Seismic Detailing

for Reinforced Concrete

C O N C R E T E
DIGEST D4
JUNE 1995
Buildings in Australia
20
A SEA
AR AFUR
40

R
TIMO
S E A Darwin OF
GULF TARIA
E N
CARP

prings
Alice S

ALI AN B
IGH T
Adelaid
e Canbe
R E I N F O R C E D
T A USTR
GREA 200

4000 rne
Melbou

N
OCEA
RN
SO UTHE

Sun Alliance Tower,Chatswood, NSW

STEEL
Better
Built with REINFORCEMENT
Concrete
INSTITUTE OF
AUSTRALIA
 Contents Foreword
Click subject to
go to it

3 Introduction I AM PLEASED to introduce this new publication on behalf of

the Steel Reinforcement Institute of Australia. As a practicing
3 Seismicity in Australia design engineer with over 25 years general design experience
and 12 years seismic design experience, the importance of correct
5 Reinforced Concrete and Earthquakes
detailing cannot be overemphasised in earthquake design.
5 Australian Standards Requirements Earthquake engineering, as we know it today, is at best
a very imprecise art and much of our knowledge comes from the
7 Design Methodology performance of buildings under actual earthquake loads. This
has repeatedly shown that properly detailed buildings with
8 Detailing of Structural Elements for
confinement reinforcement perform far better than normally
Earthquake Resistance
reinforced buildings detailed only for vertical loads.
8 Shear Walls and Braced Frames Of all of the design considerations the designer must
allow for in earthquake design, detailing and connection are by
8 Building Frame Systems far the most important as an earthquake will always expose the
weakest link in the structure when it strikes.
10 Reinforced Braced Frames
I welcome and commend this publication to you.
10 Moment Resisting Frame Systems
John Woodside
11 Intermediate Moment Resisting Frames Principal Connell Wagner Pty Ltd and
19 Precast Concrete
Chairman BD6/4 responsible for the preparation of
AS 1170.4 on behalf of Standards Australia.
20 Tilt-Up

21 Foundation Systems
Acknowledgments
22 Conclusions
The SRIA would like to thank the following
people and organisations for their assistance in
the writing of this publication:
John Woodside Principal, Connell Wagner, and
Chairman of Standards Australia Committee BD 6/4 Harold Isaacs Standards Australia, for elaborating on
Earthquake Loading, for kindly providing the Foreword the historical development and rationale behind the
and giving constructive criticism on the draft document. earthquake provisions of AS 3600–1994.
Des Bull Cement and Concrete Association Fellow, Kevin McCue Australian Geological Survey
University of Canterbury, New Zealand, for invaluable Organisation, for advice on Australian seismicity and
help in providing information regarding capacity design permission to reproduce the seismic hazard map.
and detailing, precast construction, and providing
John Ward BHP Steel Rod and Bar Products Division,
constructive criticism on the draft document.
for information on reinforcement properties under
Paul Sancandi Director, Meinhardt (NSW) Pty Ltd and seismic loading.
Mark Zvirblis, Public Relations Manager, of Concrete
Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute 933 North
Constructions Group Pty Ltd for the articles and
Plum Grove Road, Schaumburg, Illinois, USA, for
illustrations on the Sun Alliance Headquarters.
information on US seismic practice and the photographs
and project information on Burbank Tower and the
Northridge Hospital Medical Centre parking garage.

© Steel Reinforcement Institute of Australia 1995

Except where the Copyright Act allows otherwise, no
part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system in any form or transmitted by any
means without prior permission in writing of the
Steel Reinforcement Institute of Australia.

First published 1995

2
 Seismic Detailing for Reinforced Concrete
Buildings in Australia
Philip Sanders
National Engineer, Steel Reinforcement Institute of Australia

Introduction Seismicity in Australia

This publication discusses The Newcastle earthquake of 1989 was one of
detailing requirements of AS 3600 Australia’s most expensive natural disasters, costing upwards
Concrete Structures1 which were of $1.5 billion, causing 13 deaths and 120 injuries. This toll
amended in 1994 in response to the would have been much greater but for chance. The Newcastle
release of the new Australian Workers Club for instance, which collapsed during the
Earthquake Loading Code AS 1170.42. earthquake, regularly held major events at which hundreds
Following a brief overview of of people would be present. At the time, research into
seismicity in Australia and relevant earthquake engineering was underway at academic
code requirements, the discussion institutions, and the Australian Standards Code Committee
focuses on reinforcement detailing for a new earthquake loading code to replace AS 2121 was
aspects for building structures in already formed. However, the event threw into sharp relief
regions of lower seismicity where the need for the building industry to place greater emphasis
seismic forces are still likely to have a on seismicity in the design and construction of our building
significant impact on design. This is structures. The philosophy now implicit in the seismic
usually on structures from 5 to 15 design of building structures is to:
storeys, as for higher structures wind ■ minimise loss of life, structural collapse and damage;
loads will generally govern. For and
Rivers Corporation
buildings lower than 5 storeys, ■ improve post-disaster recovery.
Building, Adelaide, 1992.
earthquake loads may not govern due to the design
Prefabricated column Whilst the Newcastle earthquake was a major
category; however, seismic design might be required if the
cage incorporating natural disaster and the most expensive insurance loss in
building is irregular. Wind and earthquake loadings are
seismic detailing. (Note Australian history, it should be placed into perspective.
fundamentally different due to the cyclical nature of seismic
close spacing of ties action, while although wind loads may govern, limited Australia is the world’s sixth largest country (almost
adjacent to floor and detailing for seismic load will still be required. In particular, 8 million square kilometres), but its population of approxi-
ceiling). this publication shows how the requirements of the new mately 17 million is predominantly located in a coastal strip
loading code can be met through the use of predominantly between Brisbane and Adelaide and concentrated in
simple 'seismic' details and by following general good relatively few major urban centres. Australian earthquakes
detailing practice. Further, it will be seen how an tend to be shallow, of short duration, and although they
appreciation of structural performance under seismic may be felt over a great distance, have a relatively small
conditions will enable the structure to satisfactorily area of influence in contrast with those experienced in New
withstand the anticipated earthquake loads. The ease of use Zealand, Japan and California. These considerations result,
of these details is illustrated by commentary from therefore, in Australia being classified as a 'low-risk' but
Consulting Engineers and Builders involved in one of 'high-consequence' area in terms of earthquake damage, ie
Australia’s most recent seismically designed building the likelihood of an earthquake occurring in a major urban
structures. It is interesting to note that similar details have area is low but the consequences, should one occur, are
been used in Adelaide for reinforced concrete buildings over likely to be severe. Furthermore, on average, Australia
12 metres in height since 1982. Examples of relevant experiences earthquakes of Richter magnitude 6 or greater
overseas structures are also used to illustrate preferred every five years, ie with amplitudes of ground motion of 2.5
construction practice. This publication is not intended to be times and released energy at least 4 times as great as those
a comprehensive design guide, and readers are referred to a experienced in the Newcastle earthquake which measured
number of excellent texts currently available, especially magnitude 5.6 on the Richter scale. However, in intraplate
Seismic Design of Reinforced Concrete and Masonry areas such as Australia, it is not possible to accurately
Buildings 3 and Concrete Structures in Earthquake predict the time, location and intensity of earthquakes.
Regions: Design and Analysis 4. Both AS 1170.4 and Appendix A of AS 3600 (which
are discussed below) are based on US experience modified
for Australian seismological conditions and building
practices. The requirements of these two codes allow for the
possible seismological forces which a building structure
situated in Australia may reasonably be expected to undergo
at some point during its life.

3
 114 120 126 132 138 144 150

ARAFURA SEA 8
8

TIMOR 20
SEA 0
Darwin
4000
12
12 4000 GULF OF CORAL
CARPENTARIA SEA
AN
OCE

16
16

20
20

0
20

Alice Springs

24

OCEAN
24
20
0
INDIAN

400 Brisbane
0

28

PACIFIC
28

Perth

GREAT AUSTRALIAN BIGHT

32
32

SOUTH
20 Adelaide
0 Sydney
4000 Canberra

Melbourne TASMAN
36
36
SEA

40 200
00
SOUTHERN OCEAN

40
40
OROGENIC DOMAINS PLATFORM COVERS MAGNITUDES
4.0-4.9 5.0-5.9 > 6.0 DEPTH (km) Hobart
Palaeozoic Mesozoic to Cainozoic 0-40
Proterozoic Late Proterozoic to Palaeozoic
0 500 km 44
Archaean Early to Mid Proterozoic
44
Simple Conic Projection with
Fault 200 Bathymetric contour (m) Standard Parallels 18 S and 36 S
102 108 114 120 126 132 138 144 150 156 24/A/161

Figure 1 Epicentres of
Australian earthquakes
in the period 1859 to
1992 with magnitudes
of ML4 or greater.
(Illustration courtesy
AGSO)

4
 Reinforced Concrete and Earthquakes It should be noted that despite the commonly held
view, modern steel structures are not immune from collapse
As discussed above, due to the relatively short
or significant damage during seismic events (eg the
history of seismological measurement in Australia, it is not
Automobile Club of Southern California built in 1992 and
possible to predict the response spectra, time or location of a
demolished after the Northridge earthquake), while many
seismic event with any degree of accuracy. Even overseas in
well-designed concrete structures have survived major
countries more culturally adapted to earthquakes, surprises
earthquakes undamaged as seen in Kobe and Northridge
can occur which cause major catastrophes.
(see The California Experience below). There is a wealth of
The Kobe, or Great Hanshin, earthquake of 17 January experimental and theoretical evidence to support this
1995 and the Northridge, Los Angeles, earthquake of potential for good seismic performance from structural
17 January 1994 were just two examples where this has been concrete in readily available literature3,4.
the case. Both of these events highlighted the strengths and
weaknesses of reinforced concrete in terms of design
Australian Standards Requirements
methodologies and as a structural material.
It is widely recognised that reinforced concrete does AS 1170.4 sets out a number of earthquake design
suffer from a number of drawbacks when compared to steel categories. These provide the particular degree of design and
or timber structures since concrete: detailing consideration required for the level of seismicity
expected. As structures will also be designed for wind forces,
■ has an unfavourable mass to strength ratio;
the relative effects of both must be considered for Australian
■ exhibits brittle behaviour when failing in shear – conditions. Wind strength requirements may be more onerous
particularly for low levels of shear reinforcement; than those for earthquake loading. It should be noted,
■ possesses a lack of ductility in compression when however, that even if this is the case, additional earthquake
inadequately confined. requirements for detailing must still be considered due to:
The mass to strength ratio is important because ■ the significant degree of crudeness by which earthquake
earthquake loads arise from inertial effects, and so are forces are determined;
proportional to mass. Clearly, concrete is at a distinct ■ the fact that even in columns designed to be elastic
disadvantage here compared to steel and timber. The brittle (ie with a Structural Response Factor of 1.0), if the
behaviour exhibited in shear can be overcome by providing earthquake is larger than expected and the concrete
a sufficient reserve of strength to suppress such failures, cover spalls, the compression reinforcement will buckle,
while transverse confining steel greatly increases the resulting in the loss of core confinement and shear
ductility of concrete in compression. transfer mechanism (see below).
Reinforced concrete does, however, possess a Appendix A forms a normative part of AS 3600. It
number of attributes which enable it to be successfully sets out additional minimum requirements for the design
employed in structures resisting seismic loads: and detailing of reinforced concrete structures under
■ Properly conceived and detailed concrete structures earthquake actions, as defined in AS 1170.4. Many of these
possess excellent ductility in bending, which can equal provisions are based on Californian practice as codified in
that of structural steel. ACI 318-89 (amended 1992)5 and modified for Australian
■ Well-confined concrete can possess good ductility under conditions. The Appendix sets out and defines the
flexure and axial compression, with a lower tendency construction systems and categories in relation to the
for buckling failure compared with an equivalent steel earthquake design categories considered in AS 1170.4.
structure. The requirements of Appendix A are considered with
■ Properly detailed concrete construction provides a particular regard to structural systems set out in AS 1170.4, ie:
monolithic structure, which contributes to good overall ■ Bearing wall systems Structural systems with loadbearing
continuity, in itself a good earthquake-resistant feature. walls providing support for all or most of the vertical
■ Shear walls can be an economical means of providing loads and shear walls or braced frames providing the
high lateral strength and stiffness, while still retaining horizontal earthquake resistance
significant ductility. (Well-designed 'shear' walls do not ■ Building frame systems Structural systems in which an
fail in shear, despite their name.) essentially complete space frame supports the vertical
■ Internal damping before yielding is likely to be greater loads and shear walls or braced frames provide the
than in steel structures (approximately 6% compared horizontal earthquake resistance
with 3%). This is important for serviceability ■ Moment resisting frame systems (MRFs) Structural systems
considerations during moderate earthquakes. in which an essentially complete space frame supports
■ In many countries, concrete is the building material of the vertical loads and the total prescribed horizontal
choice; the technology is familiar and at least some of earthquake forces by the flexural action of members.
the materials are locally available and cheap, while the
finished structure can possess good sound and thermal
insulation properties.

5
 Three types of MRF are defined in the Code: The Californian Experience 1:
■ Ordinary Moment Resisting Frames (OMRF) Defined as 3900 West Alameda Tower, Burbank, CA 17
moment resisting frames not more than 50 m in overall
height above structural base, complying with the
requirements of AS 3600, but not being required to
satisfy the additional detailing requirements of
Appendix A of AS 3600 or of 1170.4. The author
recommends, however, that certain minimum seismic
details be adopted to prevent the possibility of brittle
failure, with catastrophic consequences, should the
design forces be exceeded by an unexpectedly large
seismic event (see below).
■ Intermediate Moment Resisting Frames (IMRF) Defined
as moment resisting frames of ductile construction,
complying with the requirements of AS 3600, together
with the additional requirements of Appendix A of
AS 3600 and AS 1170.4.
■ Special Moment Resisting Frames (SMRF) Concrete space
frames designed in accordance with AS 3600, in which
members and joints are capable of resisting forces by
flexure as well as axial forces along the axis of the
The Tower,
members with special ductility requirements. Few
Burbank, CA.
structures that designers will come across will fall
within this category in Australia. Below: Post earth-
Detailing requirements for the more onerous conditions quake photo showing
of Special Moment Resisting Frames (SMRF) are not undamaged first floor
covered in Appendix A. Designers requiring guidance for interior and exterior
these conditions are referred to ACI 318-89(92). columns in unfinished
tenant space.
■ Dual systems Structural systems in which an essentially
complete space frame provides support for the vertical
loads and at least a quarter of the prescribed horizontal
forces are resisted by a combination of the moment
frame, shear walls or braced frames, in proportion to
their relative rigidities. Structural excellence at competitive
Once selected, it is imperative that the structural cost The tallest reinforced concrete
system is designed and detailed to ensure that the system building in southern California at
will behave in the way intended. 32 storeys was completed in 1992. It
survived the magnitude 6.8 Northridge
earthquake on 17 January 1994
completely undamaged, even though
it was less than 16 km from the
epicentre. geometric abstract that is neither
Most office buildings in southern rectangular nor trapezoidal. The
California have historically been low- building has 102 000 square metres
rise rather than 'skyscrapers' due to of rentable space with five above- and
the probability of seismic action. This four below-ground parking levels.
building shows how properly Even so, insitu reinforced concrete
reinforced concrete construction in framing showed substantial cost
tall buildings provides excellent savings over alternative framing
performance in seismic zones. This materials. Post-earthquake inspection
structure was designed as a ductile showed even brittle, non-structural
frame meeting the requirements for elements such as masonry and
the highest seismic zone rating (Zone partitions to be damage free.
IV) in the Uniform Building Code.
The tower is positioned diagonally on
a nearly square lower building Photographs and data courtesy
structure which covers a full city Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute
block. Its unique perimeter shape is a Ill, USA.

6
 Design Methodology resist local stresses. Footings supported on piles, caissons, or
spread footings, located in soils with a maximum ultimate
A chain is only as strong as its weakest link …
bearing capacity of less than 250 kPa, must be restrained in
If one considers a chain comprising a number of the horizontal direction to limit differential movement
links, each with equal strength and ductility, and subjects it during an earthquake.
to a tensile force, which link will break first?
The decision as to which design route to take is left
The answer is that it is not possible to predict which largely to the engineer, eg Ordinary Moment Resisting Frames
will fail. The design structural engineer is in a similar are deemed to require no further detailing consideration
predicament regarding the seismic performance of a building from those required in the body of AS 3600 (but see comments
structure. The point of failure could be at any one of a number on minimum detailing requirements below). However, the
of locations, affected not just by such considerations as Structural Response Factor, Rf, (a function of the ductility
design strength and stiffness, but also by such matters as the provided in the frame and an 'overstrength' factor), may be
provision, for fixing purposes, of a greater number of bars increased by 50% if the designer opts for an Intermediate
than required, strain hardening of reinforcement during Moment Resisting Frame, thus considerably reducing the
cyclical action, and the overstrength of the reinforcement horizontal earthquake base shear force. The extra design
material above its nominal yield strength. and detailing required for an IMRF may well prove
Paulay3 uses this analogy to explain the concept of economical by permitting reduced member sizes.
'Capacity Design' for building structures. Structural failure Another point to note is that excess strength provided
occurs when the flexural strength of the member is exceeded above that notionally required by the design – for instance
by the forces placed upon it, ie 'demand' exceeds 'capacity'. due to the provision of additional reinforcement for tying, or
This capacity then is set at the 'ultimate limit state' or the extra thickness or depth of section for fire requirements –
maximum credible earthquake the structure may be expected means less ductility is required for the element. Therefore,
to undergo during its life. Below this, the structure would be less detailing for seismic resistance is required and there
expected to survive without experiencing severe damage. may be a resulting increase in buildability. Tilt-up and
Capacity Design essentially involves the designer loadbearing precast panels often fall into this category, for
picking the positions of failure in the structure and ensuring example.
that these failures are ductile and controlled in manner Drift It should be noted that even if a structure or
rather than brittle and catastrophic. Further, by choosing part of a structure is not designed specifically to withstand
the location of the formation of these ductile failures or seismic forces, frames must be designed for the full drift
'plastic hinges', the designer ensures that failure does not (deflection) of the whole structure (eg in dual system or
occur at critical points in the structure. Failure in the non- with combined insitu/precast construction). ACI 318-92
ductile elements can be prevented if their strength is in stipulates that a frame must be designed for twice the
excess of the maximum strength (including overstrength) of deflection of the building as a whole. This is regarded as too
the ductile elements. onerous for expected conditions in Australia. Instead, it is
The formation of plastic hinges uses up energy. considered sufficient for the designer to allow for the gravity-
Once all plastic hinges have formed, the structure will be supporting elements or frames to deflect to the maximum
unable to take any additional seismic load – effectively acting calculated for the most ductile frame or element, ie the
as a 'fuse' to prevent overload and collapse. earthquake-resisting frame or shear wall, without failure.
Most multi-storey reinforced concrete buildings Pounding Pounding, or the impact of adjoining
constructed in Australia will be in either Earthquake Design buildings due to differing amplitudes of motion, can be a
Categories B or C, ie they will be over four storeys but below serious problem and one not often considered by designers.
50 m in height, be founded on medium-density clays, sands, This can be especially acute in large cities due to the close
gravels or rock, and fall within Structure Classification Type II proximity of numbers of tall buildings of differing periods of
as defined in AS 1170.4 (eg offices or residential buildings of oscillation. Analytical studies have not been validated
more than four storeys, hotels and motels, most hospital experimentally and separation to avoid pounding has usually
facilities – excluding those essential for post-disaster recovery). been based on design equations. If the motion experienced
For Categories B and higher, AS 1170.4 specifies is higher than specified, significant damage can occur.
that all parts of a structure shall be interconnected, in both
the horizontal and vertical directions. The connections are
to be capable of transmitting the calculated horizontal
earthquake force (Fp) in order to provide load paths from all
parts of the structure. This enables earthquake forces to be
carried to the foundation.
For Categories C and higher, diaphragm action is to
be considered in the design in the same manner as wall
anchorage to provide connection between the walls and the
roof and floors. Openings in shear walls and diaphragms
require additional reinforcement at the edges and corners to

7
 Detailing of Structural Elements for The ductility provision requirements are as follows:
Earthquake Resistance ■ The reinforcement ratio, Pw ≥ 0.0025 both horizontally
Detailing of the structure is an integral and important and vertically (ie an increase from 0.0015 in the vertical
part of the seismic design process. For reinforced concrete, direction over cl 11.6.1).
structural detailing centres around arrangement of the ■ The reinforcement is to be divided between the two faces, if:
reinforcing bars. There must be sufficient transverse steel to tw > 200 mm; or φVu > (Ag.f'c)/6
suppress brittle shear or crushing failures and to prevent
where
buckling of the main compression steel, once the cover
concrete has been lost. The main steel bars must not lose tw = thickness of the wall
their anchorage into the surrounding concrete during the φVu = design shear strength
repeated reversing loading cycles to which they would be Ag = gross cross-sectional area
subjected during a major earthquake.
f'c = characteristic 28-day compressive cylinder
Appendix A of AS 3600 sets out detailing criteria for strength of concrete.
general, regular and irregular structures, as defined in
All reinforcement terminating in footings, columns,
AS 1170.4. Regular structures in Design Categories A and B
slabs and beams must be anchored to develop yield stress at
do not need to be specifically designed or detailed for
the junction of the wall and terminating member.
resistance to earthquake loads. For irregular structures in
Design Category B and structures in Design Categories C to ■ Boundary elements must be provided at discontinuous
E, the design action effects determined in AS 1170.4 are edges of shear walls and around openings where:
dependent upon both the type of structural system adopted - vertical reinforcement is not restrained; and
and the type of member being considered. The relevant level - the extreme fibre compressive stress in the wall
of ductility is to be met by following the detailing exceeds 0.15 f'c.
requirements for the particular structural system concerned.
Note: This stress may not be the actual stress
It should perhaps be restated here that design and developed, but is the 'trigger value' for determining
detailing are inseparable. Proper detailing is required to when a boundary element is required.
ensure that the structure will respond under seismic loading
Restraint of the longitudinal reinforcement in
in the manner for which it has been designed.
boundary elements is to comply with Clause 10.7.3 or, if the
extreme fibre compressive strength exceeds 0.2 f'c, with the
Shear Walls or Braced Frames requirements for Reinforced Braced Frames.
As AS 1170.4 assigns a low structural response It should be noted that the above requirements do
factor (Rf) to reinforced or prestressed concrete shear walls not necessarily result in an increase in wall thickness for a
or braced frames in a bearing wall system, these elements boundary element, only that the areas concerned are
attract higher earthquake design forces. They are therefore designed and detailed to resist specified axial forces Figure 2.
required to be comparatively heavily reinforced and often will
have a reasonable excess of strength above that notionally Special vertical boundary element
required. Appendix A allows elements in these systems to be
designed and detailed in accordance with the main body of
the code without further consideration. It must be noted by the
designer, however, that the use of any Rf of greater than 1.0
results in a design earthquake force of less than the
anticipated actual loading. Reinforcement will then yield Anchorage to develop fsy at this point

once the design earthquake force is reached and plastic

hinges form. Detailing must be provided to reflect this. Column (reinforcement not shown)

Building Frame Systems

As building frame systems are generally more ductile
than bearing wall systems, they are assigned a correspondingly
Anchorage to develop fsy at this point
higher Rf value in AS 1170.4. The earthquake design forces
are therefore lower. This may in turn result in less longitudinal
and shear reinforcement. To maintain the required level of db = diameter of bar

ductility, however, additional detailing is necessary.

6db

Figure 2
Typical boundary element details (from AS 3600 2)

8
 The Californian Experience 2: Parking structure on California State
University Northridge Campus
Parking Structures A testament to ductile reinforced
concrete? Collapse occurred due to the
failure of the internal precast concrete
frame. The exterior elements – the
primary seismic resisting system –
were constructed as an insitu ductile
frame. A telling testament to the ability
of properly detailed reinforced concrete
to perform in a ductile fashion.
(Photo courtesy EERC/University of California)

Different structural systems must be

compatible Structural collapse
occurred due to a lack of drift
compatibility between the primary
seismic resisting system and the
precast gravity resisting structure.
The Northridge Medical Centre Seating of precast units must allow
Parking Garage was completed in for frame growth under lateral
1989. Located at the epicentre of the deflection (see Figure 11).
Northridge earthquake it came through (Photo courtesy CSIRO)
without damage. It is one of over 40
such parking structures built by one
contractor, Sy Art, in the immediate
Top and above: vicinity of the earthquake – all of
Exteriors of the which were undamaged.
Northridge Medical This record is all the more remarkable
Centre Parking Garage. as a number of other parking
Interior: Post
structures fared particularly badly.
There were a number of causes of
earthquake photo
these failures. Predominantly these
showing undamaged
were weaknesses in design philosophy.
interior columns,
Such issues as a lack or irregular
beam and slab.
siting of stiffening elements, large wall
(Photos courtesy CRSI) openings and inadequate attention to
detailing, especially where changes of
construction type occurred.
9
 Plastic
hinges

Frame a) Column sidesway mechanism b) Beam sidesway mechanism c) Mixed sidesway mechanism
- soft storey - plastic hinges in beams only - interior columns form plastic hinges
(strong beam/weak column) (strong column/weak beam) - acceptable with adequate design and
- non-preferred arrangement - preferred arrangement detailing for ductility
Figure 3
Three possible mechanisms of post-elastic
deformation of moment-resisting frames during
Moment Resisting Frame Systems
severe seismic loading (after Goldsworthy 9)
As discussed above, there are three types of moment
resisting frames:
■ Ordinary Moment Resisting Frames These require no
specific detailing for seismic resistance. Standard
Reinforced Braced Frames
detailing as set out in the body of AS 3600 is considered
to provide structural adequacy to reinforced concrete
Bracing members of braced frames are to be structures when coupled with the higher earthquake
designed as struts or ties, as they will be subject to alternating design forces consequent from the use of lower Rf values
compression and tension, and connections between members (ie reduce the 'ductility demand', or likely joint rotation,
are to have greater strength than each connected member. on the frame and assume they are essentially elastic).
In terms of detailing, it is important to provide The designer should note that for OMRFs, normal
adequate lateral restraint along the whole length of the detailing to AS 3600 will result in only limited frame
longitudinal reinforcement when it is subject to compression ductility, primarily as a result of poor joint performance.
in the form of: Joint failure will result in collapse (Kobe, Northridge,
■ helices: the volume of steel divided by the volume of Mexico City). In order to achieve the required Rf value
concrete, per unit length of member must be greater of 4, the designer needs to ensure that an excess value of
than 0.12(f'c/fsy.f); or this magnitude (or higher) is available (see Reference 9),
■ closed ties: or that detailing is provided such that plastic hinges may
form. (See Intermediate Moment Resisting Frames.)
Asv ≥ 0.30 sy1, (Ag/Ac-1) (f'c/fsy.f) (unless φNuo > N*)
or As noted in Design Methodology above, it is important
or ≥ 0.09 sy1, (f'c/fsy.f); whichever is greater. to ensure, however, that the non-seismically-designed
frames are sufficiently ductile to cater for forces they will
where attract if the earthquake is bigger than that assumed in
s = centre to centre spacing of the ties the model. The designer must detail with care to ensure
y1 = the larger core dimension that plastic hinges, if any, form at the locations specified
Ag = the gross cross-sectional area of the column Figure 3. It is important to remember that AS 3600,
Appendix A, does not specifically direct the designer to
Ac = the cross-sectional area of the core measured provide a weak beam/strong column mechanism (see
over the outside of the ties below) so any of the three indicated modes could occur
f'c = the characteristic compressive cylinder strength during a seismic event of sufficient magnitude to cause
of concrete at 28 days yielding of reinforcement.
fsy.f = the yield strength of the ties ■ Special Moment Resisting Frames These will rarely be
φ = a strength reduction factor required in Australia as this will be economically viable
Nuo = the ultimate strength in compression of an only for Design Category E structures. As such, AS 3600
axially loaded cross-section without eccentricity refers readers to ACI 318 and references (3, 6 and 7) for
detailing concrete structures for more-onerous seismic
N* = the axial compressive or tensile force on a conditions.
cross-section.
■ Intermediate Moment Resisting Frames Attention will
be concentrated on the detailing requirements for these
systems as they will more commonly be seen, especially
in dual systems where for instance shear walls are
provided only in one direction. Further, some of the
provisions must be considered as good detailing practice
in OMRF systems as well.

10
 Detailing Requirements for Intermediate ■ neither the negative nor the positive moment strength
Moment Resisting Frames at any section along the member length is to be less
than one-fifth of the maximum moment strength
Beams Under the effects of earthquake action,
provided at the face of the support.
flexural members are subjected to a number of reversals of
bending moment. To ensure adequate ductility potential in All longitudinal reinforcement must be anchored
IMRFs, beams are always doubly, and continuously, beyond the support face, so that at the face the full yield
reinforced Figure 4. strength of the bars can be developed. This requires that:
If yield occurs, the Young's Modulus of the ■ longitudinal reinforcement is continuous through
reinforcement will not remain within the elastic part of the intermediate supports, and
stress-strain curve, and that Bauschinger softening will occur ■ longitudinal reinforcement extends to the far face of the
under cyclic loading. (The 'Bauschinger effect' is the change confined region and is fully anchored.
in the stress-strain relationship that occurs when a reinforc- Lapped splices in longitudinal reinforcement,
ing bar is yielded in tension or compression and the direction located in a region of tension or reversing stress, are to be
of the stress is reversed. The distinct yield point is lost and confined by a minimum of two closed ties at each splice to
the stress-strain relationship takes on a curvilinear form.) inhibit the possibility of non-ductile failure at this point. The
The stable hysteretic response of the potential plastic hinge position of maximum moment under seismic load will be
region can be diminished through the 'pinching' of the dependent upon the magnitude of the earthquake Figure 5.
hysteretic loop due to the influences of shear degradation of The position of the splice should therefore be located at a
the region. This could be as a result of inadequate transverse position of known moment, perhaps in the middle third of
reinforcement or poor construction joints, for instance. the span, unless the designer is confident that the splice is
The effect of reversing moments is generally sufficiently confined to safely locate it elsewhere in the span.
concentrated at the junctions between beam and column.
The Appendix therefore, stipulates that in a span:
■ the positive moment strength at a support face is to be
not less than one-third of the negative moment strength
provided at the face of the support; and

Longitudinal reinforcement, top and bottom * Lap splices to be confined by at

+ve moment strength ≥ 33% –ve moment strength at face of either joint. least 2 closed ties at each splice
Extend Lsy.t straight or Moment strength ≥ 20% maximum moment strength at face of either joint. Note: position of splice to be
0.5 Lsy.t where hooked ≥33% total –ve moment tensile reinforcement required at support shall be determined by designer to avoid
into core extended D beyond the point of contraflexure, per Clause 8.1.8.2. position of maximum moment
Minimum of 2 bars, continuous top and bottom (see Figure 5)

Terminate all required top

and bottom bars at the far L1 L1 L1 Splice*
face of the column core,
providing minimum distance
Lsy.t for tension per Section
13.1 of AS 3600 D
do

Col.
core do
Splice*

50 Closed ties Ties Closed ties 50 Closed ties

max S1 S2 S1 max S1

Ln Ln

Engineer must provide dimensions L1, Maximum tie spacings Ln ≥ 4D (Clause 12.1.1.1)
S1, S2, tie and closed tie spacing, In length S1, spacing for closed ties ≤ 0.25 do; L1 = distance required by design for moment
anchorage length, cut-off points of 8db ; 24df ; or 300 mm, whichever least. plus anchorage length (= Lsy.t + D)
discontinuous bars and Lsy.t In length S2, spacing of tie ≤ d/2 or 300 mm, db = diameter of smallest longitudinal bar
whichever least. enclosed by tie
df = diameter of bar forming tie
do = design depth for –M and +M
S1 ≥ 2D
Figure 4
Typical beam restraint details for IMRF structures

11
 S1 S1

h
Shear type failures tend to be brittle. Also, as
mentioned above, maintaining a stable hysteretic response
of plastic hinge regions requires that the compression bars LAB
be prevented from buckling. It must therefore be assumed
that major spalling of concrete cover will occur and that the A C B
Flexural capacity
compression bars must rely solely upon transverse support provided
provided by the ties. Limitations on maximum tie spacing
– MB
are required to ensure that the effective buckling length of MA –
the compression bars is not excessive and that concrete
within the stirrup ties has reasonable confinement. Further- + M'B
M'A + MC
more, due to the possible occurrence of the Bauschinger
effect and the reduced tangent modulus of elasticity of the
steel, a smaller effective length must be considered for bars LAC

subject to flexural compression, rather than compression

alone. The appendix specifies a minimum area of shear Figure 5
reinforcement: Localities of plastic hinges when stirrup-ties are
Asv ≥ 0.5 bws/fsy.f (ie 50% greater than stipulated in the required (after NZS 3101:Part 2:1995) Note: plastic
body of the Code) with closed ties provided over a hinges will form when the flexural capacity envelope
minimum distance of 2D from the face of the support. and the actual moment coincide
The first placed 50 mm from the support face, and the
remainder spaced at 0.25 do, 8db, 24 df or 300 mm,
whichever is least, Columns As discussed in Moment Resisting Frame
where: Systems above, it is desirable to ensure that any plastic hinges
bw = width of web. that may form should do so in the beam elements rather
than the columns by ensuring that the flexural capacity of
s = centre to centre spacing of ties.
the column is higher than that of the beam by a significant
fsy.f = yield strength of ties. margin to allow for any 'overstrength' due to design or
D = overall depth of cross-section in the plane of materials (see Design Methodology above.) This is known as
bending. the 'weak beam/strong column' philosophy. Although it
do = the distance from the extreme compression fibre may not always be possible to achieve this, especially with
of the concrete to the centroid of the outermost such forms of construction as band beams (see below), care
layer of tensile reinforcement, but not less that should be taken that catastrophic collapse, especially due to
0.8D. brittle shear failure in the column will not occur.
db = the diameter of the smallest longitudinal bar In many cases, the ultimate compression strain of
enclosed by the tie, and unconfined concrete is inadequate to allow the structure to
achieve the design level of ductility without excessive spalling
df = the diameter of the bar forming the tie.
of cover concrete. Adequate transverse reinforcement must
Since tension in vertical tie legs acts simultaneously therefore be provided to confine the compressed concrete
to restrict longitudinal bar buckling and to transfer shear within the core region to maintain its axial-load-carrying
force across diagonal cracks, it is considered that the tie capacity and to prevent buckling of the longitudinal
areas are sufficient to satisfy both the requirements for bar compression reinforcement and subsequent failure. Plastic
buckling and those for shear resistance Figure 4. hinge regions are particularly susceptible where substantial
(Note: these requirements do not preclude efficient axial forces are present, eg in columns where inelastic
fabrication techniques such as loose bar detailing as deformations must occur to develop a full hinge mechanism.
recommended in the CIA detailing manual (8).) (Note: this may occur even where the design is based upon
weak beam/strong column philosophy, such as at the base of
all columns Figure 3b and c.)
Confinement Close-spaced transverse reinforce-
ment acting in conjunction with longitudinal reinforcement
restrains the lateral expansion of the concrete. This enables
the concrete to withstand higher levels of compression.
Circular or helical ties, due to their shape, are placed in hoop
tension by the expanding concrete and provide confinement
to the enclosed concrete Figure 6a. Rectangular ties apply
full confinement only near their corners as the pressure of
the concrete bends the legs outwards. This tendency should
be counteracted by the use of cross-ties or interconnected

12
Loma Prieta, USA,
1989. Shear failure of
Unconfined
column and lack of
concrete
confinement of core
concrete. Note failure
of reinforcement to
confine core concrete
(a)
due to inadequate
detailing and wide
spacing of transverse
hoops. AS 3600
specifies 135° hooks
rather than 90° as Unconfined
shown (and previously concrete

stipulated in AS 1480).
(Photos courtesy EERI)

(b)

Unconfined
closed ties. This has the additional benefit of increasing the
concrete
number of legs crossing the section. The profiles of the
unconfined zones of concrete between longitudinal bars are
shallower, and consequently a greater area of concrete is
confined. The presence of a number of longitudinal bars,
enclosed by closely spaced ties will also significantly aid (c)
confinement Figure 6b, c, d and e.
The confinement of concrete is addressed in
Appendix A by the provision of closed ties, where required,
over a distance of either:
■ the maximum dimension of the column cross-section,
or Unconfined
■ one-sixth of the least clear distance between consecutive concrete
flexural members framing into it. Further, the spacing
of the closed ties is to be the least of 0.25do, 8db, 24df or
300 mm with the first tie located at 50 mm from the
support face. (Note: do in this case is taken from the (d)
larger column dimension.) The overall cross-sectional
area of the ties must obviously be sufficient to satisfy the
shear requirements of the column Figure 7.
Lapped splices It is inevitable that splices will
occur in the column reinforcement of multi-storey buildings.
It is important therefore to ensure that these are detailed Unconfined
and located such that failure will not occur under concrete
earthquake action. Splicing is usually achieved by the use of
overlapping parallel bars. In this method, force transmission
occurs due to the bond between the bars and the surrounding
concrete, as well as due to the response of concrete between (e)
adjacent bars.
Under severe cyclical loading, column splices tend Figure 6
to progressively 'unzip'. Further, where large steel forces are Confinement of column sections by transverse and
to be transmitted by bond, splitting of the concrete can occur. longitudinal reinforcement (from Paulay and
To prevent these occurrences, ties are required to provide a Priestley 3)

13
Recommended practice:
Lap splices only within centre Recommended practice:
half of clear column height Lap splice to be confined by at least 2 closed ties
unless calculations show
otherwise Recommended practice:
Provide double ties at bends

Closed ties may be spaced at 2 Sc (or Sc with 0.5 Asv) for the depth of the shallowest
beam provided beams frame int the column from at least two directins at right angles.
For all other conditions, use ties spaced at Sc

135°
Closed
ties 0.5 Sc

df ID = 4df
Closed Sc
D
ties
Closed tie hooks at each end

S Closed ties must be provided in all joints and in the columns for a distance, D,
above and below joints

Lo Clear Column Recommended practice where plastic hinge formation possible:

column ties When welded splices or mechanical connection are used, not more than alternate bars
height may be spliced at any section with vertical distance between splices 600 mm or more

ID = 4df
Closed
D
ties 135°
df
0.5 Sc
Supplementary cross ties may be used if of the same diameter as the closed tie
Fully scabble all and secured with the closed tie to the longitudinal bars
construction joints
Asv = cross sectional area of ties
Sc = closed tie spacing not to exceed 0.25 do, 8 db, 24 df or 300 mm
S = column tie spacing not to exceed the smaller of Dc or 15 db
Dc = smaller dimension of column cross-section
D = largest column dimension, but not less than one-sixth clear height
do = effective depth of member ≥ 0.8 D
Figure 7
db = diameter of smallest longitudinal bar enclosed by the tie
Typical column details for IMRF structures df = diameter of tie bar

'clamping force' to the longitudinal reinforcement against New Zealand practice allows that columns that have
the core concrete. In circular columns the clamping force is greater than 1.25–1.4 times the flexural strength of the
provided by helical or circular ties. This form of reinforcement adjoining beams are unlikely to yield and form plastic
has been shown to be very efficient at resisting the radial hinges – providing the column shear strength is similarly
cracks that can develop. Further, these ties can restrain an higher, ie matching the column flexural capacity. If the
unlimited number of splices. formation of plastic hinges is precluded, then splicing of
Unless the capacity has been checked by design, it is longitudinal bars by lapping may be undertaken
recommended that splices should not be placed in potential immediately above the floor level.
plastic hinge regions. Whilst transverse ties may ensure Splicing by welding or the use of mechanical
strength development of the splice under cyclical loading at couplers (eg Alpha or Lenton) is often done where bar
up to but still below yield stress of the reinforcement, they congestion may prove problematic. It is recommended that
will not ensure a satisfactory ductile response. This is under no circumstances should these be situated in a
especially true where large-diameter bars are lapped in the potential plastic hinge region, in order to help ensure a
plastic hinge zone. The splice will fail after a few cycles of strong column/weak beam failure.
loading large enough to induce inelastic behaviour in the Site welding of bar splices requires special consider-
longitudinal reinforcement, with a consequent gradual ation and care during execution. It is recommended that lap
deterioration of bond transfer between the bars (see welding should be avoided. Butt welding is acceptable,
Reference 3). For example, a plastic hinge would normally provided it is carried out using a proper procedure but,
be expected to occur at the base of first-storey columns. again, it is recommended that welded splices are never used
(Note: this is true for all frame types.) Consideration should in a potential plastic hinge region Figure 7.
therefore be given to carrying the column bars above first-
floor level before splicing. A less preferred alternative would
be to locate the splice at mid-height of the column.

14
 C's C'c T'

Internal actions and crack pattern

Vcol Beam/Column Joints Under seismic loading, the

Cs T reversing moments induced above and below the column
Cc
Vbeam joint, and simultaneously occurring reversals of beam
moment across the joint, cause the region to be subject to
Vbeam both horizontal and vertical shears of much greater
Cc magnitude than those experienced by the adjoining beams
T Cs
and columns themselves. However low the calculated shear
Vcol
force in a joint resisting earthquake-induced forces,
transverse reinforcement must be provided through the joint
to prevent the occurrence of brittle joint shear failure, rather
T' C'c C's than obtaining the desired flexural beam hinges (see
C'c
References 3, 5 and 6). This transverse reinforcement is
provided by continuing the closed ties required for columns
Vcol adjacent to the joint.
Transfer of concrete forces
Cc The area required Asv is to be a minimum of:
Vbeam 0.3 sy1, (Ag/Ac -1) (f'c/fsy.f), (unless φNuo > N*);
Vbeam
or
0.09 sy1, (f'c/fsy.f) whichever is the greater.
Cc where
Vcol s = centre to centre spacing of the ties
C'c y1 = the larger core dimension
Ag = the gross cross-sectional area of the column
Ac = the cross-sectional area of the core measured
over the outside of the ties
Transfer of some bond forces
f'c = the characteristic compressive cylinder strength
of concrete at 28 days
fsy.f = the yield strength of the ties
φ = a strength reduction factor
Nuo = the ultimate strength in compression of an
axially loaded cross-section without eccentricity
(a) Shear transfer of concrete compression forces and some N* = the axial compressive or tensile force on a
bond forces from longitudinal bars by diagonal compression cross-section.
strut mechanism (from Goldsworthy 9) The area of reinforcement required may, however,
be reduced by half where equal resistance to joint rotation is
hc provided in at least two directions at right angles, but only
over the depth of the shallowest of the framing members
Ldh 0.5 hc or 8 db whichever is lesser (this
length is disregarded because of loss of
Figure 7.
bonding during cyclic loading) Figure 8 shows the effects of shear transfer of
Not concrete compression forces and some bond forces which,
permitted especially at external beam/column connections, require
special consideration with regard to reinforcement
anchorage. A considerable length of the top bars is ignored
≥ 0.75hc Plastic hinge when calculating the development length because of
expected bond deterioration under cyclic load reversal. It
should also be noted that the bottom beam bars are bent
Not
upwards at the end Figure 8b. If they are not, this will result
permitted 0.5 hc or 8 db whichever is lesser (this
length is disregarded because of loss of
in poor behaviour of the joint in the direction of loading. In
Ldh bonding during cyclic loading) addition, proper anchorage of the bottom beam bar is
necessary in order to transfer shear through the joint via a
strut mechanism. However, tests have shown that U-bars are
(b) Anchorage of beam bars when the critical section of the not as effective as top and bottom bars anchored separately
plastic hinge forms at the column face (from NZS 3101: (Reference NZS 3101:1995).
Part 2:1995)

Figure 8
Shear transfer at beam/column connections and suggested
reinforcement anchorage at external column position

15
 Trimmer
bars (see
Sun Alliance Tower, Chatswood schedule)
A
Seismic detailing practice Floor level

Y12-200
EF*
Y12-200 Y12-200
0
90 EF* EF*

A
* For 150 RC
walls use
Y12-200
centrally Floor level

Trimming Bars Size Schedule Typical doorway detail

Marking Bar size (except for 150 thick wall as noted)

A 4Y28
B 4Y20
C 4Y28
D 2Y36
E 3Y24
F 2Y24

This high-profile building, destined to be

Sun Alliance’s head office was specified
from the outset to provide CBD-quality
construction with first-class services and
finishes. The Engineer’s Perspective
The 15-level tower will occupy a 3200-m2
site directly across the road from the Paul Sancandi
Chatswood railway station and bus inter- Director, Meinhardt (NSW) Pty Ltd
change. Typical floors have 1138 m2 gross
floor area providing a total net lettable area
of 15 000 m2, including ground- and first-
floor retail space and professional suites. The lift shafts and stairwells were Vi = 0.1 (ln/h)√f'c MPa, diagonal
The facade of the building will be a combined to form a Y-shaped core reinforcement, to resist both shear
combination of pre-finished metal cladding structure which has been constructed and bending moments, should be used
and glazed elements. The ground-level in reinforced concrete using a climb- (where ln and h are the clear span and
retail-space finishes will be natural stone, form system. Because of the stiffness overall depth of the beam respectively).
polished precast walls and masonry units. of the core, it was designed to provide Specific requirements for the detailing
There will be an extensive landscaped area all the lateral resistance to bulk earth- of the reinforcement for coupling
incorporating seating and a pedestrian quake and wind loads. The analysis beams included:
bridge to the bus/rail interchange. showed that earthquake loading was
■ the provision of transverse ties
Three basement levels of carparking will the critical case. Wall thicknesses and
around the cage of the diagonal
provide spaces for 235 cars with feature reinforcement requirements were all
bars, spaced no further apart than
lobbies on each level to provide a pleasant calculated in accordance with AS 3600
100 mm;
exit from carparking areas. and AS 1170.4.
■ increasing the development length
This is the first multi-storey building with a An important consideration with
specified for individual bars by 50%
reinforced concrete frame to be designed to respect to the seismic design was to
and extending into the adjacent walls;
meet the requirements of AS 1170.4 and ensure proper anchorage and detailing
of the reinforcement. The main ■ basketing a nominal grid of
AS 3600–1994 which necessitated
concern was adequate reinforcement reinforcement in the remainder of
significant detailing for seismic
detailing with respect to the coupling the beam.
performance. ■
beams, over the heads of the lift shafts, It should be noted that a minimum
connecting the main wall elements. It wall/beam thickness of 350 mm was
was recommended16 that whenever preferred in order to accommodate
the normal shear stress exceeds the reinforcement properly. For thinner

16
 Rebate to lift
The Contractor’s Perspective
manufacturer's requirements
Floor level Mark Zvirblis
Public Relations Manager
Concrete Constructions Group Pty Ltd
Trimmer bars (see schedule)

R6-100 typical
Concrete Construction’s involvement Final typical reinforcement ratios on
Trimmer bars (see schedule) with the Sun Alliance Project began the project for selected elements were:
120 in mid-1991, commencing with Suspended prestressed tower slabs
assistance in cost planning and a 30 kg/m3
buildability analysis.
Tower beams
This developed into a contract fully 45 kg/m3
Section A-A Section A-A documented by the client, giving the
Typical for type A, B and C bars Typical for type D bars Columns
client a guaranteed maximum price
225–260 kg/m3
and time. This will be Sun Alliance’s
head office and thus their brief was to Core walls
walls a single line of reinforcement provide a CBD-quality building with 280 kg/m3
may be acceptable as long as the first-class services and finishes. Typical sizes of structural elements
stresses in the compression 'strut' are as follows:
Construction commenced in February
are within code limits.
1994 and is scheduled for completion Tower slabs
This detail ensured a ductile coupling in mid-1995. The building was 160 mm thick
beam. Other detailing requirements 'topped-off' in February 1995, within Tower edge beams
related to ensuring adequate anchorage two days of its commencement 12 400 mm deep x 900 mm wide
of horizontal reinforcement at the ends months earlier.
of walls (boundary elements). This Tower main beams
■ Rock Anchors with a 350-tonne 295/320 mm deep x 2400 mm wide
was mainly achieved by providing
capacity were installed through the
cogs at the end of the bars or by the Columns (B3 to underside ground)
core base slab. There were ten
use of closed ties at the end. 1500 x 450 mm
anchors with lengths varying from
With respect to the connection of the 8 to 10 metres. They were drilled Columns (ground to underside
slabs to the corewalls, conventional after the jump form had been taken Level 1)
blockouts with 'pull-out' reinforce- up approximately five levels in 800 mm diameter
ment bars were utilised. This allowed order to clear the drilling rig, as Columns (Level 1 to 16)
the cores to progress ahead of the core construction was moved 620 x 620 mm
floors. The amount of reinforced forward to save time on the Core walls(B3 to underside Level 1)
required was checked against the construction programme. 350 mm thick
Code requirements. ■
■ Door heads and sills received extra Core walls (Level 1 to underside
reinforcement to cater for seismic Level 5)
loading, placed diagonally between 230 mm thick
Sun Alliance Tower the door heads and sills on each
Core walls (Level 5 to Level 16)
floor. Limited access and slender
Location 150 mm thick
walls required some modifications
461–471 Victoria Avenue Chatswood, to the original design, with the use ■

NSW, Australia of shorter lengths of bar and more-

Client frequent splices. This was the only
Vickbrow Pty Ltd area where seismic considerations
Structural Engineer had a major influence on reinforce-
Meinhardt (NSW) Pty Ltd ment quantities and placement.
Contractor ■ Core walls required alpha splices to
Concrete Constructions Group bars to minimise congestion due to
Pty Ltd limited wall thickness and required
Date Commenced reinforcement quantities.
February 1994
Estimated Completion
July 1995

17
 b1

Floor Slabs It has generally been found that

bt bt + 3D Column strip
insitu floor slabs spanning in either one or both directions
and acting monolithically with the supporting beams are
more than capable of acting as a diaphragm unless the
number of large openings is excessive. The detailing
requirements for slab reinforcement for moment resisting
frame systems in Appendix A are essentially the same as for NOTE:
All reinforcement to resist M*v to be
beams (eg provisions of reinforcement, continuity, Reinforcement
placed in column strip
requirement for
anchorage, lapping).
both top and Reinforcement to resist slab moment but not less
bottom steel than one-half of reinforcement in column strip
Flat-slab construction has additional requirements
Plan view at columns
due to the need to ensure ductility and continuity conditions
are met at column and middle strips along the line of
Top and bottom reinforcement to develop fsy at face of support
support.
Not less than one-fourth of top
Appendix A sets out the following criteria: reinforcement at support
■ All reinforcement resisting the portion of the slab
moment transferred to the support is to be placed within
the column strip.
Not less than one-third of top
■ A proportion of this reinforcement is to be evenly reinforcement at support
distributed in a narrower zone measuring 1.5 times the Not less than one-half of bottom reinforcement at mid-span
thickness of the slab or drop panel beyond the face of
the column or capital. Section of column strip

This proportion is the greater of 0.5

Top and bottom reinforcement to
or develop fsy at face of support
1 / 1 + 2/3 √[(bl + do)/(bt + do)]
where
bl = the size of rectangular (or equivalent) column, Not less than one-half of bottom
capital or bracket, measured in the direction of reinforcement at mid-span
the span for which moments are being
Section at middle strip
determined.
bt = the size of rectangular (or equivalent) column, Figure 9
capital or bracket, measured transversely to the Reinforcement detailing for flat slabs (from AS 3600 2)
direction of the span for which moments are
being determined.
■ At least 25% of the top reinforcement at the support in
the column strip is to be run continuously through the With flat-slab construction it is important to ensure
span. that the slab/column connection can withstand the
■ At least 33% of the area of top reinforcement at the deformation and moments arising from the drift of the
support in the column strip is provided in the bottom of primary lateral force resisting system without shear failure
the strip, again running continuously through the span. and subsequent collapse. Booth4 reports that failure occurs
in the slab close to the column rather than in the joint zone.
■ At least 50% of all bottom reinforcement at mid-span is The most important factor influencing the inelastic
to be continuous through the support such that its full deformation that can be sustained in the slab is the level of
yield strength is developed at the face of the support. axial load to be transferred to the column at the joint zone.
■ At discontinuous edges of the slab, all top and bottom As the magnitude of axial load increases, so the available
reinforcement at a support is to be capable of ductility decreases. This failure can be brittle in character,
developing its yield strength at the face of the support. leading to the possibility of progressive collapse.
These requirements are illustrated in Figure 9. To prevent this, secondary reinforcement should be
placed in the bottom of the slab at the column/slab
intersection to resist the gravity loads in a tensile membrane
action Figure 10.

18
 ∆/ Stretching of bars (yielding)
h
lengthens spans locally
1

Band Beams Shallow beams with large principal

reinforcement ratios and correspondingly large joint shears
will often give rise to problems in placing all the required Seating to be designed for potential drift
joint ties. Irvine and Hutchinson6 report that in fully ductile
frames, the joint ties would usually be placed with one tie set
directly on top of the next set with no clear space between, Figure 11
and recommend that for frames of limited ductility, the Drift effects on precast concrete flooring
principal beam ratios (As/bd) be restricted to 0.02 or less, so
as to reduce the problems of placing the beam/column joint
ties. This needs to be considered especially at band
beam/external column joint connections to ensure sufficient Seismic Design Concepts The main criteria to
ductility in the column to prevent a plastic hinge and consider obviously are:
potential collapse mechanism forming in the column. If this ■ Buildability – the designing and detailing of structural
proves impracticable, the mechanism shown in Figure 3c elements such that they may be produced economically
may be considered, provided rigorous analysis and careful and erected easily and quickly whilst providing structural
detailing are employed. adequacy. Consideration of tolerances is especially
important in detailing, together with the maintenance
Precast Concrete of the seismic performance of the structure.
General Whilst loadbearing precast structures ■ Ductility – the level of ductility assumed in the design
have not had the same degree of field and laboratory testing must be achieved in practice both by the precast
as cast-insitu structures, experience in both the USA10,11,12 elements and their connections.
and New Zealand3,7,10 and 13 has shown that precast elements ■ Continuity – continuity is used in precast flooring
can be used successfully if sufficient attention is paid to systems to provide a number of benefits including fire
connection details. This has been the major source of resistance and deflection control. It may also be used to
concern in certain overseas locations (eg the Spitak resist diaphragm forces. Flexural continuity may be
earthquake, Armenia, 1988 where inadequate detailing led achieved by placing reinforcement in the topping
to catastrophic collapses). concrete at the ends of the precast flooring unit.
In New Zealand especially, innovative ideas from However, the engineer needs to exercise care to ensure
both the academic and practising fraternities has resulted in that the topping thickness is adequate to enable full
the development of capacity design procedures, and precast anchorage of the reinforcement to be obtained.
elements are now used for both low- and high-rise ■ Robustness – the need for a structure to be able to
construction. maintain its overall integrity, without collapse of all or
a significant part of the structure in the event of a
premature failure of a loadbearing element is well
Top steel causes recognised. This need is especially important in precast
cover to spall construction where numbers of discreet elements are
connected together to form the whole. The designer
must therefore consider detailing as an integral part of
the design in order to achieve a structure that will
behave in a monolithic fashion during a seismic event,
eg P-delta effects due to plastic hinge formation, or
30°
Bottom steel acts as inter-storey drift require consideration of minimum
tension membrane seating dimensions to prevent loss of support of precast
floors or stair sections Figure 11.
Asb ≥ 2V/øfy
Asb = total area of bottom steel in slab passing
Slabs – Toppings for Diaphragm Action
through the column perimeter
Where precast flooring elements are used, an adequately
reinforced insitu topping of at least 50 mm in thickness
Figure 10
should be placed in order to provide suitable diaphragm
Tensile membrane steel at column-slab intersection action. It is essential to ensure that this topping is
(from Booth 4) adequately bonded to the precast elements, if composite
action is required, by the use of mechanical connectors or
chemical (eg epoxy) bonding in conjunction with adequate
interface roughening. Without this, separation can occur
and the topping may buckle when subject to diagonal
compression resulting from diaphragm shear, and be unable
to transmit the floor inertial forces to the shear walls or

19
 Fully anchor reinforcement into pile cap

columns. This was graphically illustrated by the extremely

poor performance of precast framed buildings in the
Armenian earthquake of 1988. A major factor in these
failures was the lack of positive connection between precast Provide at least minimum longitudinal
floor-slab elements, and also between these and their reinforcement throughout entire length
Ligature spacing ≤ 16 x diameter of
supporting elements.
longitudinal bars
Concern as to the adequacy of untopped precast
floors using mechanical connections for diaphragms in
seismic conditions have been expressed by several American
engineers. Clough12 has stated that: Ensure full confinement of longitudinal
reinforcement in end region of pile
Untopped diaphragms in which inter-element Firmer strata
connection is made by grouting or mechanical
connectors, have relatively low in-plane shear strength Potential location of plastic hinges (possible location of
and ductility and are most suitable when seismic peak moment may vary). Provide closed ties as for columns
equilibrium and compatibility forces are small. In zones Top hinges will always occur under large, stiff footings. Bottom
hinges are considered to be less likely to form and ductility demands
of high seismic intensity, or with structural configurations
are likely to be much lower. The designer must judge the necessity of
which impose large in-plane compatibility forces under confinement based on site geological conditions and expected loading.
lateral load, diaphragms joined by cast-in-place
reinforced concrete, either as pour strips or as a topping,
Figure 12
usually are more satisfactory.
Piled foundations
Designers should ensure that not only is there an
adequate load path for the forces that need to be transferred
between a diaphragm and any lateral-force-resisting elements,
such as walls or frames, but that connections are detailed
because diaphragm capacity is selected on the basis of the
such that they adequately transfer the anticipated loads.
maximum shear demand from the design earthquake loads.
The strut and tie method may be used for the design Therefore the capacity of the diaphragm across the shorter
of these details. direction often greatly exceeds the demand based on the
design earthquake. This additional capacity in turn leads to
Tilt-Up an additional demand on the connections when the
earthquake forces greatly exceed the design loads.
Tilt-up or loadbearing precast buildings have been
a popular form of construction in both Australia and the Failures were also observed to be concentrated at
United States for more than 20 years, especially for low-rise re-entrant corners and discontinuities in the diaphragms
industrial and commercial buildings, and since the mid- where forces were required to be distributed between
1980s also for medium-density residential in Australia. different members.
In the Northridge earthquake, it was reported that It is therefore imperative that designers consider
over 400 of the approximately 1200 tilt-up buildings were diaphragm/wall connection design and detailing such that
significantly damaged, mainly with partial roof collapses but they might satisfactorily transfer these forces. AS 1170.4
also in some cases the collapse of perimeter wall panels14. Sections 4.2 to 4.4 specify the design forces for which
diaphragms and their connections should be able to
However, some significant differences exist in the
withstand. These conditions are not especially onerous and,
construction of tilt-up buildings between the USA and
as comparison with typical detailing in New Zealand shows,
Australia/New Zealand. Primarily the differences centre
due to the inherent rigidity of the structure, tilt-up buildings
around the diaphragms. American practice commonly is to
may be designed and detailed for limited ductility provided
use flexible (typically wooden) floors and roofs. The failures
sufficient attention is paid to force transfer between panels
at Northridge were predominantly due to failure of the out-
and between vertical and horizontal elements.
of-plane connections between the perimeter walls and the
roof. Most Australian buildings use concrete floors and
either steel truss or concrete roofs. This should give greater
rigidity to these structures under seismic loading due to
improved diaphragm capacity in conjunction with robust
diaphragm-to-wall connections.
However, many buildings in Northridge also used
expansion anchors to connect diaphragms to walls which
pulled out under repeated cyclic loading. It was observed
that many of these failures occurred adjacent to the short
walls of long rectangular buildings, rather than the long
walls as might be expected. It is considered15 that this is

20
 Foundation Systems Isolated Footings These can prevent a problem
with rocking or tipping if a plastic hinge forms in the base of
General Adequate foundation design is critical for
the column. Unless precautions are taken, permanent
ensuring that a building structure will be able to resist both
deformation of the foundation can occur due to plastic
the gravity loads and seismic forces calculated.
deformation of the soil despite both the column and footing
Where there is no possibility for inelastic deforma- remaining elastic. The detailing of the column/footing joint
tions to develop under earthquake conditions, it is considered must be carefully considered.
that standard detailing of reinforcement as for gravity loads
and wind forces will be adequate. This will be the situation
Combined Footings It may prove more feasible
in the majority of buildings constructed in Australia.
to absorb large moments transmitted by plastic hinges at
However, where design indicates the occurrence, or column bases by using stiff tie beams between footings,
possible occurrence, of reinforcement yielding during seismic whereby a high degree of elastic restraint against column
action, the foundation structure, like the superstructure, rotations can be provided. In fact this detail is such that
must be detailed accordingly. As already mentioned, as a reinforcement yielding is unlikely to occur and it is
result of code loading requirements or design decision, the considered that no special detailing requirements for
seismic response of the structure may be elastic. ductility need be provided. It would, however, be necessary
Paulay and Priestly3 suggest foundation systems for the tie beams to have sufficient reserve strength over that
that may support elastic superstructures. Two of these will be of the hinging columns – see Design Methodology –
relevant to Australian designers; Capacity Design.
■ Elastic Foundation Systems In regions of low If it is required to reduce the bearing pressure under
seismicity (as is generally the case in Australia) or for the footing pads, they may be joined to provide one
low buildings with structural walls it will be possible to continuous footing.
design and detail the entire structure to respond within Stub columns do require special consideration if
elastic limits. inelastic deformations and shear failure are to be avoided.
■ Ductile Foundation Systems In certain cases, the Paulay and Priestley3 consider that plastic hinges should
potential strength of the superstructure with respect to therefore be restricted to the column section immediately
the specified seismic forces may be excessive (eg large above the beam.
shear wall structures). The designer might therefore
consider that it will be preferable for the foundation Piled Foundations Piled systems supporting
system rather than the superstructure to be the principal structural walls may be subject to large concentrated forces
source of energy dissipation during inelastic response. A due to overturning moments and shear forces. Careful
potential drawback for this system is that damage may design is therefore required.
occur during moderately strong earthquakes. Large
Detailing of reinforced concrete piles should follow
cracks may form if yielding of reinforcement has
the recommendations set out above for columns. The end
occurred. Further, repairs to foundations may be
region of a pile under the foundation structure should be
difficult and costly if required below the water table.
detailed to ensure full confinement of the longitudinal
reinforcement using closed or helical ties. The locations of
Foundation Structures for Frames As discussed peak moments in the pile may necessitate the length
in Design Methodology, AS 3600 provides some limited confinement being considerably extended. Further, even if
guidance regarding footing design and detailing. Although calculations indicate no tension loads, it is recommended
the code stipulates that for foundations located in soils with that minimum longitudinal reinforcement be provided. The
a maximum bearing capacity of less than 250 kPa, restraint arrangement of longitudinal reinforcement should be as for
must be provided in the horizontal direction to limit columns, and the reinforcement should be fully anchored
differential movement during an earthquake. It should be within the pile cap. In non-critical regions, nominal
noted that reports from Kobe indicate that although transverse ties or spiral hoops should be provided. Paulay
liquefaction is a problem in poor soils, the water in the and Priestley3 recommend that vertical spacing not exceed
saturated reclaimed areas acted as a dampener, restricting 16 times the diameter of longitudinal bars Figure 12.
damage to significantly less than that experienced in the
adjoining 'dry soil' areas.
The Code considers that there is no possibility for
inelastic deformations to develop under earthquake loading,
and that standard detailing of footings for gravity and wind-
induced loads only will be sufficient. However, the author
considers that certain additional precautions can be
warranted.

21
 Conclusions References
Australia is an area of moderate seismicity and low 1 Standards Australia, AS 1170.4–1993 Minimum Design
risk in comparison to California, Japan and New Zealand. Loads on Structures, Part 4: Earthquake Loads.
The provisions for both the design and detailing of reinforced 2 Standards Australia, AS 3600–1994 Concrete Structures.
concrete structures in Australian codes reflect this.
3 Paulay, T and Priestley, M J N Seismic Design of
The detailing requirements therefore are not onerous Reinforced Concrete and Masonry Buildings John
and loose-bar detailing and efficient fabrication techniques Wiley & Sons Inc, 1992.
currently used (as recommended in the CIA detailing
4 Booth, E (ed) Concrete Structures in Earthquake
manual8) are still adequate and with little additional
Regions: Design and Analysis Longman, 1994.
consideration will provide the levels of ductility and
continuity of reinforcement to enable the structure to 5 American Concrete Institute, ACI 318–89 (revised 1992)
satisfactorily weather anticipated earthquake loading in Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete
Australia. and ACI 318–89R (revised 1992) commentary Chapter
21 Special Provisions for Seismic Design.
It is important to provide a minimum level of
ductility in both beams and columns framing into a joint, 6 Irvine, H Max and Hutchinson, G L (eds) Australian
and to ensure adequate confinement of column steel (even Earthquake Engineering Manual 3rd Edition,
if not beam steel as there is a certain level of redundancy Techbooks, 1993.
due to the presence of slab reinforcement) regardless of the 7 Park, R Precast Concrete in Seismic-Resisting Building
type of structural system employed. Frames in New Zealand Concrete International,
It is strongly recommended that columns in, for November 1990.
instance, shear wall or ordinary moment resisting frame 8 Recommended Practice – Reinforcement Detailing
systems that are not deemed to require detailing to Appendix Handbook (Z6), Concrete Institute of Australia, 1988.
A, should still be detailed so that buckling of bars will not 9 Goldsworthy, H M Earthquake Resistant Design of
occur. As noted above, magnitudes of earthquakes are Concrete Structures: Design and Detailing Require-
difficult to predict with accuracy. Should an earthquake ments in AS 3600–1994, Appendix A for Moment
occur of significantly greater magnitude than that which Resisting Frames University of Melbourne, 1994.
has been designed for (at least a statistical possibility),
10 Park, R Trends, Innovation and Performance of
brittle failure and collapse could occur.
Precast Concrete in Buildings Third International
With a limited additional quantity of properly Conference on Concrete Engineering and Technology,
detailed extra ligatures and continuity reinforcement, plastic Kuala Lumpur, 1993.
hinges can be induced to form at a given load. However,
11 Brooks, H S E Tilt-Up and Earthquakes – A Post-
yielding will be ductile (gradual), even if the design
Northridge Assessment.
earthquake load is exceeded (ie the hinge will act as a 'fuse'
preventing transfer of the larger forces). 12 Clough, D P Considerations in the Design of Precast
Concrete for Earthquake Loads Journal of Prestressed
The choice for the designer/detailer is clear. A fully
Concrete Institute, Vol. 27, No. 2, Mar–Apr 1982,
elastic response by the structure, whilst allowed by the Code,
pp 618–639.
cannot be guaranteed. Therefore, to prevent catastrophic
collapse and probable loss of life under a greater than 13 New Zealand Concrete Society & New Zealand National
designed-for event, a ductile failure must be ensured. This Society for Earthquake Engineering Guidelines for the
minimum required level of ductility can be readily achieved Use of Structural Precast Concrete in Buildings 1991.
by judicious detailing in selected areas. 14 Brooks, S E Tilt-Up and Earthquakes: A Post-
Precast concrete construction requires some special Northridge Assessment 1994.
care in detailing to ensure that floors, especially, will act as 15 Ferner, H The Northridge Building Case Study Project
diaphragms (if so designed) in order to properly transfer NZNSEE Conference, 1995.
horizontal forces. Further consideration is required with 16 Paulay, T The Design of Ductile Reinforced Concrete
mixed precast and insitu construction to ensure monolithic Structural Walls for Earthquake Resistance.
behaviour.
17 Case History Report – Northbridge, California
Compatible overseas experience has shown Earthquake CRSI, Bulletin No. 46, 1994.
reinforced concrete, both insitu and precast, to be an
eminently suitable and cost-effective solution for building
structures in low to medium seismic zones such as Australia.
Designers and specifiers can remain confident of reinforced
concrete’s ability to functionally and elegantly meet the
needs of today's construction industry.

22
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