Manufacturing Kishore Lecture 2 3

MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY – II
LECTURE – 2 & 3
Kishore Debnath, Assistant Professor

Department of Mechanical Engineering
National Institute of Technology Meghalaya
Introduction
A wave can be described as a disturbance that travels through a
medium from one location to another location.
- Longitudinal wave, and

- Transverse / shear wave
In longitudinal waves, the oscillations occur in the longitudinal

direction or the direction of wave propagation.
(mostly used in ultrasonic applications since they are easily generated)
In the transverse or shear wave, the particles oscillate at a right

angle or transverse to the direction of propagation.
Introduction
Ultrasonic is used to describe a vibratory wave of a frequency
above that of the upper frequency limit of the human hearing.
What is the Difference between Frequency, Wavelength and

Amplitude?
• Frequency tells us how many waves pass through a point at a

second.
• Wavelength tells us the length of those waves.
• Amplitude tells us how big the wave is.

Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
• Ultrasonic machining is a process in which material is

removed due to the action of abrasive grains.
• The abrasive particles are driven into the work surface by a

tool oscillating normal to the work surface at high frequency
(typically 20-40 kHz).
• The shape of the tool corresponds to the shape to be produced

in the work piece.
• The tool is gradually fed with a uniform force.
• The tool material, being tough and ductile, wears out at a much
slower rate.
Material Removal Mechanism
• The hammering of the abrasive particles on the

work surface by the tool,
• The impact of the free abrasive particles on the

work surface,
• The erosion due to cavitation, and
• The chemical action associated with the fluid used.

Material Removal Mechanism
Hammering Impact Cavitation

Schematic of Ultrasonic Machining
Ultrasonic Machining Setup
Ultrasonic Machining Unit
• Acoustic Head
• Feeding Unit
• Tool
• Abrasive Slurry and Pump Unit
• Body with Work Table
Basic Machine Layout

Acoustic Head
Its function is to produce a vibration in the tool.
It consists of a generator, transducer, holder and concentrator.
Generator: for supplying a high frequency electric current.
Transducer: to convert the high frequency electric current into a

mechanical motion in the form of high frequency vibration.
Holder: to hold the head.
Concentrator: to mechanically amplify the vibration while

transmitting it to the tool.
Schematic of Acoustic Head
Transducer
• Two types of transducers are generally used in
USM to convert the supplied electrical energy
into mechanical motion.
• They are based on two different principles of
operation:
- Magnetostriction
- Piezoelectricity
- Magnetostrictive Transducers
• Magnetostrictive transducers are usually constructed
from a laminated stack of nickel or nickel alloy sheets.
• When the material is placed in a sufficiently strong
magnetic field, the magnetic moments of the domains
rotate into the direction of the applied magnetic field
and become parallel to it.
• During this process the material expands or contracts,
until all the domains have become parallel to one
another.
• Magnetostrictive transducers require cooling by fans or
water.
- Piezoelectric Transducers
• Such as quartz or lead, zirconate, titanate, generate a
small electric current when compressed.
• Conversely, when an electric current is applied, the
material increases minutely in size.
• When the current is removed, the material instantly
returns to its original shape.
• Piezoelectric materials are composed of small
particles bound together by sintering.
• Such transducers exhibit a high electromechanical
conversion efficiency that eliminates the need for
cooling.
Concentrator
• It must be constructed of a material with good acoustic
properties and be highly resistant to fatigue cracking.
• Monel and titanium have good acoustic properties and are often
used together with stainless steel, which is cheaper.
• However, stainless steel has acoustical and fatigue properties that

are inferior to those of Monel and titanium, limiting it to low -
amplitude applications.
• An amplifying tool holder is also called a concentrator or horn.
• Amplifying holders remove material up to 10 times faster than

the non-amplifying type.
Types of Concentrators
Exponential Tapered Stepped

Feed Mechanisms
The objective of the feed mechanism is to apply the working
force during the machining operation.
The basic types of feed mechanisms are the;
Counterweight type
Spring type
Pneumatic and hydraulic type
Motor type
Tool
• Tools should be constructed from relatively ductile materials.
• The harder the tool material, the faster its wear rate will be.
• It is important to realize that finishing or polishing operations on

the tools are sometimes necessary because their surface finish
will be reproduced in the work piece.
• The geometry of the tool generally corresponds to the geometry

of the cut to be made.
• Because of the overcut, tools are slightly smaller than the desired
hole or cavity.
• Tool and tool holder are often attached by silver brazing.

6 mm 4 mm
2 mm 1.5 mm
Abrasive Slurry
• The criteria for selection of an abrasive for a particular
application include hardness, usable life, cost, particle size etc.
• The most common abrasives are: silicon carbide (SiC), boron

carbide (B4C), aluminium oxide/corundum (Al2O3) and
diamond.
• Diamond dust is used only for cutting diamonds and rubics.
• Boron carbide is economical and yields good machining rates.
• Silicon carbide and aluminum oxide are also widely used.

• The cutting time with SiC is about 20-40% more than that with
B4C.
• Corundum is much less efficient and the cutting time is about

3-4 times of that with B4C.
• The larger the grit size, the rougher the machined surface.
• Water is most commonly used fluid in the slurry.
• Other liquids such as, benzene, glycerol, and oils are also used.
• It has been found that the material removal rate tends to

decrease with increasing the viscosity of the liquids.
Process Parameters
Input Parameters
Acoustic System: Tool:
• Amplitude • Tool rotation
• Frequency • Tool length / diameter
• Power Rating • Shape
• Material
Abrasives:
• Material (hardness) Work piece:
• Shape • Thickness (machining depth)
• Size • Toughness
• Hardness
Slurry System: • Yield strength
• Concentration Output Parameters
• Liquid used Others: • MRR
• Viscosity • Feed • TWR
• Temperature • Static load • Ra
• Pressure • Machine precision • DA
• Stirring (particle distribution) • Machining time • F
MRR: Material Removal Rate, TWR: Tool Wear Rate, Ra: Surface Roughness, DA: Dimensional Accuracy, F: Cutting Force
Process Parameters and their Effects
MRR
MRR
MRR
MRR
MRR
MRR
Glass
MRR
Tungsten carbide
Advantages
• It can be used to machine hard, brittle, fragile and non
conductive materials.
• No heat is generated in work, therefore no significant changes

in physical structure of work material.
• Non-metal (because of the poor electrical conductivity) that

cannot be machined by EDM and ECM can very well be
machined by USM.
• It is burr less and distortion less process.
• It can be adopted in conjunction with other new technologies

like EDM, ECG, ECM.
Disadvantages
• Low Metal removal rate.
• It is difficult to drill deep holes, as slurry movement is

restricted.
• Tool wear rate is high due to abrasive particles. Tools made

from brass, tungsten carbide, mild steel or tool steel will wear
from the action of abrasive grit with a ratio that ranges from
1:1 to 200:1.
• USM can be used only when the hardness of work is more

than 45 HRC.
Applications
• Used for machining hard and brittle metallic alloys,

semiconductors, glass, ceramics, carbides etc.
• Used for machining round, square, irregular shaped holes

and surface impressions.
• Machining, wire drawing, punching or small blanking dies.

USM tool used to drill 12 holes simultaneously into fragile glass disks
USM of PMC’s !!!
(Out of Syllabus)
Tool and work piece motion during ultrasonic drilling.

120 MRR TWR 100
95.20
90
100 80
MRR (mg/min)
70
TWR (mg/min)
80
54.30 60
46.16 43.00
60 39.20 50
34.30
29.44 40
40 19.91 30
20 20
10
0 0
Variation in MRR and TWR under different experimental

conditions.
Ultrasonically machined glass-epoxy laminates (a) work pieces
with drilled hole, (b) close-up of drilled hole, and (c) close-up
of cut-out rod.
SEM image of the hole circumferential edge obtained through CD and
RMUD.
Microscopic image of the hole exit edge obtained through (a) CD,
and (b) RMUD.
Summary
Mechanics of material removal: Brittle fracture caused
by impact of abrasive grains due to tool vibrating at high
frequency
Medium: Slurry
Abrasives: B4C, SiC, Al2O3, Diamond (100-800 grit size)
Vibration: Frequency: 15-30 KHz, Amplitude: 25-100 µm
Tool material: Soft steel
Gap: 25-40 µm
Material removal rate/tool wear rate: 1.5 for WC and
100 for glass work piece
Summary…
Critical parameters: frequency, amplitude, tool material,
grit size, abrasive material, feed force, slurry
concentration, slurry viscosity etc.
Materials application: metals and alloys (particularly

hard and brittle), semiconductors, nonmetals, e.g., glass
and ceramics.
Shape application: round and irregular holes,

impressions etc.
Limitations: very low material removal rate, tool wear,

depth of holes, and small cavities.

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MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY – II

Kishore Debnath, Assistant Professor

- Longitudinal wave, and

In longitudinal waves, the oscillations occur in the longitudinal

In the transverse or shear wave, the particles oscillate at a right

What is the Difference between Frequency, Wavelength and

• Frequency tells us how many waves pass through a point at a

• Wavelength tells us the length of those waves.

• Amplitude tells us how big the wave is.

• Ultrasonic machining is a process in which material is

• The abrasive particles are driven into the work surface by a

• The shape of the tool corresponds to the shape to be produced

• The tool is gradually fed with a uniform force.

• The hammering of the abrasive particles on the

• The impact of the free abrasive particles on the

• The erosion due to cavitation, and

• The chemical action associated with the fluid used.

Hammering Impact Cavitation

Basic Machine Layout

It consists of a generator, transducer, holder and concentrator.

Generator: for supplying a high frequency electric current.

Transducer: to convert the high frequency electric current into a

Holder: to hold the head.

Concentrator: to mechanically amplify the vibration while

• However, stainless steel has acoustical and fatigue properties that

• An amplifying tool holder is also called a concentrator or horn.

• Amplifying holders remove material up to 10 times faster than

Exponential Tapered Stepped

The basic types of feed mechanisms are the;

Pneumatic and hydraulic type

• It is important to realize that finishing or polishing operations on

• The geometry of the tool generally corresponds to the geometry

• Tool and tool holder are often attached by silver brazing.

• The most common abrasives are: silicon carbide (SiC), boron

• Diamond dust is used only for cutting diamonds and rubics.

• Boron carbide is economical and yields good machining rates.

• Silicon carbide and aluminum oxide are also widely used.

• Corundum is much less efficient and the cutting time is about

• Water is most commonly used fluid in the slurry.

• It has been found that the material removal rate tends to

• No heat is generated in work, therefore no significant changes

• Non-metal (because of the poor electrical conductivity) that

• It is burr less and distortion less process.

• It can be adopted in conjunction with other new technologies

• It is difficult to drill deep holes, as slurry movement is

• Tool wear rate is high due to abrasive particles. Tools made

• USM can be used only when the hardness of work is more

• Used for machining hard and brittle metallic alloys,

• Used for machining round, square, irregular shaped holes

• Machining, wire drawing, punching or small blanking dies.

Tool and work piece motion during ultrasonic drilling.

Variation in MRR and TWR under different experimental

Materials application: metals and alloys (particularly

Shape application: round and irregular holes,

Limitations: very low material removal rate, tool wear,

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