Book 11 Module 11A

CATEGORY B1.1
BATTERIES &
BATTERY SYSTEMS

Licence By Post

For best examination

results always use latest
issue number.

Licence By Post © Copyright B1.1 EASA 66 11A.6 ISSUE 05 0314

© Licence By Post
No part of this study book may be re-produced or distributed in any form or by any means, or
stored in a data base or retrieval system in whole or in part without prior written permission
from Licence By Post.

Books in the LBP series are regularly up-dated/re-written to keep pace with the changing
technology, changing examination requirements and changing legal requirements.
AUTHORITY

It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training

purposes only.

When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST

always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturer’s handbook.

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the
CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording,
report writing, documentation etc.

For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/ guidelines
as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety
authorities and national governments.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

With special thanks to:

BAE SYSTEMS

for permission to reproduce drawings.

CONTENTS

Page

Batteries 1
Lead acid batteries 1
Nickel cadmium batteries 6
Lithium ion batteries 11
Battery room tests 12
Thermal runaway 15
Battery installations 16
Maintenance practices 31
Storage and transportation 38
Grouping of batteries 40
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

Written to level 3 of the EASA part 66 syllabus for the category B licensed
engineer.

When reading this book you should bear in mind the fact that the CAA would
expect you to be able to maintain the battery (or batteries) on the aircraft; be
capable of describing the operation of a battery and any associated problems.
Also you should be aware of the various tests that are carried out in the
battery maintenance bay.

Ideally you should already have studied EASA part 66 module 3 – the section
on Batteries and Cells.

Note. We have used some examples taken from BAe, Boeing and one helicopter
aircraft. They are used to reinforce some of the information previously
discussed in the text, and while their details need not be committed to memory
you should understand and know the principles involved.

Details of scientists/inventors are included for interest only and need not be
committed to memory.
 BATTERIES

The main purpose of batteries in aircraft systems are to provide:

1. Power for engine and APU starting.

2. Emergency power for the Inertial Navigation System (INS), Inertial
Reference System (IRS), and Bank and Pitch indicators.
3. Under emergency conditions power to operate essential flight
instruments and radio communications equipment.
4. Power for emergency lighting.
5. Power to essential services for the continued safe operation of the
aircraft (eg Pitot head heating).

Legal Requirements

GR 4 of CAP 747 requires that for aircraft not exceeding 5700kg Maximum
Authorised Weight (MAW), in the event of total failure of the main electrical
generating system an adequate supply will be available automatically to
support those systems essential to the continued flight and safe landing of the
aircraft for a minimum period of 30 minutes – using only 75% of the rated
battery capacity. This period assumes a crew delay time of 10 minutes.

GR 19 of CAP 747 strongly recommends that for public transport aircraft a

battery supply time of 60 minutes is available for all instruments and services
essential for the completion of the flight and the making of a safe landing.

Note. Information in the above GRs has been transferred by the CAA from
Airworthiness Notices (ANs).

Batteries and battery systems must also meet the requires of EASA23 - small
fixed wing aircraft, EASA25 – large fixed wing aircraft, EASA27 – small
rotorcraft and EASA29 – large rotorcraft.

The two main types of battery in use are Lead Acid and Nickel Cadmium (Ni-
Cad).

LEAD ACID BATTERIES

These have been the mainstay of providing electricity from cells for many years
both in engineering generally and in aviation. They were invented by a
Frenchman, Gaston Plante in 1859.

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Basic Cell Construction

Consists of two groups of plates, each plate group is made of lead-antimony

grids into which the active materials are pressed in an electrolyte of dilute
sulphuric acid. The positive set of plates has its plates packed with lead
peroxide (Pb02) and the negative plates are packed with pure spongy lead (Pb).
The plates are inter-leaved alternately to permit both sides of each plate
(except the end plates) to be effective.

This keeps the internal resistance of the cell as low as possible and gives good
capacity for the size of cell. In practice it is found the positive plates tend to
distort when chemical action is restricted to one side, the plates are therefore
arranged so that, using an extra negative plate, the outside plates are both
negative. To prevent the plates touching and still allow free circulation of
electrolyte, microporous plastic separators are used.

The electrolyte of pure sulphuric acid diluted with distilled water must be of
the correct specific gravity (relative density), typically 1.25 to 1.27.

Note: Specific gravity of a liquid is the ratio of a given volume of liquid to the
weight of a comparable volume of water at the same temperature. If 1
cubic centimetre of water weighs 1 gram and 1 cubic centimetre of
electrolyte at the same temperature weighs 1.2 grams, the ratio, ie the
specific gravity of the electrolyte, is 1.2 : 1.0 written as 1.2.

Each cell is fitted with a vent plug to permit the escape of gas generated by
chemical action. Aircraft batteries are fitted with special non-spill vent plugs,
these allow the gas to escape but prevent leakage of the electrolyte irrespective
of the orientation of the battery. The cell container must be impervious to the
action of dilute sulphuric acid and is typically made of a plastic material.

Fig. 1 PLATES IN A LEAD ACID BATTERY

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Chemical Action

When discharging, ie when there is an external circuit between the positive

and negative plates, the current flows causing both plates to be converted to
lead sulphate (PbS04) and the sulphuric acid is diluted further by the
formation of water, therefore causing the specific gravity to fall.

When charging, ie connecting the cell to a dc voltage higher than that of the
cell, the chemical reactions are reversed and the active material is converted
back to lead peroxide on the positive electrode and to spongy lead on the
negative electrode. The specific gravity of the electrolyte is restored to its
original value if left on charge for long enough.

Indications of a fully discharged cell are when the:

1. Voltage on load falls to 1.8V per cell.

2. Specific gravity falls to its minimum value (stated in the manufacturer’s
instructions).

The two indications must always be considered together as a single indication

may be not be conclusive.

Indications of a fully charged cell are:

1. While on charge the voltage of the cell will reach approximately 2.7V.
2. The specific gravity rises to its maximum value.
3. The chemical action in the cell during the charging process releases
hydrogen and oxygen, which is mostly absorbed into the electrolyte. On
completion of the charge the electrolyte can no longer absorb these gases
which are released by the plates and rise to the surface in the form of a
constant stream of bubbles. This is known as ‘gassing’ and is the third
sign of completion of the charge.

The charge is complete when all 3 indications have been held for one hour.

Summary of voltages per cell are:

Fully Discharged 1.8 volts

Nominal Voltage 2.0 volts
Fully Charged (Off Charge) 2.2 volts
Fully Charged (On Charge) 2.7 volts

Typical Batteries

A typical lead acid battery consists of 12 cells to give a total nominal voltage of
24V. Early cell containers were made of moulded rubber. Later types have an
acid proof metal container or a moulded glass fibre or plastic container.

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Figure 2 shows a typical lead acid battery consisting of two 12V cell blocks
moulded in high impact plastic and housed in an acid-proofed aluminium
container. The links interconnecting the cells are sealed and suitably insulated
to prevent contact with the container. Ventilation plugs are fitted at each end
of the battery for connection to the ventilation system.

Fig. 2 TYPICAL LEAD ACID BATTERY

Another type of lead acid battery is known as the ‘Varley’ type. It differs from
the conventional battery in that the electrolyte is almost completely absorbed
into the plates. This specialised form of construction eliminates ‘shedding’,
(material falling from the plates to the bottom of the cell) which can cause
internal short circuits between the plates. It also has a lower internal
resistance and a higher capacity/weight ratio than a conventional battery.

Note in figure 3 that the cells are connected electrically to each other by metal
connectors and both cell blocks are connected by an intercell block connector.
The connection of the two main cell blocks to the socket is via the
main terminal nuts.

There are a number of ‘sealed’ batteries in use. One such battery uses
Recombination Electrolyte (RE) technology. The acid electrolyte is absorbed
into highly porous glass fibre separators and this means that the oxygen
released by the positive plate during charge is able to pass through the
separators and combine with the highly reactive negative plate.

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 Fig. 3 VARLEY TYPE BATTERY

This slight discharge of the negative plate prevents evolution of hydrogen. This
process is efficient during normal operation and as a result there is only a
small water loss during service life and no topping up is required.

Should gases build up in the battery a pressure release valve opens to vent
them to atmosphere. The term Valve Regulated Lead Acid Batteries is used.
This type of battery has a flame retardant fibreglass case. The advantages of
this type of battery over the normal ‘flooded’ type are:

1. Longer service life.

2. More power (less internal resistance).
3. Less maintenance.
4. Higher power to weight ratio.

Fig. 4 TYPICAL SEALED BATTERY

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 NICKEL CADMIUM BATTERIES

Cell Construction

The positive plates containing nickel hydroxide Ni (OH)2 are interleaved with
the negative plates containing cadmium hydroxide Cd (OH)2. The separators
are usually of the triple layer type, being cellophane inside woven nylon cloth,
folded in a continuous sheet between alternate positive and negative plates.

Cellophane is used because it has low electrical resistivity and is a good

barrier material, which contributes to the electrical and mechanical separation
of the positive and negative plates. It also acts as a gas barrier, preventing
oxygen given off at the positive plate during overcharge from passing to the
negative plate where it would combine with active cadmium, reduce cell
voltage and produce heat as a result of the chemical reaction.

The electrolyte is a solution of potassium hydroxide and distilled water with a

relative density of 1.24 to 1.3.

The cell has a removable 6 + 4 psi vent plug for electrolyte adjustments and
gas venting. The cell container is made of a polyamide material.

Fig. 5 NI-CAD CELL

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Chemical Action

With the application of charging current the negative material (cadmium

hydroxide Cd [OH]2) gradually loses its oxygen and is converted to metallic
cadmium (Cd). The positive material (nickel hydroxide Ni (OH) 2) is gradually
brought to a higher state of oxidation to form nickel oxides.

Toward the end of the process and during overcharge, gas will be evolved and
released through the cell vent. This gas results from the electrolysis of the
water component of the electrolyte. The gas evolved at the negative plates is
hydrogen and at the positive plates is oxygen.

After complete conversion of the active materials has occurred, the further
application of charge current will only cause further electrolysis of the water
and produce heat.

During discharge, the chemical reactions that occurred on charge are

reversed. The active material in the negative plate (cadmium) regains oxygen
and changes to cadmium hydroxide. The active material in the positive plates
(nickel oxide) changes to nickel hydroxide. No gassing occurs during a normal
discharge.

The electrolyte does not play an active part in the chemical reaction; it is used
only to provide a path for current flow. The electrolyte specific gravity does not
change from charge to discharge.

Voltages of the Ni-Cad Cell

Fully discharged 1.0 volts

Nominal voltage 1.2 volts
Fully charged 1.5 volts

The Ni-Cad Battery

The Ni-Cad battery has 20 cells giving a nominal voltage of 24V. The individual
cells are enclosed in polyamide containers, which allows them to be fitted side
by side in the battery case without additional insulation between the cells.
Interconnection between cells is via high conductivity nickel-plated copper link
bars. The battery case may be made of stainless steel, plastic coated sheet
steel or painted sheet steel.

State of Charge

There is no way of determining the precise state of charge of nickel cadmium

batteries without discharging the battery at a known current rate.

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The time required to discharge the battery is checked and the state of charged
is calculated. This determines the state of charge before it was discharged.

Neither the specific gravity or the electrolyte nor the terminal voltage of the
battery or of its individual cells is an indication of the state of charge. The
specific gravity of the electrolyte does not change with state of charge. The
terminal voltage will remain almost constant over a wide range of charge levels
(see figure 7) and its measurement will not provide a valid state-of-charge
indication.

Fig. 6 A TYPICAL NI-CAD BATTERY

Advantages/Disadvantages of Ni-Cad batteries compared to Lead Acid (Non-

Sealed Type)

Advantages: * Better power to weight ratio.

* Lower internal resistance.
* Longer life.
* Easily replaceable cells.
* Higher peak performance.
* More robust.
* Higher charging rate.
* Wider operating temperature range.

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Disadvantages: * Higher cost.
* Prone to thermal runaway (more of this later).
* Needs expensive and complicated charging and
control circuitry.
* Can suffer from ‘memory’. If charging starts when not
fully discharged then the battery may ‘remember’ this
partially discharged condition and assumes that this
is the fully discharged condition next time and will not
provide any more supply voltage after this point.

The manufacturers of sealed Lead Acid batteries argue that these have lower
costs, are ‘maintenance free’ and their performance is at a par, or better, than
Ni-Cads.

Safety Precautions (Lead Acid and Ni-Cads)

1. Sulphuric acid electrolyte is highly corrosive and serious burns

can result.
2. Potassium hydroxide is caustic and can cause serious burns.
3. To prevent contamination, wear rubber gloves, a rubber apron and
protective goggles when handling the electrolyte.
4. If electrolyte gets on the skin, the area should be irrigated with
large quantities of water.
5. If electrolyte gets in the eyes, irrigate with large quantities of water
and seek immediate medical attention.
6. The neutralising agent for sulphuric acid is bicarbonate of soda.
7. The neutralising agent for potassium hydroxide is a 3% solution of
acetic acid, vinegar, lemon juice or a 10% solution of boric acid.
8. When diluting sulphuric acid, always add acid to water and in
small quantities to keep the heat of reaction to a safe level.
9. During overcharging, hydrogen and oxygen gases are generated.
Any form of flame or spark must be avoided as an explosion is
possible.
10. A battery room must have completely separate areas for servicing
Lead Acid and Ni-Cads. All equipment and containers must also
be kept separate.
11. Electrolytes are highly corrosive. Keep off all aircraft parts and
structure. If any structure becomes contaminated treat
immediately. (See text later in this book and other books in this
series entitled Corrosion and Non Destructive Testing.)

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Capacity

The capacity of a battery is the quantity of electricity measured in ampere-

hours (Ah) (the number of amps times the number of hours during discharge),
that the battery can deliver from its completely charged state to its discharged
state at normal temperature. (A close analogy is the capacity of a hydraulic
accumulator to do work. Charge it fully. Allow it to discharge at a controlled
rate and note the amount of fluid pushed out. The amount of fluid would
indicate the capacity of the unit to do work. It would have to recharged again
of course).

The capacity of a battery depends on the current rate at which the battery is
discharged; the discharge rate must be stated (by the manufacturer) along
with the ampere-hour (Ah) capacity in order for the capacity rating to be
meaningful. For example, a battery may be rated at ‘20Ah at the 5 hour rate’.
This means the battery will deliver 4 amps for 5 hours (4 x 5 = 20Ah).

Listing the capacity at 20Ah without any qualifying discharge time would
imply that the battery could be discharged at any rate, and the current
multiplied by the time would equal 20Ah. This is not true. Our battery rated at
20Ah at the 5-hour rate could not deliver 20 amps for 1 hour or 10 amps for 2
hours. At higher current drains, it would have less capacity.

A battery rated at 40Ah at the 5-hour rate would have a capacity of 34Ah at
the one-hour rate. Most aircraft batteries are rated at the one-hour rate.
Figure 7 shows some typical discharge rates of Lead Acid and Ni-Cad
batteries.

Fig. 7 GRAPH OF TERMINAL VOLTAGES AGAINST Ah

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 LITHIUM ION BATTERIES

Sometimes called a Li-ion battery or LIB. Used extensively in mobile

applications such as mobile ‘phones, lap-tops, ipads etc. They have a
significant advantage in terms of energy and power densities but have safety
issues.

Made up of several cells and each cell is made up of a carbon (graphite) plate
(negative) and a metal oxide plate (positive) separated by an electrolyte of
lithium salts in an organic solvent.

On initial charge the electrolyte decomposes on the negative electrode to form

a solid layer called the electrolyte interphase. After the second charge there is
no further decomposition.

When charging, lithium ions are driven into the carbon electrode from the
electrolyte. On discharge they flow back and cause electrons to flow to the load
circuit/s.

Advantages of Li-ion Batteries

1. High Energy density (high electrical charge compared to mass –

40% lighter than Ni-cad batteries.
2. Can be designed to have high power density – can produce high
current and hence high power.
3. Easy pre-charging.
4. Low self discharge (less than half that of Ni-cad batteries).
5. No memory problems therefore no need to periodically fully
discharge.

Disadvantages

1. Safety issues. Can get too hot in use and catch fire and even
explode. A fire, once started, is difficult to extinguish. To help
address this issue some aircraft (the B787 for example) use sealed
Li-ion batteries so as to provide an oxygen starved atmosphere
that will not support combustion.
2. Needs protection circuits to limit current and voltage levels to safe
values.
3. Need flight-deck warning system for over-heat, over-voltage and
over-current.
4. Will age in storage.
5. Air transportation restrictions as cargo.
6. Expensive to manufacture.

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 BATTERY ROOM TESTS

All tests on batteries must be carried out in accordance with the

manufacturer’s instructions, which are supplied with each battery. The
following descriptions are typical tests carried out in battery rooms – though
other tests (see back of book) may be carried out also:

1. Capacity test.
2. Cell balance test (Ni-Cad only).
3. Insulation test.
4. Cell vent pressure test.

Capacity Test. This test is typically carried out at three-month intervals and
80% of its capacity must be achieved for aircraft use.

Procedure

1. Fully charge the battery and allow to stand for 15 to 24 hours.

2. Connect to discharge test panel, which must incorporate a
variable-load resistance, ammeter and ampere-hour meter and a
voltmeter. If the control panel is not of the automatic type, then
accurate monitoring and control of current must be maintained
manually throughout the test.
3. The battery should be discharged at a rate corresponding to the
rating of the battery. For example, if the battery is rated at 18Ah
at the one hour rate then the discharge would be set to 18 amps.
Note the time of switch-on.
4. Monitor the voltage until it falls to the discharged value 21.6V (1.8
volts/cell) for a Lead Acid battery, 20V (1 volt/cell) for a Ni-Cad
battery. Note the time.
5. Calculate the capacity as follows:

Actual time x 100%

Rated time

For example, if the time to discharge was 54 minutes then the

capacity will be:

54 x 100 = 90%
60

Generally the minimum acceptable capacity for aircraft use is 80%. However,
inspection of the battery record card should be made to check the previous
capacity tests to see if there is any trends in the rate of discharge. If the trend
shows that its capacity is reducing then it might be prudent to change the
battery before it gets too low. Note the capacity on the battery record card
together with the date.

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Cell Balance Test (Ni-Cads only). If a Ni-Cad battery fails its capacity test then
a cell balance test should be carried out as a follow-on test as follows:

1. Short out each cell with a 1Ω, 2 watt resistor.

2. Allow to stand for 15 to 24 hours.
3. Check each cell voltage is less than 50mV.
4. Recharge and allow to stand for 15 to 24 hours.
5. Discharge at the 1-hour rate and monitor the cell voltages.
6. Short circuit any cell which falls below 1V in the first 48 minutes
(less than 80% capacity).
7. Continue the discharge until the terminal voltage is an average of
1V per cell.
8. Replace the short circuited cells. If five or more cells are short
circuited, either at one time or over a period of time, then all the
cells should be replaced as it is most likely that the remaining
cells have been damaged and will need to be replaced in the near
future.
9. Recharge the battery and repeat the cell balance procedure (all
cells should meet the 80% capacity).
10. Recharge the battery.

Insulation Testing. A breakdown in electrical insulation between the cells and

the battery case will result in a ‘leakage’ current which, over a period of time
can discharge the battery. The most common cause for loss of insulation is the
leakage of electrolyte from the cells which can act as a conductor between the
cell plates (or terminals) and the battery container.

Fig. 8 INSULATION TEST - 1

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The procedure is as follows (figure 8):

1. Place the (clean and dry) battery on a clean corrosion free steel
plate.
2. Connect a 250V insulation tester between the metal plate and the
battery terminals.
3. Operate the tester and the minimum acceptable value should be
1MΩ for a Lead Acid and 10MΩ for a Ni-Cad with a steel case.

An alternative method is (figure 9):

1. Disconnect the battery.

2. Connect a 50Ω resistor, 100mA ammeter and a 50 volt dc power
supply.
3. Place one probe of the test apparatus to the battery negative
terminal and the other probe to the battery case.
4. Check the current leakage does not exceed 50mA.

Fig. 9 INSULATION TEST - 2

Cell Vent Pressure Test. For Lead Acid batteries, remove the vent caps. Fit the
pressure head adapter to each vent cap in turn and fit the pressure tester
firmly into the adapter. Pressurise each cell to 2psi. There should be no
detectable leakage after a period of not less than 15 seconds.

For Ni-Cads each cell vent is typically checked by applying a pressure via a
compressed air line with the valve immersed in water. The pressure is raised
and the valve should open between 2 and 10psi.

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 Fig. 10 BATTERY PRESSURE TEST

For further battery maintenance see later text.

THERMAL RUNAWAY

Also known as Vicious Cycling and is most prevalent in Ni-Cad and Lithium
Ion batteries. It can be started in two ways.

1. High charging rates for long periods causes gas bubbles to rise
rapidly and scrub against the cellophane part of the separator. If
broken, oxygen evolved at the positive plates moves to the negative
plates where it recombines with cadmium to produce heat and
lowers the voltage of the cell. More charge current then takes place
(as the voltage is lower), this causes more breakdown of the
cellophane and more oxygen to move to the negative plate and
more overcharge current, and so on. Thermal runaway has
started. It should be noted the electrolyte has a negative
temperature coefficient and its resistance decreases as
temperature increases further increasing charging current. The
sequence of events will continue until the battery is
destroyed/catches fire.

2. If the battery is exposed to any combination of high busbar

voltage, excessive ambient temperature and is unable to dissipate
the heat, then runaway may be initiated, ie its internal resistance
goes down and the charging current gets higher, the resistance
goes down further and so on.

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The higher current resulting from either method causes a heat generation rate
that is greater than the heat dissipation rate and this causes a rising and
accelerating battery temperature up to its boiling point (220°-250°F).

Most modern systems, especially those using Ni-Cad/Lithium Iron batteries

have a temperature monitoring system. A temperature sensor in or attached to
the battery will monitor the temperature. It will give warning to the flight crew
of battery over-heat who can switch the battery out, or may provide for
automatic switch-out if a certain temperature is reached. It should also be
noted that a system of Constant Current charging reduces the possibility of
thermal runaway considerably.

Some aircraft have the battery kept in an oxygen staved sealed container (with
a special vent outside) to reduce the possibility of fire in the event of thermal
run-away.

From a technical definition point of view thermal runaway is a form of positive

feedback – albeit chemical.

BATTERY INSTALLATIONS

Depending on the requirements for the operation of the essential services

under emergency conditions, a single battery or several batteries (usually
connected in parallel) are used. The batteries are installed in areas where
adequate heat dissipation will occur and ventilation of gases can take place.
They are normally mounted and clamped to a tray, which is secured to the
aircraft structure.

The gases generated by the battery are usually vented to atmosphere via holes
in the side of the fuselage. One such method uses non-corrodible piping
connected from the battery to an outside vent. The airflow outside causes a
venturi effect which draws the air from around the battery.

Fig. 11 BATTERY VENTING - 1

Some systems use an acid trap. These traps are bottles inserted in the line
between the battery and the fuselage which have a neutralising agent in them
to prevent acid being sprayed on to the outside of the aircraft fuselage.

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 Fig. 12 BATTERY VENTING - 2

Most pressurised aircraft use the effect of pressurisation to cause air to flow
across the top of the battery to atmosphere.

Batteries are usually connected to the aircraft dc system using a single screw
attached two pole (two pins, one positive and one negative) plug. A typical
battery connector is shown in figure 13. Clockwise rotation of the handwheel
causes the sockets to engage with the pins. Reverse rotation of the handwheel
disengages the sockets and pins.

Note also the electrical connection to the internal thermostat, which monitors
the temperature of the battery.

The battery will have structural clamps to secure it in position.

Fig. 13 BATTERY CONNECTIONS

It is rare that batteries are electrically connect to the aircraft system using
separate leads, but if they are (possible on some very old aircraft) it is most
important that the individual leads do not touch the opposite polarity
connection of the battery.

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This would cause a dead short of the battery with its subsequent destruction.

Where separate leads are used, disconnect the earth lead first and stow out of
the way (in an insulated position) followed by disconnection of the live lead.
When connecting the leads, ensure earth lead is in secure insulated position,
connect the live lead first followed by the earth lead.

All power should be OFF when connecting/disconnecting batteries to/from the

system. When fitted, the battery must be mechanically secured as per the
AMM and the system tested for correct operation.

Typical Installations

Figure 14 shows the battery installation of the BAe 146. There are two 24V
23Ah Nickel Cadmium batteries which supply their respective battery busbars
(hot bus) at all times and to provide power to the emergency dc busbar
(essential bus) should there be a failure of all generated power.

The batteries consist of twenty individual cells linked in series and assembled
in a steel case with a detachable lid. Each cell vent incorporates a safety valve
set to avoid internal pressure build-up beyond the limit of the cell. Inside the
battery case, the cells are held tightly packed by insulator linings.

Fig. 14 BAe 146 INSTALLATION

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Vertical movement of the cells is further restrained by a moulded silicon
rubber linear attached to the inside of the lid assembly. The lid assembly also
includes a non-return valve and an integral hold-down bar and strap which
accepts hold down securing attachments.

The non-return valve, in conjunction with a ventilation pipe fitted at the side of
the battery case, provides passage for cooling air and the extraction of battery
gases. Battery temperature sensing is provided by two thermostats, one set at
57°C to give a flight deck indication of HI TEMP and the other set at 71°C
which will inhibit the battery supply to the emergency dc busbar.

Electrical connection is by an ELCON quick release connector, and a six-pin

connector on the battery front face connects the temperature sensing elements
to their respective circuits.

Figure 15 shows the battery/battery charger layout for a Boeing 757 aircraft.

The main battery and battery charger provides a dedicated source of dc power
for the operation of the standby and auto-land systems. A separate APU
battery/battery charger provides power for the APU start.

The main and APU batteries are identical 20 cell Ni-Cad batteries with
individual cell venting pressure at 2 to10psi. A thermistor thermal sensor
provides the battery charger with battery temperature information. If the
battery reaches a set temperature the battery charger is de-energised.

The chargers are identical and have an input of 115V, 400Hz, 3 phase. They
have forced air and convection cooling and can be used as an alternative 28V
dc supply.

Fig. 15 B757 INSTALLATION

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Figure 16 shows the batteries, battery shunts and current monitors. The main
battery shunt is connected on the ground side of the main battery and the APU
battery shunt is connected on the ground side of the APU battery charger.
This provides a signal to the CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) display in the flight deck
known as EICAS (Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System) of sensed
current flow. The battery current monitor senses current flow into and out of
the battery to give an indication on EICAS of battery discharge rates.

Fig. 16 BATTERY LOCATIONS

Fig. 17 BATTERY INDICATION SYSTEM – BOEING

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Many aircraft have analogue ammeters to indicate current flow into and out of
the battery. Usually the ammeter is split into negative and positive sectors.
When the needle is in the negative sector the battery is discharging and when
in the positive area it is being charged.

Fig. 18 CRT EICAS DISPLAY

Charging Methods

There are three methods of charging a battery on an aircraft.

1. Constant voltage.
2. Constant current.
3. Pulse.

Some systems may involve a combination of more than one method.

Constant Voltage Charging. This refers to a method where the supply to the
battery is of a constant potential, either from a voltage regulator controlled
28V dc generator or a battery charger with a constant voltage output.

The applied voltage produced by the charging source carries current to flow
into the battery. As charging proceeds and the voltage of the battery increases,
the difference between the fixed voltage of the charging source and the rising
battery voltage becomes less and less, resulting in a continual decrease in
charging current.

The initial charging current will depend on the:

a) Ampere hour capacity of the battery.

b) State of charge of the battery – in a fully discharged state a battery
will initially accept a higher current than when it is partially
charged.

- 21 -
It is important, if the battery is being charged from a voltage regulator
controlled dc generator, that the regulator is set correctly. If the dc generator
output is set too low the battery will not receive a full charge. If it is set too
high the charging current remains too high even after the battery has been
fully charged.

Overcharging may cause excessive water loss which will result in increase
battery temperature, and continued charging may also lead to damage of the
cellophane portion of the separator in a Ni-Cad battery which may lead to
thermal runaway.

The advantages of Constant Voltage charging are:

1. It permits relatively rapid charging.

2. A constant voltage is available on dc generator systems, so
batteries can be connected direct to the main dc busbar.
3. Under normal conditions it minimises water loss.

NB. Water loss results from electrolysis through hydrogen and oxygen
evolvement. Water droplets are entrapped in cell gases given off during
overcharge and evaporation occurs.

Disadvantages of constant voltage charging are:

1. It may cause cell imbalance and possible thermal runaway.

2. It requires periodic reconditioning treatment of the battery.
3. It tends to overcharge if charging voltage is set too high and
undercharge if set too low.

So the basic layout for a constant voltage system would be, for a dc system
figure 19, and that for an ac system figures 20 or 21.

DC
GEN

DC BUS BAR
BATTERY

Fig. 19 SIMPLIFIED CONSTANT VOLTAGE CHARGING

CIRCUIT – DC SYSTEM

- 22 -
 AC
GEN

AC BUS BAR

TRU

DC BUS BAR

Fig. 20 SIMPLIFIED CONSTANT VOLTAGE CHARGING

CIRCUIT – AC SYSTEM – 1

AC
GEN

GROUND
SERVICE
BUS BAR

BATTERY
CHARGER

Fig. 21 SIMPLIFIED CONSTANT VOLTAGE CHARGING

CIRCUIT – AC SYSTEM – 2

With reference to figure 22. This shows a constant voltage charging system.
Four batteries are connected in parallel to the battery busbar to feed the
essential services.

Note this bus is live all the time the batteries are connected. When the power
selector switch is placed from ‘off’ to ‘battery’ the current will flow from the
battery through the battery relay coil (to make the battery relay contact),
across the switch to a made contact of the reverse current circuit breaker. The
battery relay is energised and its contact makes. Current now flows from the
main busbar (dc generator supply) to flow through a contact of the reverse
current circuit breaker and its coil and through the battery relay contact to
charge the battery.

With failure of the main supply, the power selector is put to ‘off’ which de-
energises the battery relay, isolating the battery from the main busbar.

- 23 -
 Fig. 22 TYPICAL AIRCRAFT CHARGING CIRCUIT

The battery will now supply the essential services (eg essential instruments,
fire bottles, flight controls etc) to enable flight to continue under these
emergency conditions for the required minimum period (30/60 mins).

The reverse current breaker protects the battery from excess current from the
busbar. The charging current flows through the reverse current breaker coil
and should this current exceed a certain value the reverse current circuit
breaker will trip. This will (a) isolate charging current to the battery and (b) trip
the battery relay.

Constant Current Charging. In this method the battery charger maintains a

pre-determined and relatively constant current throughout the charge and
overcharge intervals. This method is generally slower than the constant voltage
charging method. It is, however, the preferred method of charging for Ni-Cad
batteries as it is much more effective in maintaining cell balance, full capacity
and helps prevent thermal runaway.

- 24 -
Advantages of constant current charging are:

1. No excessive gassing.
2. Charging current is easily monitored.
3. Keeps cells in a ‘balanced’ condition.
4. Less chance of thermal runaway.

Disadvantages of constant current charging are:

1. Greater water loss on overcharging.

2. Generally longer charging time required.

A simplified layout for a medium/large passenger carrying aircraft is shown in

figure 23.

EXTERNAL POWER

AC GENERATOR BUS BAR

GROUND SERVICE BUS BAR

BATTERY CHARGER

Fig. 23 SIMPLIFIED BATTERY/DC/AC RELATIONSHIP LAYOUT

On one aircraft (the Canadair Challenger) there is a constant current charging

system with the battery charger operating in one of three modes. The correct
operating mode is automatically selected, based on the temperature and
voltage of the battery. The operating modes are as follows:

Main Mode - charger supplies approximately 30 ampere charging

current to the battery.

Topping Up Mode - charger supplies approximately 10 ampere

charging current to the battery.

Off Mode - charger is shut-off.

Another very popular system (eg, Boeing 757, 767, 747-400) uses a
combination of constant current and constant voltage charging.

- 25 -
 Fig. 24 CHARGING GRAPH – EXAMPLE BOEING AIRCRAFT

Each charger (main battery and APU) operates from 115V 3 phase 400Hz
power supplied from the ac ground service busbar and operates in three
modes.

1. In the constant current charge mode. The charger provides a

constant current charge of 38 amps to the battery. Battery
temperature, as measured by the thermistor inside the battery and
battery voltage are sensed by the charger. The charger monitors the
time for the voltage to rise to a particular point known as the ‘voltage
inflection point’, this point depends on temperature. At room
temperature the voltage is 31V. When this point is reached the
charger continues the charge for an additional 12% of the time taken
to reach the inflection point.

2. The charger, at the end of this 12% time overcharge, will switch to a
constant voltage charging at approximately 28V with a current limit
level of 38 amps.

3. The charger can also provide a separate constant voltage supply

known as the TR Mode which acts as a voltage regulated power
supply at approximately 28V dc with a current limit level of 64 amps.

Note: In order for a Ni-Cad battery to deliver 100% capacity it has to be re-
charged to 140%, hence the overcharge period in this type of charging
system.

- 26 -
In this system battery charger shutdown occurs under any of the following
circumstances:

a) Battery voltage below 4.0V.

b) Battery temperature sensor disconnected.
c) Charger input volts over 134 or under 94V ac.
d) Battery temperature greater than 155°F.
e) Loss of input to the charger.

Pulse Charging. A typical pulse charger used on the earlier Boeing 747’s
worked along the lines of the graph given in figure 25. Study the figure
carefully and note the pulsing of the voltage with the subsequent changes in
the charging current.

Fig. 25 PULSE CHARGING

The charging of a discharged battery will begin at 60 amp 28V. The current
will slowly fall and the voltage slowly rise. At 26 amps 33V the charge ceases.
The current drops to zero and the battery voltage slowly falls.

As the battery voltage falls to 28V the charger switches ‘on’ again and, in a
sudden pulse both voltage and current rise to 35A 30V. As the current falls to
26A, the voltage rises to 33V, at this point the charge is again removed, the
current drops to zero and the voltage slowly falls to 28V causing the next
pulse.

- 27 -
This pulse cycle is repeated for a total of eight pulses. The battery charger then
switches to a constant voltage output of 28V just trickle charging
the battery at less than half an amp.

Figure 26 shows the battery system of a small helicopter but it could equally
be a system on a single engined fixed wing aircraft.

Fig. 26 BATTERY SYSTEM – SMALL HELICOPTER

When the battery switch is placed to ON, current will flow from the positive
terminal of the battery to contact A2 then via X2 and X1 (battery relay coil)
through the battery switch to earth. The battery relay energises and current
will flow from A2 (battery relay) to A1 and then to A2 of the external power
relay on to TB2 and then to the main busbar. If the generator was ‘on line’
then current would flow in the reverse direction to charge the battery, ie from
the main busbar to TB2, A2 of the external power relay through the contacts
A1 and A2 of the battery relay to the positive of the battery.

On this aircraft the battery may be charged from the external power supply.
When the external power supply is plugged into the external power receptacle,
the small pin positive supply energises the external power relay.

Then a positive supply from the larger pin goes through contacts A1 and A2 of
the external power relay, then through contacts A1 and A2 of the battery relay
(when battery switch is placed to ON), to the positive of the battery to charge
the battery.

Figure 27 shows the battery system and relevant busbars of a medium size
passenger carrying aircraft.

- 28 -
 Fig. 27 BATTERY SYSTEM – MEDIUM SIZED AIRCRAFT

The battery charger is normally powered by three phase 115V ac from the
ground service busbar (GSB). The GSB is normally fed in-flight from the
generator busbar No 1. The charger delivers 28V dc to charge the battery. In
the event of loss of power to the GSB, the battery charger transfer relay
energises automatically to provide an alternate source of power from main bus
2, which is fed from No 2 generator.

On the ground with the ac supply plugged into the external receptacle, the
ground service relay is energised, allowing the supply from the external ac bus
to feed the GSB and hence the charger. During APU start, to prevent
overloading the charger the APU interlock relay is energised to interrupt the
input to the charger while the starter motor is turning. When the engine
reaches 50% rpm the relay is de-energised and the charger supply is re-made.

It is important to note on the larger aircraft that the battery can feed various
busbars. The hot battery bus is directly connected to the battery, ie this
busbar is live at all times the battery is connected in the aircraft. The hot
battery bus typically powers fire extinguisher bottles, engine fuel shut-off
valves, standby power control etc.

- 29 -
The hot battery bus can be connected to a battery busbar via a battery bus
relay. This relay is normally de-energised and the battery bus is normally
powered from a Transformer Rectifier Unit (TRU), however, in the event of
failure the battery bus relay will automatically be energised and the battery
bus is fed from the hot battery bus.

The battery bus normally feeds the passenger address system, fire and smoke
detection system, flight deck, cabin and service interphone system. The
standby dc bus normally powers flight controls, standby attitude indicators
and radio systems, which, in the event of failure of its normal supply from a
TRU, R2 will energise, to allow a supply from the battery, hot busbar and
battery busbar to maintain these essential services.

Figure 28 shows a typical system for a large passenger carrying aircraft with
the dc busbars being capable of being fed from the battery.

Fig. 28 TYPICAL LARGE AIRCRAFT BATTERY SYSTEM

The hot battery busbar is connected directly to the battery feeds, fire bottles,
fuel shut-off valves, emergency evacuation warning and the electronic clock.
This busbar, as before, is fed directly from the charger if the GSB is live.

In this aircraft the battery busbar is fed from the essential dc busbar (fed from
a TRU). Should there be a failure of the essential busbar the battery busbar is
automatically transferred to the hot battery busbar, providing the battery
switch is ‘ON’. The busbar supplies engine start, fire detection, fuel valves,
manual pressurisation control and standby background lighting.

The standby dc busbar is fed from the essential dc busbar with the standby
power switch in normal or manual. Should the essential dc busbar fail, the
standby dc busbar will be powered from the hot battery busbar providing the
battery switch is ON. The busbar supplies No 1 VHF nav and comms, standby
attitude indicator, engine N1 tacho-generators, fuel and engine anti-ice valves.

- 30 -
 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

Besides the battery checks already outlined at the beginning of the book the
following procedures should be carried out at the times specified in the
approved Maintenance Schedule and in accordance with the AMM and
manuals issued by the battery manufacturer. The following paragraphs serve
as a guide to the checks typically required.

The battery tray should be checked for security, signs of electrolyte spillage
and corrosion. The latches holding the battery should operate smoothly and
firmly secure the battery in position.

The battery should be checked externally for signs of overheating, damage,

leakage the connector pins and the connector socket should be checked for
signs of contamination, burns, cracks, pitting etc. The connector may be
subject to a GO NO-GO gauge test to ensure there is no slackness between
plug and socket when connected.

Cable insulation should be checked for signs of damage, contamination,

burning, and security.

The ventilation system should be checked to ensure security of connections

and freedom from obstruction. Where acid traps are fitted, check for overflow
and if necessary remove for cleaning.

Non-return valves should be checked for correct operation.

The tops of all cells should be inspected for signs of electrolyte leakage and
cleaned where necessary. In Ni-Cad batteries the intercell links should be
checked for correct torque loading and signs of overheating and cells checked
for distortion.

Check temperature sensor for correct fitment and the connections are secure.

Check electrolyte level. An important point to note here is that the electrolyte
level rises when charging and lowers when discharging. Distilled water must
only be added when the battery is fully charged, also, always allow the battery
to stand idle for 2 to 4 hours with vent caps loosened so that all the gas may
escape before adjusting the electrolyte level. (Usually the battery has to be
removed from the aircraft when adjusting electrolyte level).

If a cell requires more than a specified amount of distilled water then the cell
must be considered as defective and the battery replaced.

Check the capacity test is in date.

- 31 -
Check earth connection for security and any signs of corrosion; also check
ammeter shunt and connections for security and corrosion.

Carry out open circuit voltage and load checks as stated in the AMM.

Fig. 29 GRAPH OF VOLTAGE & SPECIFIC GRAVITY

AGAINST CHARGE – LEAD ACID

Voltage Checks and Load Tests

To assess the serviceability of a battery for flight on an aircraft with constant

voltage charging, ie no battery charger, the following is a typical check. (This
can be likened to a simple form of Capacity Test.)

a) Ensure internal and external power switches are ‘OFF’.

b) Check battery volts by selection on voltmeter, ensure battery is

24V or above.

c) Select the load as stated in the AMM, eg switch on emergency

invertor, landing lights, fuel pumps etc for the time period
designated, typically 20 to 30 seconds. A typical load could be 30A
– but check the manual.

d) Monitor the battery voltage whilst on load. There should be no

greater than one volt drop from the on-load value to the off-load
value.

e) Switch off load after designated time period; ensure the battery
voltage returns to its original off-load value.

- 32 -
A check on an aircraft with a battery charger system would depend on the type
of charger being used but the following is typical (this system involves a pulse
charging system as previously described):

a) Trip the main battery charger circuit breaker.

b) Set the standby power switch to ON.

c) Select BATT on the dc meter panel.

d) Check the ammeter indicates a negative current flow and the

voltage is below 27.5V.

e) After 1 minute set the battery switch to OFF, and close the main
charger circuit breaker.

f) The ammeter should indicate a positive current flow and the

reading should drop from an initial high level to 26 amps when the
charging current will drop to zero.

g) When the battery falls to 27.5V the charger should be monitored

to ensure a high current pulse of 5 to 10 seconds is put out.

h) Again, check that a maximum of eight pulses is produced and

then the charger produces a trickle charge, ie battery is charged.

i) Place standby power switch to OFF.

Electrolyte Spillage

In the event of electrolyte spillage in the aircraft, the following action must be
taken immediately.

CAUTION: Rubber gloves must be worn and use eye protection.

1. Check the cause of the spillage. Check the battery – if suspect,

change. Remove the battery for access if the spillage is in the battery
area.

2. Remove all accessible pools of electrolyte by mopping with a clean

rag moistened with water, care being taken to prevent spreading of
the electrolyte. The rag should be frequently rinsed out in water to
remove electrolyte during this process.

3. Provided the electrolyte has not become trapped in any structure,

rinse the area with clean, cold water, taking particular care not to
contaminate adjacent or below floor electrical equipment.

- 33 -
 Should carpet become contaminated, this should be removed and
disposed of and adjacent structure checked for evidence of
contamination/corrosion.

4. Dry the affected area thoroughly, using a clean rag.

5. Should control cables become contaminated with electrolyte, they

must be replaced.

6. If it is suspected that electrolyte has contaminated the structure,

perhaps by capillary action, the following action should be taken.

(a) For lead/acid electrolyte (dilute sulphuric acid) apply

sodium bicarbonate powder to the affected area and wash
down with a saturated solution of sodium bicarbonate.

(b) For Ni-Cad electrolyte (potassium hydroxide solution) rinse

the affected area with 5% solution of acetic acid. If not
available, ordinary household white vinegar may be used
neat.

In either case, finally rinse area with clean cold water, taking the
same precautions as in Item 2. Dry the area as thoroughly as
possible, using a clean rag.

If there is any doubt that this procedure has not been effective,
consideration should be given to removal of units and de-riveting the
structure for separate cleaning and inspection.

As sodium bicarbonate (alkali) is in itself mildly corrosive to light

alloys, testing the effectiveness of the cleansing operation may be
carried out using a piece of pH Universal Test Paper. Colour changes
indicate the level of acidity (red) or alkalinity (blue).

Alternatively, litmus paper may be used, satisfactory cleansing being

indicated by no colour change of either blue to red (acid) or red to
blue (alkaline).

NOTE. Acetic acid (5% solution) is not detrimental to aircraft

structure/light alloys.

7. If any corrosion has occurred to the structure, carry out corrosion

removal procedures (book entitled Corrosion in this series) and re-
protect structure.

8. Fit and connect the battery (if removed) and test the system as per
the AMM.

- 34 -
 9. Record (and sign) all the work done in the appropriate work
cards/Logbook. In all cases of electrolyte spillage, an ADD should be
raised detailing the area affected, the level of cleansing effected
(units/cables removed, etc) and calling for the area to be re-
inspected after 24 hours and 14 days for signs of corrosive attack.

Should corrosion then be evident, appropriate action must be taken

and consideration given to repeat inspection at a later date.

CAUTION: In the event of the skin becoming contaminated with electrolyte,

wash the affected area immediately with plenty of clean cold water.

Should eyes become contaminated, flush immediately with plenty of clean cold
water or a propriety brand of eye cleaner such as Steriflex.

In either event seek immediate medical treatment.

Battery Overheat

Factors which can cause overheating of a battery – which may lead to thermal
runaway - are:

(a) Voltage regulator incorrectly adjusted, or battery charger output

too high.

(b) Frequent engine or APU starts.

(c) Ground power units with poor voltage regulation.

(d) Poor ventilation of battery compartment during high ambient

temperatures.

(e) High initial charging currents imposed on a hot battery.

The battery should be checked for:

1. Loose link connections between cells (Ni-Cad).

2. Low electrolyte level.
3. Unbalanced cells (Ni-Cad).
4. Leakage current between cell and battery container.
5. Faulty temperature sensor or wiring.

Checking of Specific Gravity

The checking of specific gravity of a battery is achieved using a

HYDROMETER. Separate hydrometers must be used for Lead Acid and Ni-Cad
batteries.

- 35 -
 Fig. 30 USING THE HYDROMETER

To use the hydrometer proceed as follows (figures 30 and 31):

1. Select the correct hydrometer for the type of battery.

2. Remove the battery from the aircraft.
3. Remove cell cap from cell 1.
4. Ensure electrolyte is above cell plates.
5. Squeeze the hydrometer rubber bulb, place nozzle end into cell
and draw a small quantity of electrolyte into hydrometer glass
tube by releasing rubber bulb.
6. Make sure that the SG float floats.
7. Lift hydrometer to eye level so as to view float scale reading at
liquid level.
8. Note SG reading and note temperature reading.
9. Place hydrometer back into cell and squeeze bulb to return
electrolyte back to the cell.
10. If SG incorrect then the cell must be drained and filled with the
correct SG electrolyte (never add strong acid to cell direct).
11. Withdraw hydrometer and check electrolyte covers plates.
12. Replace cell cap.
13. Repeat this with each of the other cells.
14. Clean battery and hydrometer.
15. Record test and readings on battery record card.

Figure 31 shows two readings for a lead acid battery; (A) shows a low specific
gravity and (B) shows a high specific gravity.

- 36 -
 Fig. 31 FLOAT READINGS

The electrolyte density will change with a change in temperature so

manufacturers usually quote the specific gravity at a standard temperature of
15°C, so when the reading is taken a correction has to be made to bring the
reading to the value at 15°C (60°F).

The corrections to be made are:

a) When a Celsius thermometer is being used to monitor the

electrolyte temperature:

Add 0.003 to the Hydrometer reading for every 4°C above 15°C.

Subtract 0.003 from the hydrometer reading for every 4°C below
15°C.

b) When a Fahrenheit thermometer is being used:

Add 0.001 to the hydrometer reading for every 2.5°F above 60°F.

Subtract 0.001 from the hydrometer reading for every 2.5°F below
60°F.

Examples

1. A hydrometer reading of 1270 is taken at a temperature of 23°C. As the

temperature is 8°C (2 x 4 degrees) above the standard of 15°C then the
corrected reading will be:

1270 + (2 x 0.003) = 1276

2. A hydrometer reading of 1270 is taken at a temperature of 11°C, 4° below

the standard. The corrected reading will be:

1270 - (1 x 0.003) = 1267

- 37 -
Built-In Hydrometer

In some sealed ‘maintenance free’ batteries a special temperature compensated

hydrometer is built into the battery. It consists of a green ball of such a
composition that it moves up and down in a small chamber inside the battery
when the specific gravity and temperature of the electrolyte changes. So its
position in the chamber is relative to the temperature and the specific gravity
of the electrolyte.

Fig. 32 BUILT-IN SPECIFIC GRAVITY INDICATOR

The indication is viewed at a sight-glass on the top of the battery and a visible
dark green dot indicates a good SG. When the dot is not visible then the
battery needs charging before testing. When it shows very light or yellow in
colour then the battery needs replacing.

STORAGE & TRANSPORTATION

Lead Acid Batteries

Lead acid batteries should be stored in a clean, dry, cool, well ventilated area
entirely separate from nickel cadmium batteries. The area should also be free
from corrosive liquids or gases. New batteries may be stored either dry and
uncharged, or filled and charged.

Batteries of solid block construction may also be stored in the condition in

which they are despatched by the manufacturer, ie filled and uncharged. In
this condition only the positive plates are formed so that the batteries remain
inert until they are prepared for use.

Batteries removed from service must always be stored in the fully charged
condition. The appropriate storage limiting periods must be in accordance with
those specified in the relevant manuals.

- 38 -
Typical periods are 5 years in a temperate climate for charged or uncharged
batteries and from 2 to 3 years in a tropical climate for uncharged batteries,
and 18 months for charged batteries.

If the storage limiting periods have been exceeded, uncharged batteries should
be charged, bench checked or returned to the manufacturer for examination
and re-lifing.

Charged batteries should be periodically inspected and given a freshening

charge every 2-4 weeks. The capacity of batteries should also be checked
during the storage period at a frequency that is dictated mainly by their
condition. It is recommended that capacity tests are carried out every 6
months for new batteries, and every 3 months for batteries returned from
service.

Batteries, which have been in use and are discharged, should not be allowed
to remain, or be stored in this condition, because of the danger of sulphation
of the plates. The lower main terminal voltage limit appropriate to the type of
battery should be checked and recharging carried out as necessary; a typical
lower limit is 21.6V.

If it is necessary to return a battery to the manufacturer, or to an approved

overhaul organisation, it should be prepared in accordance with the
transportation requirements specified by the manufacturer for the appropriate
battery condition, ie charged or uncharged. An up-to-date service record
should accompany the battery which should be packed securely in a stout
container with international signs stating “Battery containing…….” “Warning
corrosive” and “This Way Up”.

Note. If transportation is to be by air, the container must comply with IATA

regulations concerning the carriage of batteries.

Ni-Cad Batteries

Nickel-cadmium batteries should be stored in a clean, dry, well ventilated area

and should be completely segregated from lead-acid batteries. The area should
also be free from corrosive liquids or gases. It is recommended that they
should be stored in the condition in which they are normally received from the
manufacturer, ie filled with electrolyte, discharged and with shorting strips
fitted across receptacle pins.

Cell connecting strips and terminals should be given a coating of acid-free

petroleum jelly (eg white Vaseline).

The temperatures at which batteries may be stored are quoted in the relevant
manuals, and reference should be made to these. In general, a temperature of
20°C is recommended for long-term storage.

- 39 -
If batteries are to be stored in a charged condition, they must be trickle
charged periodically in order to balance the inherent self-discharge
characteristic. Since this discharge is temperature sensitive, the trickle charge
rate is therefore dependent on the storage temperature conditions.

If it is necessary to return a battery to the manufacturer or to an approved

overhaul organisation, it should be discharged, but not drained of electrolyte.
It should be packed in its original container, together with its service record
and the same international markings as stated above.

The same regulations apply when air transportation is to be used.

Remember that all stored batteries should be given an inspection before issue
and issued on a ‘first in first out’ basis. Records should be kept (hard copy or
computer) giving details of the battery – type, part number, serial number,
maintenance details, aircraft fitted to etc.

GROUPING OF BATTERIES

On many (larger) aircraft there is usually more than one conventional battery –
one for the main dc supply connected to the main dc busbar, one for the APU,
one for emergency back-up for essential navigation services, and possibly
others.

On some aircraft, there may be more than one main battery connected to the
one bus bar. These may be connected in parallel or in series. When connected
in parallel there is a greater capacity for dealing with loads on the hot bus and
battery buses, and for engine or APU starting. For example: if four 28V 18Ah
batteries are connected in parallel their total output is 28V at 72Ah (4 x 18Ah)
capacity. The voltage remains unchanged but the capacity is increased.

Fig. 33 BATTERIES IN PARALLEL

- 40 -
If the batteries are connected in series the voltage is increased but the capacity
remains the same. So in the four parallel battery example above, if they are
connected in series the voltage will be 4 x 28 = 112V but the capacity will be
18Ah.

Fig. 34 BATTERIES IN SERIES

Figures 33 and 34 shows the two arrangements but using two batteries.

It is rare to find batteries connected in series. On some aircraft they are

arranged in parallel to allow for high loads such as engine or APU starting. On
some types of turboprop aircraft the batteries are switched from parallel to
series automatically to give an increased voltage supply for starting the
engine/s from the batteries, ie for two 28V 18Ah batteries this would give a
56V 18Ah supply to be fed to the starter motor. Typically a modern passenger
carrying aircraft would have one main battery, one APU battery, a standby
battery for IRS (Inertial Reference System) and batteries for emergency
lighting.

””””””””

- 41 -