominence of the neighbouring al-Umari Mosque. The two
buildings form an Islamic nucleous of the ancient city and no
doubt, the minaret of the mosque (618/1221-22) together with
the cupola of the bath composed the most prominent feature of
the medieval sky-line of the city.
Inaugurated in 773/1372 the Hammam Manjak is the latest Islamic

monument known to have been constructed in Bosra. The building
archaeological investigations and finds from the recent years
of excavation show that the bath was functioning only for a
limited period before the technical installations fell into
disrepair and the bath was finally abandonned. The Mongol
invasion of Timur in 802/1400 may have precipitated the
disrepair long before the end of the Mamluk period. Eventually,
the bath survived in a ruinous condition during the subsequent
Ottoman period marked by a general economic decline and
depopulation of the Hauran.
The existence of the ruinous bath complex was first realized by

J.S.Buckingham in 1816: '...at a building called el-Hammam, or
the Bath, there are in the interior four pointed arches facing
each other, with what would be called Gothic concave recesses,
the arches of these recesses being also pointed, and formed by
alternate layers or rays of black and white stone. Between them
is a sculptured tablet,..... The upperdome of this bath was of
brick work, the bricks of the flat kind called Roman tiles, of
a bright red colour and cemented together with a layer of lime
equal in thickness to the brick itself, very strongly and
neatly done...'(2). Though still quite well preserved, the
recovery of the Hauran and the subsequent resettlement in this
century caused further destruction to individual monuments due
to the new habitation in the middle of the ancient ruins of
Bosra.
The first photographic documentation originates from 1894, when

the bath was photographed by Max van Berchem (3). The exterior
appearance was then hardly distinguishable from the neigh-
bouring living quarters. Brünnow and Domaszewski indicate only
roughly the location of a bath at the outline map of Bosra
compiled during their visit to Bosra in 1898 (4). Six years
later Butler relates that the Moslem bath opposite the Great
Mosque was inhabited and impossible to measure and for that
reason only a sketchy outline of the complex appears in his
publication (5).
84
Completely disfigured by later rebuilding, the monument

resembled the ordinary residential quarters up to the late
1970's. The whole of the northern structure had been levelled
to provide space for the construction of casual shelters to men
and beasts. The large brick dome of the reception room had
collapsed a long time past and two partition walls had been
erected inside the reception room to enable the construction of
a new roof according to local means and possibilities. The
former connection to the bath was blocked and a new doorway had
been made in the northern iwan, connecting the various parts of
the premises. To the exterior, only parts of the western facade
gave any clue to the authenticity of a historic structure and
to all other sides, the facades were either hidden below ground
or disfigured by a new facing (fig. 01). Converted into a mill
and subsequently functioning as a mechanical workshop until
very recently, it later appeared that the bath extended much
further towards the north than first realized.
Excavation and restoration.
The Bosra Directorate of Antiquities started a first clearance

of the reception room in 1968. The partition walls supporting a
flat traditional Hauran roofing were pulled down disclosing the
remaining parts of the elaborate muqarnas pendentives
originally shaping the transition zone of a brick dome.
Subsequently, parts of the muqarnas were rebuilt with some of
the original stones retrieved from the fill and the west facade
was partly consolidated in order to stop further disintegration
pending a restoration proper.
In 1981 an extensive excavation and restoration programme was

started by the Bosra Directorate of Antiquities in co-operation
with the German Archaeological Institute, Damascus (6). After
the final clearance of the reception room, it was realized that
the bath continued in northern direction, though the original
bath was obscured by domestic structures built on top of the
collapsed bath chambers. Furthermore, to the exterior the
acculumated strata of deposits, raising to about 1.20 metres
above the original street level obscured the complex in the
northern direction. After expropriation of the land by the
Bosra Directorate of Antiquities and the subsequent clearance
of the inferior structures, the excavation of the northern
parts was initiated in 1986 and finally completed in 1990 (7).
The state of preservation varies considerably. While the rooms

to the south are relatively better preserved with the walls
standing to a hight of about 2.00 metres, possibly due to the
earlier collapse of the roofs in this part the building, the
northern parts were almost levelled with the ground. The major
85
part of the precious paving stones and the marble veneer of the
partition walls had been pillaged, leaving only smaller bits
and pieces in the original position. Anyhow, the remaining
parts give an impression of the original polychrome design of
the flooring that can still be appreciated (fig. 5).
The exposed ruins have been consolidated and partly restored by

anastylosis, using original material, whenever the stones could
be put back in position. The reconstruction has been justified
by firm archaeological evidence of the original appearance. New
stones were cut for replacement of the missing ones, when the
original form and pattern were fully verified and the integrity
of the monument would be respected (8).
Building description
Additionally to the archaeological finds and the building

archaeological investigations, contemporary bath buildings
in Damascus still in current use, provide a rich material for a
comparative study of the form and function of the original
bath complex (9). The proposed reconstruction of Hammam Manjak
(fig. 13-16) and the following description of the physical
fabric, is based on these sources.
The plan of the building is divided in three separate parts:

(i) The entrance and re-dressing area, (ii) the hammam proper
composed of a cold- and a hot water area, and finally (iii) the
heating and service installations located at the northern part
of the complex. Altogether the building measures 45 metres in
length and 14 metres in width, covering a total area of 630
metres square.
The exterior appearance.
The visible parts of the facades did not afford grounds for
much appreciation at the outset of the clearance and subsequent
excavation of the site. With the passage of time, the
surrounding area has been raised about 1.20 metres above the
original level of the street paving completely distorting the
original proportions of the building. Not least, the former
decorative features of white limestone contrasting with the
black basalt had been pillaged from the facades and makeshift
masonry disfigured the stately appearance of the building.
These lintels, positioned above the portal and the windows
(fig. 8), were removed towards the end of the last century by
the local shaikh for the embellishment the the reception
building (madafa) located within a housing complex about 300
metres to the south-east of the monument (10).
86
The lintels show identical blazons in flat relief from the

early Mamluk period, with a scimitar in the middle of a three-
fielded shield. The fragmentary inscription on the major block,
originally part of the door lintel, mentions the construction
of the bath (hammam) for the Mamluk governor of Damascus,
Manjak al-Yusufi. The text reads in the translation of van
Berchem (11):
'.... constructed this blessed bath His Most Noble Excellency

Saif ad-din Manjak al Ashrafi, Viceroy of the Noble provinces
of S[yria....under the supervision of..] the District Officer
of Bosra and its districts, for high and low, praying that God
the Exalted have mercy upon him. In the month...'.
The year of construction, missing in the inscription, can be

restituted from Arabic chronicles, recording the completion of
the Hammam Manjak at Bosra in the month Shawwal 773 A.H.,
corresponding to April 1372 A.D. (12).
The entrance portal.
The excavation in front of the entrance revealed the original

street pavement of basalt stone and the chamfered corner of the
building. The two lower courses to each side of the doorway
were preserved, including the door-jamb and two weathered
limestones in the original position to the right side of the
portal. Additionally, two voussoirs of basalt and three well
dressed and smoothed limestones with a profile on the one edge
were retrieved from the fill in front of the doorway permitting
the reconstruction of the portal that has been attempted in
drawing (fig. 9).
The length of the door lintel of limestone fits with the

existing width of the entrance portal. Only the left part, in
which the date of the inauguration of the building would have
appeared, is missing. The relieving lintel situated above the
inscription is conjectured, but the employment of a basalt
stone in this position is justified from a structural as well
as an aesthetic point of view, creating the shift in colour
between the white limestone and the black basalt that was
favoured by the Mamluks. Taking the width of the arch as the
point of departure and applying the eccentricity used for the
arches of the reception room (1:8), there is every probability
that the rise of the portal arch is determined and furthermore,
the form is corroborated by the wedge-shape of the voussoirs.
Having the form of the arch determined, the curve of one
profiled limestone fragment fits well into the upper right part
of the tympanum. Supplemented by two other fragments of the
same white limestone, which have a similar profile along the
one edge, the form of a possible frame, surrounding a
87
decorative tablet or inscription slab, has been resolved (13).
Compared to the composite character of buildings in Bosra the

Hammam Manjak is a manifestation of a genuine Mamluk design.
Especially the entrance portal, expressing the patron's pride
and ambition in the achievement, make use of the striking
contrast of white limestone against the black basalt in the
best conformity with the current fashion of the Mamluks (14).
Such extravagant features could only be afforded to buildings
erected by the ruling class as a demonstration of power and
influence in contrast to the otherwise anonymous and drab
environment of ordinary housing, which make up the townscape.
The reception room
The entrance corridor provides for an oblique entrance securing

the privacy of the disrobing room. Originally covered by cross
vaults, the eastern dead end of the corridor was used as a
latrine with an air shaft above for ventilation, while the
access to the reception room is placed in the main axis of the
bath.
The reception and disrobing room (mashlakh), has a square plan,

6.5 metres on each side, with iwan-like recesses spanned by
pointed arches to all four sides. A podium (mastaba), with a
total of 31 niches for the keeping of shoes, runs along the
external walls. The full hight of the podium was determined
from the mortar traces still in situ at the wall. After resti-
tution of the dismembered parts, the mastaba was completed by
the required stones of basalt and limestone (fig. 6). Generally
the limestone were weathered to such a degree that only very
few stones could be used for the anastylosis and the uppermost
course was totally missing. Logically this final course was
reconstructed in limestone creating the desired shift of colour
from the basalt beneath and thereby reaching to the final
height of the bench.
The flooring was partly complete with an alternating pavement

of basalt and lime stone supplemented by marble flags in the
open drain surrounding the basin (fig. 6). The missing parts
have been restored to the original pattern that was discernable
from the remaining mortar joints. Likewise the water basin was
restored by use of black and white stones placed in alternating
courses to achieve the required shift of colour. Only the final
course has been omitted lacking evidence of the original
finish.
The central brick dome has gone completely leaving only a

reddish soil from the decomposed bricks with no indications as
to its original form. The transition from the square to the
88
octagonal form has been achieved by means of muqarnas

pendentives at the four corners (fig. 7). Here again white
limestone has been used for decorative purposes creating a
pleasing contrast between black and white. At the start of the
restoration 23 stones were still in situ, 29 carved stones were
retrieved from the debris during the excavation whereas an
additional number of 39 had to be carved anew in order to
achieve the complete restoration. The suggested reconstruction
of the dome shows one additional transition zone in brick
forming a 16-sided polygon as the seat of the cupola (fig. 13).
The carving of the three-dimensional form of the individual
stones requires considerable skills of the stone mason and it
can be presumed that the building has been erected by
conscripted- or touring craftsmen from Damascus, who were well
versed in the construction methods and the design as well as in
all apects of the elaborate technical installations.
The greater parts of the interior walls, as well as the inside

of the cupola, was originally plastered and whitewashed
presenting a much more delicate interior than it has been
possible to recreate. After the restoration of the main
architectural features, the reception room still appears as
part of a ruined structure, but visitors can now appreciate
the original space concept and get an impression of the origi-
nal proportions of the Mamluk bath.
The bath proper.
Proceeding from the disrobing room through a bent entrance with

several turns preventing a direct view into the bath chambers,
the guests would have been provided with a pleasant surprise.
Before entering the bath proper, immediately in front, at the
far end of an elongated room, water was cascading down a water
chute (chadar) positioned in a wall niche (fig. 12). The stone-
or marble slab is missing, but the slanting limemortar bedding
remains. Generally, the surface would have been textured,
designed to break the sheet of water flowing down the slab.
Often with edges taking a shape that resemble waves, the sound
and sight of water would have been enhanced creating a feeling
of joy and recreation. The continous flow of water runs by a
shallow runnel with a polychrome mosaic pavement (fig. 12)
along the sloping floor into a hexagonal pool with a fountain
in the centre. The whole arrangement is quite unusual,
introducing the well known features of the Islamic leisure
garden into the interior of a bath in Bosra (15). The ante-
rooms have a practical function providing a buffer zone between
the bath proper and the dressing room that secure the
condensation of the humid air. Furthermore, the flow of cold
water running across the floor towards the outlet has ensured
the cleanness of the bath proper.
89
Another doorway in the main axis of the building leads to a

large central room that originally was covered by a dome
measuring 5.50 metres in diameter. The ten-sided room makes up
the warm area of the bath known as the wastani juwani ('inner
central'). For the individual use by the bathers, two separate
chambers supplied with cold water, known as maqsura, branch off
to each side. The plan was originally conceived with access to
four separate bath chambers from the central room. This arran-
gement, however, was changed during the construction by closing
the two doorways to allow the water pipes to pass behind a
recess.
Further to the north follows the hot room, known as the juwani
harara ('inner heat'), where the hot steaming atmosphere would
help to work up a sweat before the final wash. The large
elongated room taking up the whole width of the complex is
furnished with six individual washing places. Additionally,
access is provided to four separate bath chamber situated at
each of the diagonal corners. Altogether a total of eleven
rooms have been offering various facilities and pleasures to
the clients, who would then have returned to the dressing room
for relaxation.
The water distribution system.
The following description relates to the diagramatic drawing of

the technical installations that are reconstructed on basis of
the building archaeological investigations.The longitudinal
section and the diagrammatic view of the technical installa-
tions (fig. 14 and 15) show the relative position of the
various features mentioned in the text.
The water tank was situated in an elevated position to the

north-east of the bath from where the water could be channelled
under natural pressure into two main supply systems. Only the
southern and lower part of the basin has been preserved leaving
no information about the possible outside water source and
original storing capacity of fresh water.
The supply of water to the 'water play room' and the central
basin in the reception room as well as to the latrine was piped
along the eastern exterior wall to a distribution chamber,
located on top of the water chute (marked with a 'B' on fig. 75
and 76 ). Obviously, the distributor would have been accessible
from the exterior for the control of the waterflow and for
cleaning purposes. The two openings in the bottom of the
distribution chamber are still intact originally controlling
the water supply to the chute and to the central basin in the
middle of the reception room respectively. As long as the water
basin was filled with water, the fountain in the middle of the
90
'water play room' would spout and likewise, the water supply
was secured for the latrine, situated at the end of the
entrance corridor.
The second water distribution system, channelling water into a

separate cold- and warm water supply system, could be
controlled from another distributor (marked by an 'A') situated
in the service room next to the tank. Supplied via the large T-
shaped reservoir, the water would be heated and stored, ready
for use. One outlet to the east and another to the west of the
pool were channelling the hot water to the respective bath
chambers. The cold water was supplied directly from the
distributor to the individual washing places. The one pipe,
however, meandering along the bottom of the hot water
reservoir, would possibly have supplied lukewarm water to the
taps situated in the western part of the bath complex.
The double line of pottery pipes with a diameter of about ten

centimetres was bricked-up, one above the other, into the one
side of the otherwise massive stone walls, admitting a
relatively easy access to the pipes for possible repair. The
water outlets in the limestone facing of the niches were
possibly controlled by brass taps similar to medieval examples
that exist in museum collections. Each corner of the niches had
a low bench connected by a vertical stone slab barrier, forming
a water basin to retain the water. Alternatively, the hollows
in the flagstones at the bottom of the niches, indicate wear
and tear of water jars that have been positioned in this
particular place. Within the hot room, the washing places were
possibly furnished with monolithic bowls of basalt stone, but
only one-half of a bowl with a diameter of about 85 centimetres
remains in the original position at the western end of the
elongated room (fig. 11 above).
The flooring and drainage.
Originally, the floors were neatly assembled into a complex

polychrome design. The main pattern is composed of black
basaltstone alternating with white limestone slabs. Within this
overall framework, a few fragments of tiles indicate the
original geometric mosaic pattern; and the joints, still
traceable in the mortar backing of the floors, provide enough
information for an almost complete reconstruction of the
original floor pattern (fig. 5). The mosaics were best pre-
served in the water runnel in front of the water chute (fig.12
below). The star shaped pattern of black, red and ochre mosaic
tiles provide some idea of the original polychrome beauty of
the flooring, attaining true brilliance only in wet condition.
The floor, laid with a fall of about 25 centimetres towards the

south, has drained the waste water towards an outlet situated
91
in the floor of the ante-room, from where it was discharged to

a sewer below floor level. The drainage system is also
connecting the overflow of the central water basin of the
dressing room as well as the latrine, obviously discharging
into the city's drainage system.
The vaulting.
The bath rooms to the south-east still have the walls standing
to a hight of approximately 1.80 metres conforming to the
original hight of the stone masonry. The springing line of the
vaulting is indicated by the projecting edges of stucco that
remain in situ at one of the individual bath chambers.
Comparing with contemporary bath buildings in Damascus, still
in current use, the transition zone was originally formed by
several series of projecting, flat stucco niches - the one row
above the other - reaching a total hight of about one metre.
Fragments of these stucco alveoles have been found among the
mass of debris together with broken glass bits and bigger lumps
of carved limestone. Altogether thirteen limestone fragments
with an average thickness of about 10 -15 centimetres have come
to light. The back is crudely hammered whereas the front is
neatly combed ready for a final coat of lime plaster. The
recesses of about 3.5 centimetres have possibly been forming a
star shaped pattern on the ceiling, but the existing number of
stones are not sufficient for the completion the jigsaw puzzle.
To the outside the lime stone vaulting have probably been
covered by a layer of bricks laid in mortar, plastered and
fitted with glass insets of a greenish colour, filtering dim
daylight into the interior of the bathing rooms. The round
apertures for the skylights are varying in size between 10 to
about 45 centimetres in diameter. To the interior, the wall
base had a marble facing, while the remaining surface of walls
and ceilings originally were plastered (16).
The heating and service area.
The heating and service area had direct access from the street.
The western facade still shows a reminiscent arch of the
original entranceway leading into the cross-vaulted boiler
room. Another stone arch, positioned in the partition wall
between the T-shaped water reservoir and the boiler room, has
originally been bricked up providing only one opening for the
furnace chute and another for the inspection of the water
reservoir. The sloping chute is still intact leading down to
the round furnace pit, 1.60 metre deep with a diameter of 1.20
metre lined with fired bricks. The cleaning of the furnace took
place from the barrel-vaulted basement, that was reached via a
stairway ascending from the boiler room. The service duct
stretching in northern direction has not yet been excavated to
92
the very end and its original purpose still remains obscure.
The smoke duct extends in the southern direction from the
furnace, branching out in several directions to ensure the
floor heating. Finally, the smoke would have been emitted
through the chimney situated in the partition wall between the
bath proper and the dressing room.
A large cauldron of brass or copper would have been positioned

on top of the furnace and yet another kettle has possibly been
positioned on top of the smoke duct. The excavation reveals
only the hollows in the ground, but similar arrangements are
recorded in contemporary bath buildings in Damascus. When the
water was heated, steam would be contained within the T-shaped
hot water reservoir from where it could be released to the
neighbouring hot room through an opening in the partition wall.
Likewise the hot water was stored ready for use, whenever the
taps were opened in one of the individual washing places.
The original appearance of the nothern structure cannot be

finally concluded on the basis of the remaining parts. The
external walls are definitely part of the Mamluk bath complex,
but the roofing and the openings in the northern facade is due
to later modifications of the original structure executed in
the style of the traditional Hauran architecture some time in
this century. Several millstones were discovered during the
clearance pointing to a former use of the premises as a flour
mill and most lately the structure has been put up as a
mechanical workshop.
Building stylistic comparison.
The majority of Islamic monuments in Bosra demonstrate an

extensive use of columns, capitals and stones originating from
Roman and Byzantine buildings. The Hammam Manjak is exceptional
in this respect, as second-hand building materials used for the
construction would not have been noticeable after completion.
Obviously, the bath is a genuinely planned structure, which
greatly resembles contemporary bath buildings in Damascus (fig.
16).
Generally, the medieval Damascene bath buildings follow a

uniform design concept, which gradually changed as demonstrated
by Michel Ecochard and Claude Le Coeur in their description of
the Damascene bath buildings (17). The traditional 6th/12th
century bath had one hot room only, but more were added to the
plan concurrently with the improvement of the bathing
facilities. The central ten-sided room first appear by the end
of the 7th/13th century allowing direct access to four separate
bath chambers, whereas the previous octagonal room gave access
to only two such rooms. In the case of Hammam Manjak, the ten-
93
sided room is found but obviously the planning was not finally
settled from the outset as the scheme was modified in the
course of construction.
The decagonal central space is known from only three bath

buildings in Damascus, all of them displaying the same main
proportions and functional lay-out as the Hammam Manjak in
Bosra. Az-Zen and al-Ward are likely to be contemporary,
possiby built before 749/1348, whereas al-Tayrouzi dates from
845/1444, approximately one hundred years later. All three
baths are still operative today.
To the exterior al-Tayrouzi bath has alternating courses of

black basalt and white limestones extending throughout the
whole facade, including interlaced stone rosettes as part of
the decorative facade scheme, originally in combination with an
elaborate use of muqarnas above doorway and windows. The
muqarnas of the portal, after falling into disrepair sometime
after 1942 have been replaced by a simple pointed arch. By
comparison the Hammam Manjak displays a more austere external
appearance due to the dominating use of black basalt stone.
White limestone has been limited to a single course on each
side of the entrance doorway, but also the framing above the
doorway as well as the lintels were in white limestone
reflecting the contemporary Mamluk building style of Damascus
(18). In the Hauran white limestone is only available from
quarries located in the vicinity of Dera'a, 50 kilometres to
the west of Bosra, posing a natural restraint to the use of
this material.
Hammam Manjak adapted for an Islamic Museum.
As a generally accepted principle, buildings are best preserved

for the future when the cost of upkeep and maintenance can be
justified by continued and appropriate use. The attraction of
ancient Bosra to the tourist has been enhanced by the mixture
of historic ruins and the continued habitation within the
precincts of the ancient town. This archaic situation is
presently under radical changes owing to the improved earning
capacity of the citizens and the consequent demand for better
living standards. The well-to-do families have already moved to
the new housing areas located mainly to the south and west of
the old town. Furthermore, in preparation for more extensive
archaeological excavations, all private properties within the
central areas of the classical city are about to be
expropriated by the Bosra Directorate of Antiquities, and the
remaining inhabitants are now forced to move out of the central
areas. This policy was already conceived and partly initiated
by the late 1960's, when the first extensive programme for
94
restoration was initiated under the assistance of Unesco

aiming at the presentation of ancient Bosra as an
archaeological site (19).
This development, continued by the Bosra Directorate of

Antiquities with the assistance of various foreign scientific
institutions is furthermore part of the Governments policy of
promoting cultural tourism in Syria. In this process of change,
an appropriate presentation of the cultural heritage is needed.
A small regional museum was established in the citadel, after

the successful completion of the restoration in the 1960s,
exhibiting an archaeological as well as an ethnographic
collection. Furthermore, as a result of the excavation and
subsequent restoration of the Hammam Manjak, the opening of a
small Islamic field museum has been made possible (20).
The main access remains at the original position to the south

of the bath, leading to the entrance corridor and further into
the reception room. This part has been partly restored and
provides an eventful experience of the original space, complete
with such historic features as mastaba, water basin and
muqarnas pendentives.
The middle part of the bath is preserved as a ruin in its own

right. In the northern part, the walls were gone completely
leaving only the floor pattern reminiscent of the former plan,
whereas they were still standing to a height of about 2 metres
in the cold-water area. Rebuilt to an almost uniformal height,
the walls give an impression of the original space concept and
facilitate the understanding of the heating and water distribu-
tion system, that still remain partly visible.
The former service facilities to the north of the bath, used as

a workshop prior to the expropiation by the Directorate of
Antiquities, provides a suitable exhibition hall for a field
museum presenting the Islamic heritage of Bosra. The original
roof construction remains as an example of the vernacular
building tradition of Hauran relying completely on the local
basalt stone for construction purposes. Finally, the courtyard
serves as a lapidarium exhibiting building fragments and
inscription blocks originating from the vicinity of the museum,
which constitute the historic centre of the Islamic city of
Bosra.
(1) Jean-Marie Dentzer - Winfried Orthmann (eds.), Archéologie et

histoire de la Syrie II, Paris, 1989, p. 239.
95
(2) J.S. Buckingham, Travels among the Arab tribes inhabiting the
countries east of Syria and Palestine, London, 1825, p. 198.
(3) Photographic collection, Fondation Max van Berchem, 5 avenue

Miremont, 1206 Geneva, Switzerland. Deposited at the University library.
(4) Brünnow and Domaszewski, vol. III, fig. 865, p.2.
(5) PPUAES, IIA, part 4, p.290. Leyden, 1914, pp.215-295.
(6) Michael Meinecke - S.'Abd Allah al-Muqdad - Philipp Speiser, 'Der

Hammam Mangak in Busra, Grabungsbericht 1981-1983', Damaszener Mitteilungen, vol.
2, 1985, pp. 177-192.
(7) The final project report, including the findings of the

archaeological excavation, conducted by Michael Meinecke, will be contained in
the project publication scheduled for publication as a monograph of the
Damaszener Forschungen, German Archaeological Institute, Damascus.
(8) The documentation of the restoration process is contained in four

technical progress reports. Concerning priciples of restoration, please confer:
International charter for the conservation and restoration of monuments and
sites, ('The Venice Charter'), IInd International Congress of Architects and
Technicians of Historic Monuments, Venice, 1964.
(9) Michel Écochard - Claude Le Coeur, Les Bains de Damas, Institut

Francais de Damas, Beirut, vol I, 1942; vol. II, 1943.
(10) É.E.Ouéchek - S.A.Mougdad, Bosra, Guide historique et archéologique,

Damascus, 1954, p.14.
(11) Quoted from L.A. Mayer, Saracenic heraldry, Oxford, 1933,

p. 154-155; referred by Michael Meinecke, Grabungsbericht 1981-83, op. cit. note
6, p. 186. According to Mayer, Manjak al-Yusufi was a freed Mamluk serving under
Muhammad b. Qala'un as an officer employed on special missions. Promoted to the
rank of Emir, he came to Damascus in 748/1347, from 755-59/1354-58 he was
governor of Tripoli and for a short time during 759/1358 governor of Aleppo.
Subsequently he became viceroy of Syria from 771/1369-70 to 775/1373-74 and ended
as viceroy of Egypt until his death in 776/1375.
(12) Viktoria Meinecke-Berg, 'The founder of the Hammam Manjak in Busra:

his works in Egypt and Syria', New light on the history and archaeology of Bilad
esh-Sham, (Qasim Twair, ed.), Damascus 1989, (in Arabic).
(13) A similar framing of a stone plaque was originally situated above the
entrance of al-Tayrouzi bath, Damascus. However, the facade has been modified
after 1942. Previously the lofty entrance portal was crowned by stalactite works.
Cf. Ecochard and Le Coeur, 1943, op.cit., fig. vi, p. 19.
(14) The visual effect produced by the alternating courses of white and
black stones, so-called ablaq gave name to Qasr al-Ablaq constructed by al-Zahir
Baybars al- Bunduqdari in Damascus in 1266; cf. Hayat Salam-Liebich, The
architecture of the Mamluk city of Tripoli, The Aga Khan Program for Islamic
96
Architecture, Cambridge (USA), 1983, p. 207. Also referred by Creswell, Early

Muslim Architecture, New York, 1979, vol. II, p. 157 (reprint of the original
edition, Oxford, 1940). In Mamluk architecture in Cairo any two contrasting
colours are applied, largely depending on the availability of stone blocks.
(15) In The Holy Koran refers to a fountain called salsabil (Sura LXXVI,
18), used as a metaphor of fresh and cool water providing comford to the paradise
dwellers. This motive is often associated with Islamic garden design. A slab of
decorated marble, tilted at and angle to permit a flow of water to run over the
textured surface is well known especially to Persian and Indian Islamic gardens
(also named 'chadar', literally 'shawl').
(16) Chemical analyses of remaining plaster taken from various part of the
bath show corresponding result (Rathgen-Forschungslabor, Staatliche Museen,
Berlin, 1.6.1990). The plaster samples have a very high content of lime in all
samples reaching as high as 50 % of the aggregate material containing much scoria
and organic material, such as charcoal ash and plant material. This result
corroborates the results of samples taken from the madrasa Mibrak, showing a
content of CaCo as high as 80 % of the dry weight.
3
(17) Ecochard and Le Coeur, 1943, op.cit., p. 25. Refer also: J. Sauvaget,
'Un bain damasquin du XIIIe siècle', Syria, vol. XI, Paris 1930.
(18) The characteristic orientation in Islamic architecture towards the

interior results in plain facades, only occationally accentuated through the use
of striped masonry as in the case of Hammam Manjak; Cf. Michael Meinecke, 'Mamluk
architecture, Regional architectural Traditions: evolution and interrelations',
Damszener Mitteilungen, vol. 2, 1985, p. 166.
(19) R. Amy, Mise en valeur de Bosra-Cham, Unesco technical report, Paris,

1969.
(20) Museum concept and planning, F. Aalund/German Archaeological

Institute, 1989; cf. M. Meinecke, 'Das Islamische Museum zu Bosra, Südsyrien',
Museumsjournal, no. 11, 1990.
97
Abstract: The vernacular tradition and the Islamic

architecture of Bosra.
The Arab conquest of Syria in 13 A.H./634 A.D. did not entail

the destruction of the ancient cities or their structures.
During the preceeding five centuries of Roman supremacy, civil
and artistic architecture had reached to an extraordinary
perfection of classical art in Syria. The city of Bosra,
capital of the Roman Provincia Arabia, was rivalling the other
principal centres of Syria and Jordan, as f.ex. Petra, Jarash,
Palmyra and Apamea. Roman city design and buildings, together
with prodigious churches of the Early Christian period,
continued to shape the townscape of the ancient city for a long
time. No longer the centre of a bishopric subordinate to the
patriarch of Antioch and with no Christian population capable
to maintain the edifices, they eventually crumbled.
The vernacular tradition.
The vernacular tradition continued, as a timeless way of

building, to be in force within the informal sector of the
society, quite independent of the Roman or Byzantine
influences. Behind the colonnaded streets and grand design of
monumental stuctures, the indigenous architecture was firmly
rooted with the local population. Neither had the Arab
conquest, formally introducing Islam as a religion, any sudden
and immediate influence on the build environment. Only through
a period of transition was the Muslim ideals and life-style to
carry weight. The Umayyads, when they took power of the region,
had no architectural tradition of their own to superimpose on
the conquered lands, as the Romans previously had managed. They
were compelled to draw upon a variety of different
architectural styles that could be extracted from the existing
cultural environment, obviously resulting in a new style of
eclectic architecture.
The most tangible achievements of the Umayyads are preserved in

the desert lands to the east, northeast and south of the
Hauran, where a number of large country estates were
constructed during the formative years of Islam. These
enigmatic settlements may have been inspired from the former
Roman fortifications of the Limes Arabicus, but the basic plan
obviously owes credit to the much earlier tradition that
existed in the Hauran long before the propagation of Islam.
Especially the bayt, consisting of one large hall in the middle
ajoint by secondary rooms to both sides, remains the basic plan
unit that can be traced to the widespread domestic housing,
still fairly well preserved in the lithic architecture of the
Hauran. A succession of several of these basic units, one
98
beside the other, formed the more elaborate and important

building complexes. The larger the extended family, the more of
these bays were added. Ultimately, the large desert settlements
of the Umayyads can be considered as an assemblage of many
individual bayts, forming one large community within a common
outer enclosure.
As examples of the vernacular building tradition, four

structures have been surveyed to provide a reference for the
discussion on the transition of the architecture during the
early Islamic period. The division of the plan into several
individual bayts provide interesting clues to the housing
tradition, which can be associated with such celebrated palace
structures as the Umayyad Mshatta and the Abbasid Ukhadir. The
terraced houses at Inkhil in particular, with the large
stonevaulted central hall of the middle bayt is a very
illustrative example, but the same plan type is used in the
vernacular tradition throughout the Hauran. Without a thorough
archaeological investigation, the extant buildings cannot be
put into the proper context of daily use, but considering the
plan form and construction I feel convinced that the vernacular
building tradition in the Hauran rely heavily on the earlier
Partian and Sasanian cultures, testifying to the continuity of
the Near Eastern material culture that lasted in spite of
formal influence from Roman and Byzantine culture.
The Islamic architecture.
Followed by a period of only local importance under Abbasid

control, the city of Bosra regained, especially under the
Ayyubid governors, a major importance due to the strategic
position for the control of the Hauran and the fertile plains
of Nuqra. The formidable citadel, constructed around the Roman
theatre, remains the most conspicuous vestige of the military
ambitions and power struggle in the region. Altogether nine
historic monuments have survived from this period of Islamic
renaissance at Bosra. The construction of these buildings must
be seen as a response to a variety of circumstances. Some of
these are related to the long lasting vernacular tradition that
has determined the plan and structural form of the small
mosques (al-masjid) serving the local communities. The round
stone arches with a low springing line, spaced at regular
intervals to allow the roof slabs to span between the corbel
stones, are the most characteristic features of the truely
native buildings. The Friday mosque (al-jami) follow the
hypostyle plan of the venerated Umayyad Mosque in Damascus and
also the crusiform plan of the madrasa buildings are due to
outside Islamic influence. Yet another factor, contributing to
the build environment, is motivated by the absolute authority
of the Ayyubid and Mamluk ruling classes.
99
The extensive building schemes were commissioned by the

successive governors, and it then appears that the revival of
Bosra to a large extent was a result of the military built-up
in the area as a response to the advancing forces of the
Crusaders. A first unsuccessful attack was launched on Bosra in
542/1147 and another was tried out four years later, soon after
to be followed by the Mongols, who devastated the city in
668/1261.
The major building schemes
Under the patronage of the contemporary military rulers,

especially three building periods of the Medieval Ages fostered
a pronounced impact on the Islamic townscape of Bosra. This
Islamic renaissance is clearly documented by the survival of
nine monuments, which are discussed in the thesis.
During the first half of the 6th/12th cent., the governor Izz
ad-Din Abu Mansur Kumushtakin initiated works on the Great
Mosque (506/1112-13) and the al-Khidr Mosque (528/1134). He
also commissioned the construction of the madrasa attached to
the al-Mibrak Mosque (530/1136), remaining of particular
importance to the history of Islamic architecture. As the
oldest surviving example in Syria of a religious college with
an axial plan form, this structure represents an intermediate
link between the early development of the madrasa as an
religious institution in Khorasan and the subsequent
establishment of the medrasa in Egypt, where the four-iwan plan
developed to become synonymous of the Islamic madrasa.
The second period involving a major building activity occured

in the first half of the 7th/13th cent. during the time the
Ayyubid prince as-Salih Isma'il held the fief of Bosra
(615/1218-644/1246). In this period, the Great Mosque was
considerably enlarged (618/1221-22), including the erection of
the impressive minaret that came to be a model for all the
minarets to be added to the religious structures in Bosra as a
new landmark of Islam. The construction of the local al-Fatima
Mosque also dates from this period, obviously built to satisfy
the needs of an expanding Muslim population in the city. The
ad-Dabbagha Madrasa (622/1225-26), was constructed adjacent to
the Birket al-Hajj water reservoir, that was restored to secure
the water supply to the city as well as to the passing caravans
of pilgrims on the way to the Holy Cities of the Hijaz.
Likewise, the infrastructure was improved by the construction
of the bridge near al-Kharaba connected with the western route
to Damascus (623/1226) and the construction of the outer line
of fortified towers, surrounding the Roman theater, were in
progress. Subsequently, the arsenal and internal improvements
of the citadel were accomplished (620/1250-658/1260) and the
exterior fortifications, completed in 649/1251, brought the
100
citadel to its ultimate imposing appearance.
Building constructions continued under patronage of the Mamluk

sultans. The viceroy of Syria and governor of the Damascus
province, Manjak-al Yusufi commissioned the construction of an
elaborate bath complex (773/1372), the latest monument known to
have been built in Bosra before the city development stagnated
and eventually the structures fell into ruin.
This remarkable corpus of medieval monuments constructed mainly

during the 12th, 13th and 14th centuries A.D. are preserved in
a varying state of conservation as it appears from the thesis.
The citadel was subject to continued restoration by the
Directorate of Antiquities from 1946 to 1970. As a result of
these efforts the Roman theatre encapsulated by the citadel is
now again put to use for annual cultural festivals. Likewise
the al-Umari Mosque has regained its previous importance as the
Great Mosque of the growing population of Bosra after succes-
sive restorations lasting from 1938 to 1965.
From the 1950's onwards a comprehensive research program has

been initiated by different European archaeological mission
working in close co-operation with the Bosra Directorate of
Antiquities aiming at the establishment of a thorough
scientific documentation of all aspects of the city's history.
As part of this international research, the Islamic era of the
city's history has been subject to a research programme carried
out under the auspices of the German Archaeological Institute,
Damascus, from 1981 to 1990. Centered on the excavation and
architectural conservation of the Mamluk bath complex, Hammam
Manjak, the project also accomplished the survey and
documentation of the entire physical fabric of historic monu-
ments as presented in this thesis on the vernacular tradition
and the Islamic architecture of Bosra.
101
Bibliography:
Abbreviation of works frequently quoted:
Brünnow and Domaszewski: Rudolf Ernst Brünnow - Alfred von Domazewski, Die
Provincia Arabia, I-III, Strassburg, 1909.
PPUAES: Howard Crosby Butler, Ancient Architecture of Syria, Syria: Publications

of the Princeton University Archaeological Expedition to Syria in 1904-05 and
1909, division II, Leyden, 1914.
Enno Littmann: Arabic Inscriptions, Syria: Publications of the Princeton

University Archaeological Expedition to Syria in 1904-5 and 1909, Division IV,
section D, Leyden, 1949.
Islamic Bosra: Flemming Aalund-Michael Meinecke-Riyadh Sulaiman al-Muqdad,

Islamic Bosra, a brief guide, (German Archaeological Institute), Damascus, 1990.
de Vogüe: Le Ct. de Vogüe, religieuse du Ier au VIIe siècle, vol. I-II, Paris,
1865-1877.
Select bibliography:
Armand Abel,'La Citadelle Eyyubite de Bosra Eski Cham', Les Annales

Archéologigues de Syrie (AAS), vol. 6, 1956, pp. 95-138.
Robert Amy, Mise en valeur de Bosra-Cham: October 1968, Unesco technical report
(no. 1228/BMS,RD/CLT), Paris, 1969.
Gertrude Bell, The desert and the sown, (1907), reprint, London, 1985.
Sophie Berthier,'Sondage dans le secteur des thermes sud á Busra (Syrie) 1985',
Berytus, vol. 33, 1985, pp. 5-45.
K. A. C. Creswell,Early Muslim Architecture, I-II, (Oxford, 1932-40); reprint,

New York, 1979.
Michel Écochard - Claude le Coeur, Les Bains de Damas, I-II (Institut Francais de
Damas), Beyrouth, vol.I, 1942; vol. II, 1943.
Helge Finsen, 'Le levé du Theatre Romain', Anelecta Romana Instituti Danici, vol.
VI, supplementum, Copenhagen, 1972.
Oleg Grabar, The formation of Islamic Art, (1973), Yale University,

Massachusetts, 1987.
Ernst Herzfeld,'Damascus: Studies in architecture', Ars Islamica, vol.IX, 1942,

102
pp.1-53; vol.X, 1943, pp.13-70; vol.XI-XII, 1946, pp.1-71.
Michael Meinecke, 'Der Hammam Manjak und die islamische Architectur von Busra'.
Berytus 32, 1984 (1986) pp. 181-190.
Michael Meinecke - Sulaiman Abd Allah al-Muqdad - Philipp Speiser, 'Der Hammam
Manjak in Busra. Grabungsbericht 1981-1985', Damaszener Mitteilungen, vol. 2,
1985, pp. 177-192.
Sulaiman al-Muqdad - Solange Ory, 'Bosra - cité islamique', Archéologia no. 148,
November 1980, pp.22-32.
Emilie E. Ouéchek - S. al-Mouqdad, Bosra: guide historique et archéologique,

Direction Génerale des Antiquités de Syrie), Damascus, 1954.
M.E.Guillaume Rey, Vouage dans le Haouran et aux bords de la mer Morte exécuté
pendant les années 1857 et 1858, Paris, (1860).
Maurice Sartre,'Bostra, des origines á l'Islam', Bibliotèque archéologique et

Historique, vol. CXVII, Paris, 1985.
Helga Seeden,'Busra 1983-84: second archaeological report', Damaszener

Mitteilungen, vol.3, 1988, pp.387-411.

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1

THE ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE OF BOSRA

Flemming Aalund, architect MAA.

Copenhagen, April 1991.

List of maps and drawings......................... 1

LIST OF MAPS AND DRAWINGS

Fig. 1 Map of the Hauran area.

Vernacular building tradition:

Fig. 5 Traditional constructions in limestone with wooden gable roofs,

Fig. 6 Traditional constructions in basaltstone with flat roofs of stone

Fig. 7 Details of pediments in limestone, northern Syria, depicting

Fig. 8 Umm az-Zetun: Plan and elevation.

Fig. 9 Mu'arribeh: Plan and elevation of facades.

Fig.10 Djemmerin: Plan and elevation of main facade.

Fig.11 Djemmerin: Main section through central hall.

Fig.12 Djemmerin: Plan and sections of 'iwan room'.

Fig.13 Inkhil: Longitudinal section and elevation of main facade of

Fig.14 Inkhil: Gound floor and first floor plan.

Fig.15 Inkhil: Main section through central bayt.

Islamic Monuments of Bosra:

Fig.19 The citadel: Level 0 with water reservoir in cavea.

Fig.20 The citadel: Level 1 with arsenal inside the cavea.

Fig.21 The citadel: Level 2 with magazines inside the cavea.

Fig.22 The citadel: Roof plan with structures of cavea

Fig.23 The citadel: Sections through arsenal and magazines.

Fig.24 The citadel: Level 0, present situation.

Fig.25 The citadel: Level 1, present situation.

Fig.26 The citadel: Level 2, present situation.

Fig.27 The citadel: Roof plan, present situation.

Fig.28 The citadel: Main sections, present situation.

Fig.29 The citadel: Detail of masonry, tower no. 9.

Fig.30 The citadel: Detail of masonry, tower no. 5.

Fig.31 The citadel: Detail of masonry, tower, no. 6

Fig.32 The citadel: Detail of box machicola, tower no. 6.

Fig.33 The citadel: Detail of embrasure, tower no. 3.

Fig.34 The citadel: Detail of embrasure, north. curtain wall.

Fig.35 The citadel: Detail of embrasure, tower no. 8.

Fig.36 Al-Umari Mosque: Plan of mosque and Hammam Manjak.

Fig.37 Al-Umari Mosque: Main sections, present situation.

Fig.38 Al-Umari Mosque: Views of courtyard ca.1904 (PPUAES).

Fig.39 Al-Umari Mosque: Umayyad and Seljuk plan, reconstruct.

Fig.40 Al-Umari Mosque: Axonometric view, before 618/1221-22.

Fig.41 Al-Umari Mosque: Reconstruction of main facade.

Fig.42 Al-Umari Mosque: Main sections, reconstructions.

Fig.43 Al-Umari Mosque: Restoration of the Mamluk plan.

Fig.44 Al-Khidr Mosque: Entranceway with double stonedoor

Fig.45 Al-Khidr Mosque: Plan and elevation of main facade.

Fig.46 Al-Fatima Mosque: Plan and longitudinal section.

Fig.47 Al-Fatima Mosque: Elevation and section of minaret.

Fig.48 Masjid Yaqut: Plan of mosque and funeral chamber.

Fig.49 Masjid Shafi'i: Plan and section.

Fig.50 Al-Mibrak Mosque and madrasa: Ground plan and section.

Fig.51 Al-Mibrak Mosque and madrasa: First floor and section.

Fig.52 Al-Mibrak Mosque and madrasa: Reconstruction.

Fig.53 Al-Mibrak Mosque and madrasa: Reconstruction.

Fig.54 Al-Mibrak Mosque: Sketch of first Muslim sanctuary.

Fig.55 Al-Mibrak Mosque: Section and elevation of mihrab.

Fig.56 Al-Mibrak Mosque and madrasa: Axonometric view.