Governance of Internet

ICANN headquarters in the Playa Vista neighborhood of Los Angeles, California, United States.

The Internet is a global network comprising many voluntarily interconnected autonomous networks.
It operates without a central governing body.

The technical underpinning and standardization of the core protocols (IPv4 and IPv6) is an activity of
the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), a non-profit organization of loosely affiliated
international participants that anyone may associate with by contributing technical expertise.

To maintain interoperability, the principal name spaces of the Internet are administered by
the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). ICANN is governed by an
international board of directors drawn from across the Internet technical, business, academic, and
other non-commercial communities. ICANN coordinates the assignment of unique identifiers for use
on the Internet, including domain names, Internet Protocol (IP) addresses, application port numbers
in the transport protocols, and many other parameters. Globally unified name spaces are essential
for maintaining the global reach of the Internet. This role of ICANN distinguishes it as perhaps the
only central coordinating body for the global Internet.[46]

Regional Internet Registries (RIRs) allocate IP addresses:

 African Network Information Center (AfriNIC) for Africa

 American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN) for North America
 Asia-Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC) for Asia and the Pacific region
 Latin American and Caribbean Internet Addresses Registry (LACNIC) for Latin America and
the Caribbean region
 Réseaux IP Européens – Network Coordination Centre (RIPE NCC) for Europe, the Middle East,
and Central Asia
The National Telecommunications and Information Administration, an agency of the United States
Department of Commerce, continues to have final approval over changes to the DNS root
zone.[47][48][49]

The Internet Society (ISOC) was founded in 1992 with a mission to "assure the open development,
evolution and use of the Internet for the benefit of all people throughout the world".[50] Its members
include individuals (anyone may join) as well as corporations, organizations, governments, and
universities. Among other activities ISOC provides an administrative home for a number of less
formally organized groups that are involved in developing and managing the Internet, including:
the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), Internet Architecture Board (IAB), Internet Engineering
Steering Group (IESG), Internet Research Task Force (IRTF), and Internet Research Steering
Group (IRSG).

On 16 November 2005, the United Nations-sponsored World Summit on the Information

Society in Tunis established the Internet Governance Forum (IGF) to discuss Internet-related issues.
 Hardwired broadband access

 Dial-up access.
 Multilink dial-up.
 Integrated Services Digital Network.
 Leased lines.
 Cable Internet access.
 Digital subscriber line (DSL, ADSL, SDSL, and VDSL)
 DSL Rings.
 Fiber to the home.

Physical Media

Bit: propagates between transmitter/rcvr pairs

physical link:what lies between transmitter & receiver

guided media: signals propagate in solid media: copper, fiber, coax

unguided media: signals propagate freely, e.g., radio

Twisted Pair (TP) two insulated copper wires

Category 3: traditional phone wires, 10 Mbps Ethernet

Category 5: 100Mbps Ethernet

Physical Media: coax, fiber

Coaxial cable:

two concentric copper conductors

bidirectional

baseband:

single channel on cable

legacy Ethernet
broadband:

multiple channels on cable

HFC

Fiber optic cable:

glass fiber carrying light pulses, each pulse a bit

high-speed operation:

high-speed point-to-point transmission (e.g., 10’s- 100’s Gps)

low error rate: repeaters spaced far apart ; immune to electromagnetic noise

Physical media: radio

signal carried in electromagnetic spectrum

no physical “wire”

bidirectional

propagation environment effects:

reflection

obstruction by objects interference

 Radio link types:

 terrestrial microwave e.g. up to 45 Mbps channels

 LAN(e.g., Wifi) 11Mbps, 54 Mbps

 wide-area(e.g., cellular) 3G cellular: ~ 1 Mbps

 satellite Kbps to 45Mbps channel (or multiple smaller channels)

 270 msec end-end
 delay geosynchronous versus low altitude
 ADDRESSING SYSTEM

IP address
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For the Wikipedia user access level, see Wikipedia:User access levels#Unregistered users
An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device (e.g.,
computer, printer) participating in a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for
communication.[1] An IP address serves two principal functions: host or network
interface identification and location addressing. Its role has been characterized as follows:
"A name indicates what we seek. An address indicates where it is. A route indicates how to get
there."[2]
The designers of the Internet Protocol defined an IP address as a 32-bit number[1] and this system,
known as Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4), is still in use today. However, because of the growth of
theInternet and the predicted depletion of available addresses, a new version of IP (IPv6), using 128
bits for the address, was developed in 1995.[3] IPv6 was standardized as RFC 2460 in 1998,[4] and
itsdeployment has been ongoing since the mid-2000s.
IP addresses are usually written and displayed in human-readable notations, such as 172.16.254.1
(IPv4), and 2001:db8:0:1234:0:567:8:1 (IPv6).

LETTER ADDRESSING SYSTEM

An letter addressing system plays an important role in the

internet world here are the abbrevation of the lettter
addressing system
.edu educational institutions
.mil military sites
.gov government sites
.net networking organizations
.com commercial organizations
.int international organizations
.org professional societies

Uniform Resource Locator

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"URL" redirects here. For other uses, see URL (disambiguation).

A Uniform Resource Locator (URL), commonly informally termed a web address (which term is
not defined identically)[1] is a reference to a web resource that specifies its location on a computer
network and a mechanism for retrieving it. A URL is a specific type of Uniform Resource Identifier
(URI),[2] although many people use the two terms interchangeably.[3] A URL implies the means to
access an indicated resource, which is not true of every URI.[4][3] URLs occur most commonly to
reference web pages (http), but are also used for file transfer (ftp), email (mailto), database access
(JDBC), and many other applications.
Most web browsers display the URL of a web page above the page in an address bar. A typical URL
could have the form http://www.example.com/index.html , which indicates a protocol ( http ),
a hostname ( www.example.com ), and a file name ( index.html ).
 Hardware needed

Modem

Once you have your computer, you really don't need much additional
hardware to connect to the Internet. The primary piece of hardware you
need is a modem.

The type of Internet access you choose will determine the type of modem
you need.Dial-up access uses a telephone modem, DSL service uses
a DSL modem, cableaccess uses a cable modem, and satellite service
uses a satellite adapter. Your ISP may give you a modem—often for a
fee—when you sign a contract, which helps ensure that you have the right
kind of modem. However, if you would prefer to shop for a better or less
expensive modem, you can choose to buy one separately.
Router

A router is a hardware device that allows you to connect several

computersand other devices to a single Internet connection, which is
known as a home network. Many routers are wireless, allowing you to
easily create a wireless network.

You don't necessarily need to buy a router to connect to the Internet. It's
possible to connect your computer directly to your modem using an
Ethernet cable. Also, many modems now include a built-in router, so you
have the option of creating a network without having to buy more hardware.

Most routers also act as a hardware firewall, which helps prevent

others from gaining access to your computer through the Internet.

Network card
A network card is a piece of hardware that allows computers to
communicate over a computer network. Most newer computers have a
network card built into the motherboard, so it probably isn't something you'll
need to purchase. The network card will have an Ethernet port,
a wirelessconnection, or both.

If you have a laptop with a wireless connection, you can access the
Internet at any place that offers a Wi-Fi connection.
Many restaurants, coffee shops,bookstores, hotels, and other
businesses offer free Wi-Fi. In addition, many cities provide free Wi-Fi in
public areas such as parks and downtown areas.

Web browsers

A web browser is the tool you use to access the Web. The browser's main
job is to display webpages. It also lets you create bookmarks—
sometimes called Favorites—for sites you like so you can easily find them
again later.

The World Wide Web is a virtual network of websites connected

by hyperlinks (or links). Websites are stored on servers on the
Internet, so the World Wide Web is a part of the Internet.

Your computer probably came with a browser pre-installed. PCs come

with Internet Explorer, while Macs come with Safari. If you prefer to use a
 different browser, you can download Firefox, Google Chrome, or Opera. All
of these browsers are free.

Setting up your Internet connection

Once you have chosen an ISP and purchased the appropriate modem, you
can use the instructions provided by your ISP—or included with the
modem—to set up your Internet connection. Depending on the type of
service you have, your ISP may need to send a technician to your
house to turn on the connection.

After you have everything set up, you can open your web browser and
begin using the Internet. If you have any problems with your Internet
connection, you can call your ISP's technical support number.
 Services

The Internet carries many network services, most prominently mobile apps such as social
media apps, the World Wide Web, electronic mail, multiplayer online games, Internet telephony,
and file sharing services.

Communication
Email is an important communications service available on the Internet. The concept of sending
electronic text messages between parties in a way analogous to mailing letters or memos predates
the creation of the Internet. Pictures, documents, and other files are sent as email attachments.
Emails can be cc-ed to multiple email addresses.

Internet telephony is another common communications service made possible by the creation of the
Internet. VoIP stands for Voice-over-Internet Protocol, referring to the protocol that underlies all
Internet communication. The idea began in the early 1990s with walkie-talkie-like voice applications
for personal computers. In recent years many VoIP systems have become as easy to use and as
convenient as a normal telephone. The benefit is that, as the Internet carries the voice traffic, VoIP
can be free or cost much less than a traditional telephone call, especially over long distances and
especially for those with always-on Internet connections such as cable or ADSL. VoIP is maturing
into a competitive alternative to traditional telephone service. Interoperability between different
providers has improved and the ability to call or receive a call from a traditional telephone is
available. Simple, inexpensive VoIP network adapters are available that eliminate the need for a
personal computer.

Voice quality can still vary from call to call, but is often equal to and can even exceed that of
traditional calls. Remaining problems for VoIP include emergency telephone number dialing and
reliability. Currently, a few VoIP providers provide an emergency service, but it is not universally
available. Older traditional phones with no "extra features" may be line-powered only and operate
during a power failure; VoIP can never do so without a backup power source for the phone
equipment and the Internet access devices. VoIP has also become increasingly popular for gaming
applications, as a form of communication between players. Popular VoIP clients for gaming
include Ventrilo and Teamspeak. Modern video game consoles also offer VoIP chat features.
Data transfer
File sharing is an example of transferring large amounts of data across the Internet. A computer
file can be emailed to customers, colleagues and friends as an attachment. It can be uploaded to a
website orFile Transfer Protocol (FTP) server for easy download by others. It can be put into a
"shared location" or onto a file server for instant use by colleagues. The load of bulk downloads to
many users can be eased by the use of "mirror" servers or peer-to-peer networks. In any of these
cases, access to the file may be controlled by user authentication, the transit of the file over the
Internet may be obscured by encryption, and money may change hands for access to the file. The
price can be paid by the remote charging of funds from, for example, a credit card whose details are
also passed – usually fully encrypted – across the Internet. The origin and authenticity of the file
received may be checked by digital signatures or by MD5 or other message digests. These simple
features of the Internet, over a worldwide basis, are changing the production, sale, and distribution of
anything that can be reduced to a computer file for transmission. This includes all manner of print
publications, software products, news, music, film, video, photography, graphics and the other arts.
This in turn has caused seismic shifts in each of the existing industries that previously controlled the
production and distribution of these products.

Streaming media is the real-time delivery of digital media for the immediate consumption or
enjoyment by end users. Many radio and television broadcasters provide Internet feeds of their live
audio and video productions. They may also allow time-shift viewing or listening such as Preview,
Classic Clips and Listen Again features. These providers have been joined by a range of pure
Internet "broadcasters" who never had on-air licenses. This means that an Internet-connected
device, such as a computer or something more specific, can be used to access on-line media in
much the same way as was previously possible only with a television or radio receiver. The range of
available types of content is much wider, from specialized technical webcasts to on-demand popular
multimedia services. Podcasting is a variation on this theme, where – usually audio – material is
downloaded and played back on a computer or shifted to a portable media player to be listened to
on the move. These techniques using simple equipment allow anybody, with little censorship or
licensing control, to broadcast audio-visual material worldwide.

Digital media streaming increases the demand for network bandwidth. For example, standard image
quality needs 1 Mbit/s link speed for SD 480p, HD 720p quality requires 2.5 Mbit/s, and the top-of-
the-line HDX quality needs 4.5 Mbit/s for 1080p.[63]

Webcams are a low-cost extension of this phenomenon. While some webcams can give full-frame-
rate video, the picture either is usually small or updates slowly. Internet users can watch animals
around an African waterhole, ships in the Panama Canal, traffic at a local roundabout or monitor
their own premises, live and in real time. Video chat rooms and video conferencing are also popular
with many uses being found for personal webcams, with and without two-way sound. YouTube was
founded on 15 February 2005 and is now the leading website for free streaming video with a vast
number of users. It uses a flash-based web player to stream and show video files. Registered users
may upload an unlimited amount of video and build their own personal profile. YouTube claims that
its users watch hundreds of millions, and upload hundreds of thousands of videos daily. Currently,
YouTube also uses an HTML5 player.[64]
 World Wide Web

This NeXT Computer was used byTim Berners-Lee at CERN and became the world's first Web server.

Many people use the terms Internet and World Wide Web, or just the Web, interchangeably, but the
two terms are not synonymous. The World Wide Web is the primary application that billions of
people use on the Internet, and it has changed their lives immeasurably.[61][62] However, the Internet
provides many other services. The Web is a global set of documents, images and other resources,
logically interrelated by hyperlinks and referenced with Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs). URIs
symbolically identify services, servers, and other databases, and the documents and resources that
they can provide. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is the main access protocol of the World Wide
Web. Web services also use HTTP to allow software systems to communicate in order to share and
exchange business logic and data.

World Wide Web browser software, such as Microsoft's Internet Explorer, Mozilla
Firefox, Opera, Apple's Safari, and Google Chrome, lets users navigate from one web page to
another via hyperlinks embedded in the documents. These documents may also contain any
combination of computer data, including graphics, sounds, text,video, multimedia and interactive
content that runs while the user is interacting with the page. Client-side software can include
animations, games, office applications and scientific demonstrations. Through keyword-
driven Internet research using search engines like Yahoo! and Google, users worldwide have easy,
instant access to a vast and diverse amount of online information. Compared to printed media,
books, encyclopedias and traditional libraries, the World Wide Web has enabled the decentralization
of information on a large scale.
The Web has also enabled individuals and organizations to publish ideas and information to a
potentially large audience online at greatly reduced expense and time delay. Publishing a web page,
a blog, or building a website involves little initial cost and many cost-free services are available.
However, publishing and maintaining large, professional web sites with attractive, diverse and up-to-
date information is still a difficult and expensive proposition. Many individuals and some companies
and groups use web logs or blogs, which are largely used as easily updatable online diaries. Some
commercial organizations encourage staff to communicate advice in their areas of specialization in
the hope that visitors will be impressed by the expert knowledge and free information, and be
attracted to the corporation as a result.

One example of this practice is Microsoft, whose product developers publish their personal blogs in
order to pique the public's interest in their work.[original research?] Collections of personal web pages
published by large service providers remain popular and have become increasingly sophisticated.
Whereas operations such as Angelfire and GeoCities have existed since the early days of the Web,
newer offerings from, for example, Facebook and Twitter currently have large followings. These
operations often brand themselves as social network services rather than simply as web page
hosts.[citation needed]

Advertising on popular web pages can be lucrative, and e-commerce or the sale of products and
services directly via the Web continues to grow.

When the Web developed in the 1990s, a typical web page was stored in completed form on a web
server, formatted in HTML, complete for transmission to a web browser in response to a request.
Over time, the process of creating and serving web pages has become dynamic, creating a flexible
design, layout, and content. Websites are often created using content management software with,
initially, very little content. Contributors to these systems, who may be paid staff, members of an
organization or the public, fill underlying databases with content using editing pages designed for
that purpose while casual visitors view and read this content in HTML form. There may or may not
be editorial, approval and security systems built into the process of taking newly entered content and
making it available to the target visitors.
 Internet History

1961:Kleinrock -queueing theory shows effectiveness of packet- switching

1964:Baran -packet- switching in military nets

1967:ARPAnet conceived by Advanced Research Projects Agency

1969:first ARPAnet node operational

1972: ARPAnet public demonstration NCP (Network Control Protocol) first host-host protocol first e-mail
program ARPAnet has 15 nodes

1970:ALOHAnet satellite network in Hawaii

1974:Cerf and Kahn - architecture for interconnecting networks

1976:Ethernet at Xerox PARC

late70’s:proprietary architectures: DECnet, SNA, XNA

late 70’s:switching fixed length packets (ATM precursor)

1979:ARPAnet has 200 nodes

1983:deployment of TCP/IP

1982:smtp e-mail protocol defined

1983:DNS defined for name-to-IP- address translation

1985:ftp protocol defined 1988:TCP congestion control

new national networks: Csnet, BITnet, NSFnet, Minitel 100,000 hosts connected to confederation of
networks

Early 1990’s: ARPAnet decommissioned

1991: NSF lifts restrictions on commercial use of NSFnet (decommissioned, 1995)

early 1990s:Web

hypertext [Bush 1945, Nelson 1960’s]

HTML, HTTP: Berners-Lee

1994: Mosaic, later Netscape late 1990’s: commercializationof the Web

Late 1990’s –2000’s: more killer apps: instant messaging, P2P file sharing network security to forefront
est. 50 million host, 100 million+ users backbone links running at Gbps
2007: ~

500 million hosts Voice,

Video over IP P2P applications:

BitTorrent (file sharing)

Skype (VoIP),

PPLive (video)

more applications: YouTube, gaming wireless, mobility

 TYPES OF NETWORKS

Company access: local area networks

company/univ local area network(LAN)

connects end system to edge router

Ethernet:

10 Mbs, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps Ethernet

modern configuration: end systems connect into Ethernetswitch

Wireless access networks

shared wireless access network connects end system to router

via base station aka “access point”

wireless LANs:

802.11b/g (WiFi): 11 or 54 Mbps

wider-area wireless access

provided by telco operator ~

1Mbps over cellular system (EVDO, HSDPA)

Next up (?): WiMAX (10’s Mbps) over wide area

Home networks
Typical home network components:

DSL or cable modem

router/firewall/NAT

Ethernet

wireless access point