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MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS: TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION.......................................................1 2.12 Non-Flowing Sample Materials...................8


2.12.1 Helipath Stand...................................8
CHAPTER 1: Brookfield School of Thought.........2 2.12.2 Spiral Adapter....................................8
1.1 Why Make Rheological Measurements?......2 2.12.3 Vane Spindles....................................8
1.2 Thinking Rheo-Logically................................2 2.13 Special Accessory Items.............................8
1.3 Three Schools of Thought on Viscosity 2.13.1 Quick Connect...................................8
Measurement................................................2 2.13.2 Spindle Extensions............................8
1.3.1 The Pragmatic School.........................2 2.14 Fumes and Hazardous Locations...............8
1.3.2 The Theoretical School . .....................2 2.14.1 Purge Fittings....................................8
1.3.3 The Academic School . .......................3 2.14.2 Explosion-Proof Construction ...........9
2.15 Software......................................................9
CHAPTER 2: Equipment Systems for 2.16 Process Control..........................................9
Applications.......................................3
2.1 Equipment for Specific Situations.................3 CHAPTER 3: Making Measurements.....................9
2.2 Viscometers..................................................3 3.1 Why You Should Read This Chapter............9
2.3 Rheometers..................................................4 3.2 How the Brookfield Viscometer Works..........9
2.4 Spindle Geometries......................................4 3.3 Spring Torque..............................................10
2.4.1 Disc Spindles.......................................4 3.4 Viscosity Measurement Techniques............10
2.4.2 Cylindrical Spindles.............................4 3.4.1 Record Keeping.................................10
2.4.3 Coaxial Cylinders.................................4 3.4.2 The Spindle and the Guardleg...........10
2.4.4 Cone/Plate Geometry..........................4 3.4.3 Selecting a Spindle Speed................10
2.4.5 T-Bar Spindles.....................................5 3.4.4 Sample Container Size...................... 11
2.4.6 Vane Spindles......................................5 3.4.5 Sample Conditions............................ 11
2.5 Temperature Control.....................................5 3.4.6 Spindle Immersion............................. 11
2.5.1 Temperature Baths..............................5 3.4.7 Sensitivity and Accuracy.................... 11
2.5.2 Thermosel System...............................5 3.4.8 Obtaining a Viscometer Reading.......12
2.5.3 Peltier (Thermo-electric Systems).......5 3.4.9 A Calibration Check ..........................12
2.6 Small Sample Volume . ................................5 3.4.10 Recalibrating the Brookfield
2.6.1 Small Sample Adapter.........................5 Viscometer.......................................13
2.6.2 UL Adapter...........................................5 3.5 Viscometer Maintenance............................14
2.6.3 DIN Adapter.........................................5 3.6 Viscometer Troubleshooting ......................14
2.6.4 Thermosel System...............................5 3.7 Other Viscosity Measurement Methods......15
2.6.5 Cone/Plate Systems............................6
2.7 Low Viscosity................................................6
2.7.1 UL Adapter...........................................6 CHAPTER 4: Rheology Basics.............................15
2.7.2 Small Sample Adapter.........................6 4.1 Coming to Grips with Rheology..................15
2.7.3 Thermosel System...............................6 4.2 Viscosity......................................................15
2.7.4 Wells-Brookfield Cone/Plate 4.3 Newtonian Fluids .......................................15
Viscometer...........................................6 4.4 Non-Newtonian Fluids . ..............................16
2.8 High Temperature.........................................6 4.5 Thixotropy and Rheopexy...........................17
2.8.1 Thermosel System...............................6 4.6 Laminar and Turbulent Flow.......................17
2.8.2 Temperature Baths..............................6 4.7 Yield Behavior.............................................18
2.8.3 Cone/Plate with 4.8 What Affects the Rheological Property?.....18
Embedded Heating.......................................6 4.8.1 Temperature......................................19
2.9 Defined Shear Rate......................................6 4.8.2 Shear Rate........................................19
2.10 High Shear Rate ........................................7 4.8.3 Measuring Conditions . ....................19
2.10.1 Wells-Brookfield Cone/Plate 4.8.4 Time...................................................20
Viscometer/Rheometer.....................7 4.8.5 Pressure............................................20
2.10.2 CAP Viscometer/Rheometer.............7 4.8.6 Previous History................................20
2.10.3 RST Rheometer.................................7 4.8.7 Composition and Additives................20
2.10.4 PVS Rheometer.................................7 4.8.8 Special Characteristics of
2.11 Defined Shear Stress..................................7 Dispersions and Emulsions...............20

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page i Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


CHAPTER 5: Data Analysis..................................21 APPENDIX A: Specifications, Ranges, and
5.1 Advanced Methods for Operating Parameters....................30
Rheological Analysis...................................21 A.1 Dial-Reading Viscometer Spindles
5.2 Defining Operating Parameters of Various and Speeds................................................31
Spindle Geometries....................................21 A.2 Digital Viscometers/Rheometers
5.2.1 Cylindrical Spindles...........................21 Spindles and Speeds..................................32
5.2.2 Coaxial Cylinders...............................22 A.3 Disc Spindle Information for Standard
5.2.3 Cone and Plate..................................22 Viscometers/Rheometers...........................32
5.2.4 Disc and T-Bar Spindles....................22 A.4 Cylindrical Spindles for Dial-Reading
5.2.5 Spiral Adapter Spindle.......................23 Viscometer and Digital Viscometers/
5.2.6 “Paddle” / “Paste” Spindles................23 Rheometers................................................33
5.2.7 Vane Spindles....................................23 A.5 Wells-Brookfield Cone/Plate
5.2.8 Other Special Spindles......................23 Viscometers/Rheometers...........................35
5.3 Analyzing Time-Independent A.6 Small Sample Adapter................................36
Non-Newtonian Fluids................................23 A.7 UL Adapter..................................................38
5.3.1 Ratio Methods...................................23 A.8 Thermosel System . ...................................39
5.3.2 Graphic Methods...............................23 A.9 DIN Adapter ...............................................40
5.3.3 Template Method...............................24 A.10 Helipath Stand with T-Bar Spindles..........41
5.3.4 Dynamic Yield Value Determination..24 A.11 Spiral Adapter...........................................42
5.4 Static Yield Value Determination.................25 A.12 Vane Spindles...........................................43
5.5 Analyzing Time-Dependent, A.13 KU-2 (Krebs) Viscometer..........................44
Non-Newtonian Fluids................................25 A.14 YR-1 Yield Stress Rheometer...................45
5.6 Temperature Dependence of Viscosity.......25 A.15 CAP 1000+ and CAP 2000+
5.7 Math Models...............................................26 Viscometers.............................................46
5.8 Brookfield Application Software..................26 A.16 Falling Ball Viscometer.............................47
5.9 Miscellaneous Methods..............................27 A.17 RST Rheometer &
RST Soft Solids Tester.............................48
A.18 PVS Rheometer . .....................................49
CHAPTER 6: Test Methods...................................27
6.1 Single Point Viscosity Test..........................27 APPENDIX B: Spindle Entry Codes and
6.2 Controlled Rate Ramp................................27 Range Coefficients.........................51
6.3 Up-Down Rate Ramp..................................27
6.4 Time Sensitivity Test...................................27 APPENDIX C: ASTM Specifications......................53
6.5 Temperature Sensitivity Test.......................28
6.6 Temperature Profiling with APPENDIX D: References.....................................54
Up-Down Rate............................................28
6.7 Static Yield Test...........................................28 APPENDIX E: Brookfield Regional Locations........55
6.8 Dynamic Yield Test......................................28
6.9 Recovery.....................................................28
6.10 Tests Unique to RST Rheometer..............29

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page ii Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


INTRODUCTION

When a piece of technical equipment is marketed The book you hold in your hand is the result of those
successfully for over 80 years, it is inevitable that a requests. It does not replace your instruction manual,
large body of experience will develop from the use of nor does it replace the specific technical papers al-
that equipment. Procedures are established, papers ready or yet to be published. It is also not a textbook
are published, standards are accepted, and a vast on rheology. Rather, it is a guide to help point out the
informal grapevine of advice grows amidst the com- way to getting more from your Brookfield Viscometer.
munity of users. Such is the case with the Brookfield It does this in several ways:
Viscometer. Accepted as a standard of viscosity
measurement around the world, the Brookfield Vis- S by offering practical advice on the use and main-
cometer is the nucleus of a library of information that tenance of the Brookfield Viscometer based on
encompasses the experiences of thousands of users our experience and that of our customers;
in a seemingly endless variety of applications. S by suggesting ways in which specific pieces of
This library, however, is not gathered conveniently hardware may be used to solve viscosity mea-
together in any single location. It is fragmented, surement problems;
scattered here and there in technical journals, in test S by explaining the basic principles of rheology and
reports, in the notes made by technicians, researchers, their relation to measurements made with Brook-
and quality control people. For many users (particularly field equipment;
those new to the field of viscosity measurement), it is S by discussing factors that affect rheological be-
extremely difficult to gain access to information gener- havior and how these may be controlled;
ated outside their own company or industry. Brookfield S by outlining advanced mathematical procedures
Engineering Laboratories has for many years acted as for detailed analysis of viscosity data;
a clearinghouse for this type of information, reprinting S by consolidating a variety of useful range tables,
a variety of technical papers on the subject of viscosity formulas, and specifications for many Brookfield
measurement and making them available at no cost. Viscometers and accessories.
This program has helped many people benefit from
the experiences of others. We hope that you will find this book useful and refer
There is a middle ground, however, between the to it often. It is our attempt to answer all at once many
specific technical information provided in these papers of the questions we have been asked over the years.
and the basic operating procedures outlined in an in- If you have any questions that are not answered here,
struction manual for your instrument. We have been or if you want to suggest improvements or changes for
requested many times over the years to publish a book future editions, please feel free to contact us. It was,
that would bridge the gap between the elementary and after all, the input of people like yourself that made this
the advanced, a sort of extended “user’s manual” that book possible in the first place.
would guide the way for the person wishing to explore
in greater depth, the field of viscosity measurement, For additional information, applications, etc., please
with an emphasis on Brookfield equipment. visit our website at www.brookfieldengineering.com.

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 1 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


CHAPTER 1: Brookfield School of Thought

1.1 Why Make Rheological Measurements? the system interact (more information on what affects
Anyone beginning the process of learning to think the rheological property can be found in Section 4.8).
Rheo-Logically must first ask the question, “Why The data thus obtained may then be fitted to one of
should I make a viscosity measurement?”. The answer the mathematical models which have been success-
lies in the experiences of thousands of people who fully used with Brookfield instruments. Many of these
have made such measurements, showing that much models may be found in Chapter 5.
useful behavioral and predictive information for various Such mathematical models range from the very
products can be obtained, as well as knowledge of simple to the very complex. Some of them merely
the effects of processing, formulation changes, aging involve the plotting of data on graph paper; others re-
phenomena, etc. quire calculating the ratio of two numbers. Some are
quite sophisticated and require use of programmable
A frequent reason for the measurement of rheological
calculators or computers. This kind of analysis is the
properties can be found in the area of quality control,
best way for getting the most from our data and often
where raw materials must be consistent from batch to
results in one of two “constants” which summarize the
batch. For this purpose, flow behavior is an indirect
data and can be related to product or process perfor-
measure of product consistency and quality.
mance.
Another reason for making flow behavior studies Once a correlation has been developed between
is that a direct assessment of processability can be rheological data and product behavior, the procedure
obtained. For example, a high viscosity liquid requires can then be reversed and rheological data may be
more power to pump than a low viscosity one. Knowing used to predict performance and behavior.
rheological behavior, therefore, is useful when design-
ing pumping and piping systems. 1.3 Three Schools of Thought on Viscosity Mea-
It has been suggested that rheology is the most surement
sensitive method for material characterization because In our experience there are basically three schools
flow behavior is responsive to properties such as mo- of thought on the use of viscometers in applications
lecular weight and molecular weight distribution. This rheology. We present them here and invite you to
relationship is useful in polymer synthesis, for example, decide which you fall into, remembering that there is
because it allows relative differences to be seen without no “right” one and that each has its merits.
making molecular weight measurements. Rheological
measurements are also useful in following the course 1.3.1 The Pragmatic School
of a chemical reaction. Such measurements can be The first school of thought is the most pragmatic.
employed as a quality check during production or to The person who adheres to this school cares only
monitor and/or control a process. Rheological mea- that the Brookfield Viscometer generates numbers
surements allow the study of chemical, mechanical, that tell something useful about a product or process.
and thermal treatments, the effects of additives, or the This person has little or no concern about rheologi-
course of a curing reaction. They are also a way to cal theory and measurement parameters expressed
predict and control a host of product properties, end in absolute terms. Quality control and plant produc-
use performance and material behavior. tion applications are typical of this category.

1.2 Thinking Rheo-Logically 1.3.2 The “Theoretical” School


To begin, consider the question, “Can some rheo- The second school of thought involves a more
logical parameter be employed to correlate with an theoretical approach. Those adhering to this school
aspect of the product or process?” To determine this, know that some types of Brookfield Viscometers will
an instinct must be developed for the kinds of chemical not directly yield defined shear rates and absolute
and physical phenomena which affect the rheological viscosities for non-Newtonian fluids. However,
response. For the moment, assume this information is these people often find that they can develop cor-
known and several possibilities have been identified. relations of “dial viscosity” with important product or
The next step is to gather preliminary rheological data process parameters. Many people follow this school
to determine what type of flow behavior is characteristic of thought. The applications rheology literature is
of the system under consideration. At the most basic replete with statements along the line of “I know the
level, this involves making measurements with which- data isn’t academically defined, but I keep this fact in
ever Brookfield Viscometer is available and drawing mind and treat the multi-point rheology information
some conclusions based on the descriptions of flow as if it were.” In many cases, this produces eminently
behavior types in Chapter 4. satisfying results and eliminates the necessity of
Once the type of flow behavior has been identified, buying a highly sophisticated and very expensive
more can be understood about the way components of piece of rheological equipment.

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 2 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


1.3.3 The Academic School Adapter and Spiral Adapter accessories, as well as
The third school of thought is quite academic in the RST and PVS Rheometers. With this equipment
nature. People adhering to this school require that the shear rate is defined and accurate absolute vis-
all measurement parameters, particularly shear cosities are obtained directly from the measurement.
rate and shear stress, be defined and known. They That, then, is our view of the three schools of
need equipment with defined geometries such as thought on viscosity measurement. You may need
cone/plate or coaxial cylinders. Examples from the to think in terms of any or all of these depending on
Brookfield line would be the Wells-Brookfield Cone/ your background, approach, goals, and type of equip-
Plate, CAP Viscometers, BF35 Viscometers, RST ment available. Brookfield Viscometer users fall into
and PVS Rheometers and Standard Viscometers all three; the following chapters present information
and Rheometers with the following geometries: the of use to each.
UL adapter, Small Sample Adapter, Thermosel, Din

CHAPTER 2: Equipment Systems for Applications


2.1 Equipment for Specific Situations utilize a touch screen interface and provide enhanced
The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview functionality.
of Brookfield’s entire line of Viscometers, Rheometers In most respects dial-reading and Digital Viscometers
and related accessories, and to suggest ways in which are functionally similar. The operating procedures
these products may be helpful in solving specific vis- for both are essentially the same, they are available
cosity measurement problems. This information will in the same model variations, they accept the same
be useful to people adhering to all three schools of Brookfield accessories, and are generally interchange-
thought on viscosity measurement. able (model for model) in most viscosity specifications
requiring Brookfield Viscometers.
The equipment has been organized into functional The dial-reading type is the least expensive Brook-
groups to help you quickly find the items of most inter- field Viscometer and is suitable for most applications
est to you: where samples are to be tested over a short period of
Viscometers time and a permanent detailed record of rheological
Rheometers behavior is not required. This is due to the fact that
Spindle Geometries while the Viscometer rotates continuously, readings
Temperature Control may be made only intermittently, when the pointer
Small Sample Volume passes under the vision glass, or when the reading is
Low Viscosity held and the Viscometer stopped. Long term viscosity
High Temperature tests necessitate frequent operator attention, and some
Defined Shear Rate fast-acting processes dictate continuous monitoring.
High Shear Rate The Digital Viscometer, with its continuous sensing
Defined Shear Stress and display, is more suited to such situations. It may
Non-Flowing Sample Materials be left unattended for long periods, and the data output
Special Accessory Items may be adjusted to provide a detailed record of even
Fumes and Hazardous Locations the fastest rheological processes. In addition, many
Process Control operators prefer a digital display, which eliminates the
interpolation that is sometimes necessary when read-
2.2 Viscometers ing a dial. Both types offer equivalent accuracy.
Brookfield laboratory Viscometers are available in Brookfield Digital Viscometers (excluding DV-E)
three basic types: dial-reading (analog), digital, and are also available in cone/plate geometry. See Sec-
programmable. The most significant difference be- tion 2.10 for more information on cone/plate spindle
tween them is the manner in which the viscosity reading geometry.
is displayed. The dial-reading type is read by noting Several specialized viscometers are available which
the position of a pointer in relation to a rotating dial; the have been designed to satisfy particular industry
Digital type is read by means of an LCD or graphical needs. These instruments are unique and do not
display. In addition, the Digital Viscometer includes a necessarily compare to the traditional Brookfield Vis-
serial or USB output that can be used in conjunction cometer. The Brookfield KU-2 is designed to provide
with Brookfield Software for data storage, data analysis a viscosity measurement in Krebs units and is often
and instrument control. Programmable viscometers used in the paint industry. The Brookfield CAP-1000+

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 3 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


is designed to operate at high shear rate (10,000 s-1, applications; some are available coated for maximum
12,000 s-1) and is often used in the resin and paint corrosion resistance. Brookfield also offers disposable
industries. spindle and chambers made of aluminum as noted in
The Brookfield Falling Ball Viscometer utilizes a grav- this section. Please inquire about special spindle ma-
ity based system and is often used for beverages and terials and configurations for unusual applications.
other clear low viscosity liquids. The BF35 Viscometer
is used by the oil/gas drilling industry to measure drill 2.4.1 Disc Spindles
muds and fracturing fluids. The chamber rotates at Provided as standard equipment with LV (spin-
defined speeds while the stationary spindle senses dles #62 and #63) and RV/HA/HB models (spindles
torque. #2 through #6), these are general-purpose spindles
for use in containers of 600 mL capacity or larger.
2.3 Rheometers Disc spindles produce accurate, reproducible ap-
A very important advancement in viscosity measure- parent viscosity determinations in most fluids. The
ment is the bidirectional DV3T Rheometer (and more results obtained can be converted into viscosity
recently, the DV2T Viscometer) for use with PC. This functions by a mathematical procedure outlined in
instrument, with variable speed capability, allows easy Technical Paper AR-82 available from Brookfield
handling and programming of complicated applica- Engineering Laboratories. See Section 2.9 for infor-
tion measurements. It also enables the storage of mation on spindle geometries that directly provide
calculated results and transfer of data to Excel format. defined shear rates.
When used with Brookfield Rheocalc software, it easily
gives a graphical view of test results which is especially 2.4.2 Cylindrical Spindles
important for flow curve interpretations. The overlay These spindles (LV #61 and #64, RV/HA/HB
capability of the Rheocalc software gives a good pos- #7) provide a defined spindle geometry for calculat-
sibility to compare different measured results from ing shear stress and shear rate values as well as
multiple tests. viscosity, when used without the Brookfield Guard
The Brookfield RST Rheometer differs from the Leg, in a cylindrical container. In all other respects
standard Brookfield rheometers in that it is a controlled their operating parameters are similar to those of
stress (or controlled torque) instrument as well as a disc spindles.
controlled rate (RPM) instrument. Controlled stress Because their defined geometry facilitates math-
with the RST provides many benefits such as a very ematical analysis, cylindrical spindles are particular-
broad viscosity measurement range, testing for Yield ly valuable when measuring non-Newtonian fluids.
properties and the ability to measure flow properties They are applicable to any Brookfield Viscometer
of delicate high viscosity gels. Similar to DV3T, it can model with the use of the appropriate range sheet.
operate in stand alone mode or under PC control and Cylindrical equivalents of the LV #62 and #63 disc
provide detailed data on material behavior, including spindles are also available. See Section 2.9 for
yield stress. information on other defined shear rate geometries.
The CAP 2000+ Rheometer is a variable speed
cone/plate instrument with broad shear rate capability. 2.4.3 Coaxial Cylinders
Its rugged design makes it ideal for busy work environ- Coaxial-cylinder geometry is indicated for appli-
ments whether running in stand alone mode or under cations where extremely well-defined shear rate and
PC control. shear stress data is required, particularly when the
The PVS Rheometer is a “pressurizable variable sample volume is relatively small. Several Brookfield
speed” instrument used primarily to evaluate fracturing accessories feature coaxial-cylinder geometry; each
fluids and drilling muds in the oil/gas industry. also has unique advantages for specific situations.
The YR-1 Rheometer is an inexpensive benchtop These accessories are: the Small Sample Adapter
instrument which tests the yield behavior of materi- (Section 2.6.1), the UL Adapter (Section 2.6.2), the
als, providing a single yield stress value for better QC Thermosel (Section 2.6.4), the DIN Adapter (Section
evaluation of products. 2.6.3) and the Spiral Adapter (Section 2.12.2).
Disposable 13R chambers and #27 spindles are
2.4 Spindle Geometries available for Small Sample Adapter and Thermosel.
All Brookfield Viscometers and Rheometers are Please read 2.6.1 and 2.6.4 for details.
supplied with spindles suitable for most applications
within the viscosity range of the instrument. There 2.4.4 Cone/Plate Geometry
are, however, situations where specialized spindle Cone/plate geometry offers absolute viscosity
geometries are necessary to obtain optimum results. determinations with precise shear rate and shear
Brookfield has available a wide variety of spindles and stress information readily available. The sample vol-
accessories to fulfill these needs. umes required are extremely small and temperature
All Brookfield spindles are constructed of 300 series control is easily accomplished. Cone/plate geometry
stainless steel for maintenance-free service in most is particularly suitable for advanced rheological

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 4 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


analysis of non-Newtonian fluids. It is available bath, the Thermosel doesn’t utilize a fluid medium
on the Wells-Brookfield Cone/Plate Viscometers/ for temperature control. For more information, see
Rheometers, CAP 2000+ Rheometer and RST Section 2.8.
Rheometer (see Section 2.10 for more information).
2.5.3 Peltier (Thermo-electric Systems)
2.4.5 T-Bar Spindles The CAP 1000+ Viscometer, CAP 2000+ Rhe-
Generally used in conjunction with the Helipath ometer and the RST Rheometer have an embedded
Stand accessory (with which they are supplied as peltier device in the sample plate to provide rapid
standard equipment), T-bar spindles make possible temperature control. Small sample size (less than 1
the measurement of non-flowing or slow-flowing mL) facilitates rapid temperature profiling of materi-
materials such as pastes, gels, and creams. Results als.
are considered “apparent” since the unique geom-
etry of the T-bar spindle prevents the calculation of 2.6 Small Sample Volume
shear rate or shear stress. See Section 2.12.1. The standard sample container for most Brookfield
Viscometers is a 600 mL low form Griffin beaker. Users
2.4.6 Vane Spindles often find it desirable or necessary to measure samples
The vane spindle, when immersed into a mate- of smaller volume. Several Brookfield products feature
rial, traps a portion of the test sample between the small sample volumes.
vanes, thereby creating a “cylinder” of sample that
can be used to calculate shear stress and shear rate. 2.6.1 Small Sample Adapter
With vane spindles, well-defined measurements Specifically designed to facilitate the measure-
are possible for non-flowing or slow-flowing fluids, ment of small samples, the Small Sample Adapter
including yield stress values. Five vane spindles (SSA) is a jacketed, coaxial-cylinder accessory that
are available and can be used with most Brookfield is compatible with all Brookfield Viscometers with the
viscometers. See Section 2.12.3. exception of cone/plate types. Depending on the
model selected, the Small Sample Adapter utilizes
2.5 Temperature Control sample volumes of 2.0 to 16.0 mL. Also depending
In order to ensure maximum accuracy and repro- on model, the Small Sample Adapter will measure
ducibility in many viscosity measurement procedures, viscosities from 5 cP to 10,000,000 cP at shear
temperature control is highly recommended. The fol- rates from 0.066 to 93.0 reciprocal seconds. The
lowing systems are available from Brookfield: Small Sample Adapter’s jacketed design permits
connection to a circulating-type bath for excellent
2.5.1 Temperature Baths temperature control up to a recommended maximum
Constant-temperature baths are suitable for of 100°C. Disposable 13RD chamber is available
most viscosity measurement applications. They for use with SSA; a special water jacket is required
are available in two basic types: circulating, for use for this configuration.
with jacketed devices such as the Wells-Brookfield
Cone/Plate Viscometer (Section 2.10.1) and the 2.6.2 UL Adapter
Small Sample Adapter (Section 2.7.2); and reser- The UL Adapter is primarily intended to allow
voir/circulating, for all applications (this type can viscosity measurements in ranges below those
be used with jacketed devices as well as with any normally measurable by a particular Viscometer.
sample container that can be immersed in the bath’s When used with its removable end cap in place, the
reservoir). Brookfield temperature baths have a UL Adapter measures a sample volume of 16.0 mL.
maximum operating temperature that depends on For more information, see Section 2.7.1
the model and the bath fluid used:
Bath Model Max. Temperature 2.6.3 DIN Adapter
DIN standards come from Germany and are
AP Series Baths 200°C
similar in scope and purpose to ASTM standards
SD Series Baths 170°C from the United States.
MX Series Baths 135°C The Brookfield DIN Adapter, like the UL Adapter,

Refrigerated baths and auxiliary cooling devices are is designed to measure in ranges below those nor-
available for operation at or below ambient tempera- mally measured with a particular Viscometer. The
ture. Contact Brookfield Engineering Laboratories DIN Adapter utilizes additional DIN spindles for
or your dealer for more information. measurement ranges from 1 cP to 50,000 cP and
conforms to DIN 53019.
2.5.2 Thermosel System
This system is designed for the measurement 2.6.4 Thermosel System
of small samples in the temperature range of ap- The Thermosel System allows the measure-
proximately 40° to 300°C. Unlike a temperature ment of viscosity at temperaturesranging from 40°C

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 5 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


to 300°C. It incorporates coaxial-cylinder spindle 2.7.4 Wells-Brookfield Cone/Plate Viscometer
geometry that uses a sample volume of 8.0 to 13.0 The Wells-Brookfield Cone/Plate Viscometer has
mL, depending on the spindle utilized. See Section measurement capabilities below 1.0 cP. See Section
2.8.1 2.10 for more information on this instrument.
Disposable 13R chambers (Part No. HT-2D-100)
and #27 spindles (Part No. SC4-27D) are available 2.8 High Temperature
for use with Thermosel. Measurement of viscosity at high temperature can be
simple or complex, depending upon the sample materi-
2.6.5 Cone/Plate Systems als and temperature. Sometimes all that is necessary
When sample volume is extremely limited, it is to increase the distance between the Viscometer
may be necessary to use cone/plate geometry. The and sample material through use of spindle extensions
Wells-Brookfield Cone/Plate geometry requires a (see Section 2.13). In difficult applications, such as
sample of only 0.5 to 2.0 mL, depending on spindle. the measurement of molten glass, it may be neces-
More data on this instrument will be found in Section sary to utilize a specialized furnace and crucible, as
2.10.1 well as custom-designed spindles constructed of heat
The CAP and RST Cone/Plate geometries also resistance materials (consult with Brookfield Engineer-
require sample volumes ranging from 0.1mL to ing Laboratories for more information on this type of
5.0mL, depending on the cone spindle. See Section application). Between these two extremes, there is
2.10 for details. Brookfield equipment for most high temperature vis-
cosity measurement applications.
2.7 Low Viscosity
Each Brookfield Viscometer and Rheometer mea- 2.8.1 Thermosel System
sures a wide range of viscosities; however, it occasion- The Thermosel System is specifically designed
ally becomes necessary to measure viscosities below for viscosity measurement of small samples in the
the normal range of the instrument. Several pieces of temperature range of approximately 40°C to 300°C.
Brookfield equipment offer this capability: It is available as an accessory to your present Vis-
cometer (except cone/plates).
2.7.1 UL Adapter The Thermosel System consists of a special
This accessory was specifically designed to coaxial-cylinder spindle and sample chamber, an
provide greater sensitivity at low viscosities for the electric heating apparatus called a thermocontainer,
LV series Viscometers; it can, however, be used on and a digital proportional temperature controller with
any model Brookfield Viscometer. When mounted RTD sensor.
on an LVT Viscometer, the UL Adapter provides a The Thermosel System requires small sample
viscosity range of 1.0 to 10.0 cP and a defined shear volumes (8.0 to 13.0 mL, depending on spindle),
rate of 73.4 reciprocal seconds at 60 RPM. For and its coaxial-cylinder spindle geometry provides
other Viscometer models, the minimum measurable defined shear rates in the range of 0.08 to 93.0
viscosity with the UL Adapter in place is: RVT, 6.4 reciprocal seconds, depending on spindle and Vis-
cP; HAT, 12.8 cP; HBT, 51.2 cP. The UL Adapter cometer model.
features coaxial-cylinder geometry with a removable
polyethylene end cap for the outer cylinder. With the 2.8.2 Temperature Baths
end cap in place, the Adapter holds a sample vol- Brookfield Temperature Baths are also suitable
ume of 16.0 mL and can be immersed in a bath for for viscosity measurements at high temperature.
temperature control up to a recommended maximum Certain models have a maximum operating tempera-
of 100°C; with the cap removed it may be used in ture of 200°C. For more information, see Section
sample containers of almost any size. 2.5.

2.7.2 Small Sample Adapter 2.8.3 Cone/Plate with Embedded Heating


With some spindle/chamber combinations, the CAP series Viscometer/Rheometer with high
Small Sample Adapter permits measurement of temperature plate can heat samples to 235°C, which
viscosities below the Viscometer’s normal range. is ideal for certain resins. The RST Rheometer has
Check the applicable range sheet for details. More similar capability in a special cone/plate version
information on the Small Sample Adapter can be (RST-CPS) which goes to 250°C. Since sample
found in Section 2.6.1 size is relatively small, temperature equilibrium is
achieved rapidly.
2.7.3 Thermosel System
With certain spindles, the Thermosel System 2.9 Defined Shear Rate
provides increased sensitivity at low viscosities; For applications where viscosity data must be
check the applicable range sheet for more data. expressed in absolute terms, it is necessary to use
The Thermosel System is discussed in more detail a spindle geometry for which shear rate and shear
in Section 2.8.1
MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 6 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.
stress values can be calculated. Such defined operat- 2.10.2 CAP Viscometer/Rheometer
ing parameters are found in the following Brookfield The Brookfield CAP series of Cone/Plate Vis-
instruments and accessories. cometers/Rheometers offer high shear rates and
Consult the referenced sections for more information variable speeds in an instrument optimized for
about these products: R&D and QC applications such as paints, coat-
Cylindrical Spindles 2.4.2 ings, resins, inks, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and
Small Sample Adapter 2.6.1 foods. This series of viscometers have integrated
UL Adapter 2.6.2 temperature control for test sample volume of less
DIN Adapter 2.6.3 than 1 mL.
Thermosel System 2.8.1 The CAP 1000+ is a single speed viscometer
Wells-Brookfield Cone/Plate Viscometer 2.10.1 running at 750 RPM on 50 Hz and 900 RPM on
CAP Viscometer/Rheometer 2.10.2 60 Hz, generating shear rates at 10,000 or 2,500
RST Rheometer 2.10.3 sec-1 at 50 Hz and 12,000 or 3,000 sec-1 at 60 Hz
PVS Rheometer 2.10.4 depending on choice of spindle. The CAP 2000+ is
BF35 2.10.5 a variable-speed instrument and has variable shear
rate capability over the speed range from 5 to 1,000
2.10 High Shear Rate RPM. This instrument generates shear rates from
Brookfield Viscometers are, by design, relatively 166 to 13,300 sec-1 at viscosity ranges from 0.1 to
low-shear instruments. The maximum shear rate 1,500 Poise (0.1 to 150 Pa•s). The CAP Series
achievable with most spindle configurations is usually meets industry test standards BS3900, ISO 2884,
less than 100 reciprocal seconds. Defined shear rates and ASTM D-4287.
in the range of up to 300 reciprocal seconds can be The CAP Viscometer offers choice of low torque
generated by some Viscometer models when used in or high torque capability; selection is based on vis-
conjunction with the UL Adapter (Section 2.1.6), the cosity range of samples to be tested.
Small Sample Adapter (Section 2.1.5), or as part of the
Thermosel System (Section 2.1.7). For shear rates in 2.10.3 RST Rheometer
excess of 300 reciprocal seconds, it is usually neces- RST Rheometer can generate shear rates up to
sary to use the Wells-Brookfield Cone/Plate, CAP, PVS 5,600 sec-1 in narrow gap coaxial cylinder geometry
Rheometer or RST Rheometer. and up to 7,800 sec-1 in cone/plate geometry. Maxi-
mum instrument speed is 1000 RPM.
2.10.1 Wells-Brookfield Cone/Plate Viscometer/
Rheometer 2.10.4 PVS Rheometer
The Wells-Brookfield Cone/Plate Viscometer/ The Brookfield PVS Rheometer is a portable unit
Rheometer will determine the absolute viscosity of designed for measuring viscosity at high pressure
small samples under conditions of defined shear and temperature. It’s ability to measure viscosity
rate and shear stress. Its cone and plate spindle over a pressure range from ambient up to 1,000 psi
geometry requires a sample volume of only 0.5 to and a temperature range of -40°C to 200°C makes it
2.0 mL and generates shear rates in the range of 0.6 ideal for applications such as oil and gas well drilling
to 1,875 reciprocal seconds (depending on model fluids, pulp and paper, plastics, petrochemicals, and
and spindle used). The instrument’s sample cup is aerosol based products.
jacketed for excellent temperature control. The PVS Rheometer operates at shear rates
Depending on the particular model and spindle from 0.01 sec-1 to 1,700 sec-1 corresponding to
in use, the Wells-Brookfield Cone/Plate will measure speed ranges from 0.05 to 1,000 RPM. The PVS
viscosities from 0.1 cP to 2.6 million cP (although Rheometer torque sensor is unaffected by changes
no single instrument will cover this range, the use in pressure or temperature; the placement of bear-
of several spindles will allow one instrument to ings outside the pressurized sample volume virtually
measure a wide range of viscosities). eliminates the need for maintenance.
The Wells-Brookfield Cone/Plate Viscometer/
Rheometer is available in different Digital versions.
2.10.5 BF35 Viscometer
A temperature bath is optional and highly recom-
The BF35 Viscometer operates at 8 discrete
mended for precise and reproducible viscosity
speeds (3, 6, 30, 60, 100, 200, 300, 600 RPM) with
measurements.
a shear rate factor of 1.7023 sec-1/RPM for the B1
The cone and plate spindle geometry is available spindle.
only on the Wells-Brookfield Cone/Plate instrument;
it is not available as an accessory or modification of
2.11 Defined Shear Stress
other Brookfield Viscometers. It is possible to use
RST Series Rheometer
this instrument with standard disc and cylindrical
The Brookfield RST Rheometer differs from
spindles; however, an extension for the laboratory
the standard Brookfield viscometer in that it is a
stand is required to provide sufficient clearance
controlled stress (or controlled torque) instrument
under the Viscometer.
MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 7 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.
as well as a controlled rate (RPM) instrument. Con- tive to sample handling and minor material variations
trolled stress with the RST provides many benefits than other viscosity measuring methods.
such as a very broad viscosity measurement range,
testing for Yield stress and creep properties and the 2.12.3 Vane Spindles
ability to measure flow properties of delicate high Vane Spindles immerse directly into the sample
viscosity gels. material without causing disturbance. The mate-
The RST Rheometer is available in several rial trapped between the vanes will move as the
models. The coaxial Cylinder Model offers DIN ge- spindle rotates. The net effect is that a virtual cyl-
ometries with bob/spindle diameters of 8, 14, 25, 40, inder of sample material, in which the vane spindle
45, 48 mm and double gap. The Cone/Plate Model is inscribed, will flow at defined rotational speeds,
offers 1 and 2 degree cones of 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5 cm thereby providing complete flow curve data for
diameter. The Cone/Plate Model also functions as viscosity analysis. Vane spindles can be used with
a Plate/Plate Model by using flat plates ranging from standard Brookfield Viscometers/Rheometers and
2.5, 5.0 and 7.5 cm diameter. The flat plate geom- RST-SST Rheometer.
etries are a good choice for extremely high viscosity
fluids, or where the fluid contains solid particles. 2.13 Special Accessory Items
The following items can be purchased for use with
RST Soft Solids Tester Brookfield Viscometers/Rheometers.
The RST Soft Solids Tester combines vane spin-
dle geometry with controlled shear stress capability, 2.13.1 Quick Connect
providing viscoelastic characterization of soft solid The Brookfield Quick Connect accessory is de-
materials such as pastes, gels, waxes and slurries. signed to quickly attach or remove a spindle from a
Brookfield Viscometer/Rheometer resulting in time
2.12 Non-Flowing Sample Materials savings and elimination of cross threading. The
Non-flowing or slow-flowing sample materials such Quick Connect accessory is made of stainless steel
as pastes, creams, and gels present special problems and can be used with LV, RV/HA/HB disk spindles,
in viscosity measurement. Conventional rotating cylindrical spindles, as well as T-bar couplings.
spindles tend to “channel” (push the sample material
aside), resulting in a continuously decreasing Viscom- 2.13.2 Spindle Extensions
eter reading that is of little value. Several alternatives Spindle extensions are suitable for applications
address this problem. utilizing standard disc or cylindrical spindles where
distance between the Viscometer and the sample
2.12.1 Helipath Stand material must be increased (up to 6 feet maximum).
The Helipath Stand is a motorized stand to which Type D extensions are installed between the Vis-
any Brookfield Digital Viscometer can be attached. cometer and the spindle, and are suitable for appli-
The Stand slowly raises and lowers the Viscometer cations where depth of the spindle immersion can be
(at a rate of 7/8-inch per minute) while a special observed. Type S extensions include the immersed
T-bar spindle rotates in the sample material. The portion of the spindle and are used where depth of
crossbar of the spindle thus continuously cuts into immersion is not observable.
fresh material, describing a helical path through
2.14 Fumes and Hazardous Locations
the sample as it rotates. The “channeling” effect
Whenever fumes and vapors are present that could
of conventional spindles is completely eliminated
enter the Viscometer, care should be taken to pre-
permitting meaningful viscosity/consistency mea-
vent such entry. When the fumes are explosive or
surements to be made. A set of six T-bar spindles
flammable, special precautions are required not only
and a special coupling are included with the Helipath
for protection of the Viscometer, but for the safety of
Stand.
nearby personnel.
2.12.2 Spiral Adapter 2.14.1 Purge Fittings
The Brookfield Spiral Adapter accessory is a A purge fitting may be provided on the pivot
pump-type sensor that directly measures viscosity of housing of any Viscometer. An inert gas such as
pastes, including applications such as solder paste, nitrogen is introduced under low pressure through
foods, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. The Spiral the purge fitting, creating a positive pressure inside
Adapter has an inner, threaded spindle surrounded the Viscometer housing which prevents entry of
by a concentric outer cylinder. This combination fumes and vapors.
causes the sample to be continually pumped up Purge fittings are also available for sample cups
through the Spiral Adapter. The material reaches a of the Wells-Brookfield Cone/Plate Viscometer to
steady state of flow during which viscosity is mea- provide a controlled atmosphere for the sample
sured. The steady-state measurement is less sensi- being tested.

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 8 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


2.14.2 Explosion-Proof Construction 2.15 Software
(Dial Viscometer Only) Data gathering and analysis for complete flow curve
When the danger of explosion is great due to characterization is possible with the following choices:
the presence of flammable fumes or other factors, • Wingather for DV-I Prime
use of approved explosion-proof equipment may be • RheocalcT for DV2T and DV3T
required. Brookfield dial-reading Viscometers (ex- • Capcalc for CAP 2000+
cept cone/plate types) are available in Underwriters’ • EZ-Yield for YR-1
Laboratory (UL) approved explosion-proof versions. • Rheo3000 for RST
These instruments are approved for Class l, Group • Rheovision for PVS
D hazardous locations. The Digital Viscometers and
Rheometers are not available with explosion-proof 2.16 Process Control
construction. Practical application of viscosity data obtained in
Electrically operated Brookfield accessories, the laboratory often involves use of on-line process
such as the Helipath Stand and the Thermosel, viscometers and viscosity controllers. Brookfield
are not available in explosion-proof versions. They manufactures a complete line of instrumentation that
can be used with explosion-proof Viscometers has been applied to a wide variety of process control
(sometimes requiring special adapters), but only in applications. Please contact Brookfield Engineering
non-hazardous environments. for more information.

CHAPTER 3: Making Measurements with a Rotational Viscometer


3.1 Why You Should Read This Chapter and/or rotational speed increase. It follows that for
The purpose of this chapter is to provide the Vis- a given spindle geometry and speed, an increase in
cometer user with information necessary to make viscosity will be indicated by an increase in deflection
meaningful viscosity measurements. It will describe of the spring. For any Viscometer model, the minimum
the mechanical components of the Brookfield Rota- range is obtained by using the largest spindle at the
tional Viscometer and suggest some useful operational highest speed; the maximum range by using the small-
techniques. est spindle at the slowest speed. Measurements made
Those adhering strictly to the Pragmatic school of using the same spindle at different speeds are used to
viscosity measurement may not wish to read any fur- detect and evaluate rheological properties of the test
ther than this chapter. All users, however, should read fluid. These properties and techniques are discussed
it before moving on; knowledge of basic Viscometer in Chapters 4 and 5.
operation will facilitate advancement to more sophis- The Viscometer is composed of several mechani-
ticated techniques. cal subassemblies. See Figure 3-1 for a schematic
view of the major components of a basic dial-reading
3.2 How the Brookfield Rotational Viscometer Viscometer.
Works The stepper drive motor (which replaced the synchro-
The Brookfield Viscometer is of the rotational variety. nous motor and multiple-speed transmission) is located
It measures the torque required to rotate an immersed at the top of the instrument inside the housing to which
element (the spindle) in a fluid. The spindle is driven the nameplate is attached. The Viscometer main case
by a motor through a calibrated spring; deflection of contains a calibrated beryllium-copper spring, one end
the spring is indicated by a pointer and dial (or a digital of which is attached to the pivot shaft, the other end
display). By utilizing a multiple speed transmission is connected directly to the dial. This dial is driven by
and interchangeable spindles, a variety of viscosity the motor drive shaft and in turn drives the pivot shaft
ranges can be measured, thus enhancing versatility through the calibrated spring. In dial-reading models,
of the instrument. the pointer is connected to the pivot shaft and indicates
For a given viscosity, the viscous drag, or resistance its angular position in relation to the dial. In Digital
to flow (indicated by the degree to which the spring models, the relative angular position of the pivot shaft
winds up), is proportional to the spindle’s speed of is detected by an RVDT (rotary variable displacement
rotation and is related to the spindle’s size and shape transducer) and is read out on a digital display.
(geometry). The drag will increase as the spindle size

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 9 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


over 80 years of customer experience. They form a
sound foundation for a viscosity testing procedure and
HOUSING
a starting point from which more advanced techniques
STEPPER
MOTOR can be explored.
GEAR TRAIN

CLUTCH
3.4.1 Record Keeping
POINTER We recommend that the following informa-
DIAL tion always be recorded when making a viscosity
PIVOT SHAFT
CALIBRATED measurement; viscometer model, spindle (or ac-
cessory), rotational speed, container size or dimen-
SPIRAL SPRING
PIVOT CUP
JEWELLED sions, sample temperature, time of spindle rotation,
GUARDLEG
BEARING
sample preparation procedure (if any), and whether
or not the spindle guardleg was used. Test Report
Forms supplied in the instruction manual with each
Viscometer are convenient for this purpose.
SPINDLE

SAMPLE
3.4.2 The Spindle and the Guardleg
CONTAINER Examine each spindle before using it. If it is
corroded or damaged to the extent of changing its
dimensions, a false viscosity reading may result.
Since all spindles are brightly polished when new,
Figure 3-1
any sign of pitting, dulled edges, or other obvious
damage should dictate the purchase of a new
Below the main case is the pivot cup through which spindle. If you have an unusual problem along
the lower end of the pivot shaft protrudes. A jewel these lines, corrosion-resistant 316 series stainless
bearing inside the pivot cup rotates with the dial or steel and Teflon-coated spindles are available. Also,
transducer; the pivot shaft is supported on this bearing special spindle materials can be employed.
by the pivot point. The lower end of the pivot shaft com- When attaching a spindle, remember that it has
prises the spindle coupling to which the Viscometer’s a left-hand thread and must be screwed firmly to
spindles are attached. the coupling. Always lift up on the spindle coupling
when attaching a spindle to avoid damage to the
3.3 Spring Torque instrument’s pivot point and jewel bearing. After
There are four basic spring torque series offered by attachment, do not hit the spindle against the side
Brookfield: of the sample container since this can damage the
shaft alignment. A good procedure to follow is to
Brookfield Spring Torque immerse and position the spindle in the sample fluid
Terminology dyne-cm milli Newton - m before attaching it to the Viscometer.
LV 673.7 0.0673 The spindle guardleg (supplied with some
RV 7,187.0 0.7187 models) protects the spindle from damage and is
HA 14,374.0 1.4374 significant to the Viscometer’s calibration when us-
HB 57,496.0 5.7496 ing the #1 or #2 spindle for RV torque and #61 or
#62 spindle for LV torque. The guardleg should be
The higher the torque calibration of your instrument, used at all times. If it proves necessary or desirable
the higher the viscosity measurement range for a to operate the Viscometer without the guardleg, this
specific spindle. The viscosity measurement range for fact should be noted when reporting test results. It
each torque calibration and spindle combination may may be desirable to recalibrate the Viscometer to
be found in Appendix B. compensate for the absence of the guardleg. Refer
There are many variations of the standard spring to Section 3.4.10 for this procedure.
torques. Please consult Brookfield Engineering Note: spindle guardlegs are provided only on
Laboratories or your dealer with your special require- LV and RV models of the dial-reading and Digital
ments. Viscometers with standard spindles. HA and HB
models, as well as Cone/Plate models, do not re-
3.4 Viscosity Measurement Techniques quire a guardleg. The guardleg is also not used in
As with any precision instrument, proper operating conjunction with most accessories.
techniques will improve effectiveness of the Brookfield
Viscometer. A step-by-step procedure for Viscometer 3.4.3 Selecting a Spindle Speed
operation can be found in the Instruction Manual sup- When performing a test according to an exist-
plied with each unit, and is not repeated here. Instead, ing specification or procedure, use the spindle and
we present recommendations and advice gleaned from speed specified (after confirming that you have the

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 10 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


correct Viscometer model). When conducting an long as the same size container is used for all subse-
original test, the best method for spindle and speed quent tests, there will be no correlation problem.
selection is trial and error. The goal is to obtain a Alternatively, the Viscometer can be recalibrated
Viscometer dial or display (% torque) reading be- to compensate for the smaller container as outlined
tween 10 and 100, remembering that relative error of in Section 3.4.10. Also, use of the Small Sample
measurement improves as the reading approaches Adapter should be considered. See Section 2.6.1.
100 (see Section 3.4.7). If the reading is over 100,
select a slower speed and/or a smaller spindle. 3.4.5 Sample Conditions
Conversely, if the reading is under 10, select a higher The sample fluid should be free from entrapped
speed and/or a larger spindle. air. Air can be removed by gently tapping the con-
If the approximate viscosity of the sample fluid tainer on a table top or by careful use of a vacuum
is known, a faster method for honing in on the right apparatus.
spindle/speed combination is available by referring The sample should be at a constant and uniform
to the Factor Finder supplied with the Dial Viscome- temperature. This can be verified by checking the
ter. The goal is to select a combination whose range temperature at several different locations within the
brackets the estimated viscosity of the sample. container. Be sure to bring the sample, spindle, and
For any given spindle/speed combination, the guardleg to the same temperature before taking a
maximum range available is equal to the spindle viscosity reading. Temperature uniformity can often
Factor multiplied by 100. This maximum is also be maintained by agitation prior to a measurement,
called “Full Scale Range” or “FSR”. For some Digital but first determine that such agitation won’t affect
Viscometers that have the AUTORANGE key, select- viscosity of the sample fluid (see Section 4.8.6).
ing a speed and spindle and then depressing and Factors used to calculate viscosity values from the
holding the AUTORANGE key will cause the screen Viscometer readings are independent of tempera-
to display FSR in cP (mPa•s). ture.
The minimum recommended range equals the A constant temperature water bath is used to
Factor multiplied by 10. For example: a #62 spindle maintain the desired temperature. Refer to Section
on an LVT Viscometer at 12 RPM has a Factor of 2.5 for information on recommended baths.
25. The maximum range of this combination is 25 High temperature work (up to 300°C) may re-
times 100, or 2500 cP. The minimum recommended quire use of the Thermosel accessory. See Section
viscosity that should be measured is 25 times 10, or 2.8.1.
250 cP. Therefore, if the viscosity of the sample fluid Homogeneity of the sample is also quite impor-
is estimated to be 4000 cP, another spindle/speed tant, especially in dispersed systems where settling
combination must be selected in order to make the can occur. In many cases, simple stirring just prior
measurement. If the sample fluid is around 2000 cP, to the test will keep the components dispersed.
however, this spindle and speed would be suitable.
With a little practice, a quick glance at the Factor 3.4.6 Spindle Immersion
Finder will suffice to make an appropriate selection The spindle should be immersed up to the middle
of spindle and speed. of the shaft indentation. Failure to do so could result
When conducting multiple tests, the same spin- in incorrect viscosity readings.
dle/speed combination should be used for all tests. In some cases the sample fluid may change
When a test must be performed at several speeds, its rheological structure during the act of spindle
select a spindle that produces on-scale readings at immersion. To avoid this, we recommend inserting
all required speeds. This may necessitate using the spindle in a different portion of the sample than
a dial or display reading less than 10, which is ac- the one intended for measurement. The spindle
ceptable as long as the reduced accuracy of such may then be moved horizontally to the center of
a reading is recognized. the sample container. This must be done before
attaching the spindle to the Viscometer.
3.4.4 Sample Container Size
For measurements with standard Viscometer 3.4.7 Sensitivity and Accuracy
models we recommend a container with an inside Brookfield Viscometers are guaranteed to be
diameter of 3 1/4 inches (83 mm) or larger. The accurate to within ± 1% of the full-scale range of
usual vessel for this purpose is a 600 mL low form the spindle/speed combination in use (this per-
Griffin beaker. Use of a smaller container will result centage, expressed in centipoise values, is equal
in an increase in viscosity readings, particularly with to the spindle Factor; accuracy of a spindle/speed
the #1 and #2 spindle for RV torque and #61 or #62 combination with a factor of 25 would therefore be
spindle for LV torque. within ± 25 cP). Repeatability is to within ± 0.2% of
When utilizing a smaller container, the simplest the Full Scale Range.
approach is to report the dimensions of the container The relative error of a particular viscosity read-
and ignore the probable effect on calibration. As ing is dependent upon the actual dial or display (%

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 11 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


torque) reading. In general, relative error of the vis- the spindle rotate for a specified period of time.
cosity value will improve as the reading approaches You may find that the reading does not come to
100. This is because the tolerance of ± 1% of full- equilibrium but continues to oscillate. This is usually
scale range applies to all readings, and represents due to the presence of an elastic as well as a viscous
a smaller percentage of measured viscosity as the component in the fluid. If the reading continually
actual reading increases. Consider the following increases or decreases, the fluid is probably time-
example: dependent and requires special techniques to be
An LVT Viscometer, when used with a #61 measured successfully. See Section 4.5.
spindle at a speed of 60 RPM, has a spindle Factor The torque display on the Digital Viscometer
of 1 (obtained from the Factor Finder supplied with may fluctuate by 0.1 or 0.2% even after equilibrium
each instrument). Since the full-scale range of any is reached. If this happens, simply use the median
spindle/speed combination is equal to the Factor value as the accepted reading. Larger fluctuations
multiplied by 100, the full-scale range in this case may indicate the conditions described in the preced-
is 100 cP. The accuracy tolerance is ± 1% of this ing paragraph.
range, or 1 cP, irrespective of the Viscometer’s dial Once a valid reading is obtained with a Dial
or display reading. Refer to the following table to Reading Viscometer, multiply it by the Factor for the
see how this affects the accuracy of various read- spindle/speed combination you are using. The Fac-
ings taken with this spindle/speed combination: tor will be found on the Factor Finder supplied with
the Viscometer. Calculating Digital Viscometers do
Dial not require the use of a factor. These viscometers
Viscometer Possible Relative will display viscosity (in units of cP) directly, provided
Reading Viscosity Error Error the spindle number has been entered (refer to the
100 100 cP 1 cP 1% instruction manual of your viscometer).
50 50 cP 1 cP 2% A note about Factors and Ranges; both can be
10 10 cP 1 cP 10% used to calculate viscosity from a given reading.
A Factor (such as that obtained from the Factor
The same principle applies to the repeatability of Finder) is simply multiplied by the Viscometer read-
the reading. As with accuracy, the potential error in- ing to calculate viscosity (in centipoise). A Range
troduced by the repeatability tolerance becomes less (as supplied with some Brookfield Accessories in
significant as the dial or display reading increases. lieu of a Factor) is equal to the Factor multiplied by
This applies to Small Sample Adapter, UL 100. Therefore, to calculate viscosity, first divide
Adapter, Thermosel and DIN Adapter. When vis- the Range by 100, then multiply by the Viscometer
cosity measurements are made with coaxial cylin- dial or display reading.
der geometries, an additional 1% is applied to the
accuracy. Therefore, the combined accuracy for 3.4.9 A Calibration Check
instrument and spindle geometry is ± 2.0%. People are often concerned about the accuracy
of their Viscometer. Here are some tests of its me-
3.4.8 Obtaining a Viscometer Reading chanical performance:
Before operating the Viscometer, be sure that it is A) Variations in power frequency will cause the
securely attached to its stand and has been properly spindle to rotate at an incorrect speed. Voltage
leveled. Select a spindle and speed combination variations have no effect as long as the devia-
and attach the spindle to the Viscometer. Don’t mix tion is not greater than ± 10% of the nameplate
LV and RV spindles. voltage and the frequency remains constant.
Turn the Viscometer on and allow it to run until a Other readily apparent symptoms of improper
constant reading is obtained. Be prepared, however, power supply are: failure of the motor to start,
for some overshoot since momentum gained by the jerky spindle rotation, a wildly fluctuating pointer,
spindle during acceleration may cause the reading to or inconsistent digital display readings.
initially oscillate about the final equilibrium value. B) Damage to the pivot point or jewel bearing will
A number of procedures can be employed to adversely affect accuracy and repeatability of
obtain a satisfactory reading. In some cases, as the Viscometer. The following Oscillation Test
much as 5 minutes must be allowed for the reading will allow you to evaluate the condition of these
to reach apparent equilibrium. Usually you can just components:
wait until the reading appears relatively constant for 1. The Viscometer should be mounted and
a reasonable time. leveled, with no spindle installed and the
A more repeatable procedure is to specify a power switch in the “off” position for Dial
definite number of spindle revolutions to be counted Reading Viscometers; Digital Viscometers
before taking a reading. Since the time required for should have the power on, autozero per-
a certain number of revolutions will differ significantly formed and the motor off.
with the speed in use, an alternate method is to let

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 12 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


2. Turn the spindle coupling to deflect the This procedure may be used in establishing
pointer or digital display upscale from its control methods to be followed when the Viscometer
zero position to a torque reading of 5 to 10 is to be used for quality control purposes, and the
and let it swing back under its own power. operator is not concerned with the actual centipoise
3. If the pointer swings freely and smoothly, value of the material.
and returns to within ±0.2% of zero each If your work requires that actual centipoise values
time this test is repeated, the pivot point be obtained, we suggest the following procedure if a
and jewel bearing are in good condition. different container is to be used or if you don’t wish
If it crawls back or sticks on the dial, per- to use the guard leg:
formance of the Viscometer will not be up (1) Following the procedures outlined earlier
to specification, and it should be serviced. in this chapter, measure the viscosity of a
On Digital Viscometers the digital display Newtonian fluid, using a standard container
should fluctuate smoothly and return to as specified in Section 3.4.4. Brookfield
within ±0.2% of zero reading. Viscosity Standards are highly recom-
C) We have never found a spring made of beryllium mended for this procedure. Perform this
copper which showed any change in its charac- measurement carefully, as the accuracy of
teristics due to fatigue, even after hundreds of your end result depends upon it. Multiply
thousands of flexings. For this reason, a check the Viscometer reading by the appropriate
of the calibrated spring is usually not necessary. Factor to determine the fluid’s viscosity in
D) Use of a calibrated viscosity standard is recom- centipoise.
mended as a final performance check. Test the (2) Transfer the Standard to the container for
viscosity standard as you would any sample which the Viscometer is to be calibrated.
fluid, carefully following any applicable instruc- Ensure that the fluid temperature is the same
tions. Brookfield Viscosity Standards (calibrated as it was during Step (1).
to within ±1%) are ideal for this test. The use (3) Using the same spindle you intend to use
of fluids other than viscosity standards is not for subsequent sample testing, measure vis-
recommended due to the probability of unpre- cosity of the Standard in the new container.
dictable rheological behavior. Note the dial reading or %Torque reading
E) If the Viscometer passes all of the preceding (digital viscometers) and speed, S1.
tests, its performance should be satisfactory. (4) The new range of measurement is deter-
Should accuracy or operation of the instrument mined by this formula:
still be suspect, please refer to the troubleshoot- 100η
R1 = ———
ing chart in Section 3.6. x
Where R1 is the full-scale range of mea-
3.4.10 Recalibrating the Range of the surement under the new conditions; η is the
Brookfield Rotational Viscometer viscosity of the Standard as measured in
In many cases it is not practical to use a 600 mL step (1); and x is the dial reading or %Torque
low form Griffin beaker when making measurements reading (digital viscometers) obtained in
with a Brookfield Viscometer. It may be desirable step (3).
to use a different container if transferring the mate- (5) To calculate the resulting new ranges when
rial proves messy or time-consuming. Sometimes the same spindle is operated at different
people also use the instrument without the guard leg speeds under the new conditions, use this
to avoid the extra cleaning that would otherwise be formula:
involved. Either of these practices requires that a R1 S2
recalibration of the instrument be made if accurate =
R2 S1
results are to be obtained. Where R1 is the range already established
If measurements have been made under one in Step (4) and S2 is the speed for which
set of conditions and you merely wish to establish range R2 is to be determined.
a reference point with the same material under new (6) The multiplying factor (f) for the new condi-
conditions, the following procedure will suffice:
tions can be determined by this formula:
1. Measure the material in both the old and new R1
container and/or with the guard leg removed f =
   100
and in place. Be sure that the same spindle
and speed are used and that the temperature Where R1 is the range for the particular
of the material remains the same. spindle and speed combination used, as de-
2. Note the new reading - this is the new ref- termined in Step (4). To calculate viscosity for
erence point corresponding to the original a Dial Reading Viscometer, therefore, multiply
value. the reading obtained on the Viscometer’s 0-
100 scale by f.

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 13 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


3.5 Rotational Viscometer Maintenance Spindle Does Not Rotate
Brookfield Viscometers are highly reliable, provided ❏ Make sure the viscometer is plugged in.
the instrument is handled properly. Most problems are ❏ Check the voltage rating on your viscometer
readily detected by the Calibration Check in Section (115V, 220V): it must match the wall voltage.
3.4.9. To prevent potential problems, a few pointers ❏ Make sure the power switch is in the ON posi-
are worth remembering: tion.
F) The forces to which the Viscometer responds ❏ Make sure the speed selection is set properly
are extremely small; the optimum performance and securely at the desired speed.
of the instrument depends on the elimination Spindle Wobbles When Rotating or Looks Bent
of all unnecessary friction which may affect its ❏ Make sure the spindle is tightened securely to
sensitivity. This means cleanliness. Care must the viscometer coupling.
be taken to prevent dust, fumes, liquids, and ❏ Check the straightness of all other spindles;
other forms of contamination from entering the replace them if bent.
Viscometer housing. If it is necessary to use ❏ Inspect viscometer coupling and spindle cou-
the instrument in such environments, use of the pling mating areas and threads for dirt: clean
spindle extensions and/or purge fittings is recom- threads on spindle coupling with a 3/56-inch
mended to minimize the entry of contaminants. left-hand tap.
More information on these accessories can be ❏ Inspect threads for wear; if the threads are
found in Section 2.1.14.
worn, the unit needs service.
G) Never place the instrument upside down with a
❏ Check to see if spindles rotate eccentrically
fluid-coated spindle attached. or wobble. There is an allowable runout of
H) Do not expose the Viscometer to ambient tem- 1/32-inch in each direction (1/16-inch total)
peratures in excess of 40°C. When measuring when measured horizontally from the bottom
samples at high temperatures, the use of spindle of the spindle rotating in air.
extensions or the Thermosel accessory is rec-
❏ Check to see if the viscometer coupling is bent;
ommended.
if so, the unit is in need of service.
I) Avoid applying side- or down-thrust to the spindle
❏ Check that the instrument is level. Be sure
coupling; this protects the pivot point and jewel that the bubble is in the center of the target in
bearing, which can be broken or dulled by rough the level indicator.
treatment. Always lift the spindle coupling when
attaching or removing a spindle. Do not strike If you are continuing to experience problems with
the spindle against the sample container or oth- your viscometer, follow this diagnosis section to help
erwise apply side-thrust to it. Do not pull down isolate the potential problem.
on the spindle or spindle coupling.
J) Do not drop or severely jar the instrument. The Perform an Oscillation Check
Brookfield Laboratory Stand provides a con-
❏ Remove the spindle and turn the motor OFF.
venient, sturdy support. If the Viscometer is
❏ Gently push up on the viscometer coupling.
intended for portable use, it should be stored in
❏ Turn the coupling until the red pointer reaches
its carrying case when not in use. 5-10 on the Dial Viscometer or the torque read-
ings reach 5-10% on the Digital Viscometer.
If the Viscometer is physically damaged or fails the ❏ Gently let go of the coupling.
Oscillation Test in Section 3.4.9, it should be returned
❏ Watch the pointer swing freely and finally
for repair to Brookfield Engineering Laboratories or to rest within ±0.2% of zero on the Dial Vis-
the dealer from whom it was purchased. cometer or the torque reading returns to
The need for periodic preventative maintenance within ±0.2% of zero on the Digital Viscometer.
varies with the conditions of use. Under normal circum-
stances, a yearly service should be sufficient to keep If the pointer sticks or the torque reading does not
the Viscometer in top working order. More severe use return to zero, the unit is in need of service.
will necessitate more frequent service. The instrument
should be returned to Brookfield or one of its dealers Perform a Calibration Check
for this service.
❏ Verify spindle, speed and model selection
❏ Verify test parameters: temperature, container,
3.6 Rotational Viscometer Troubleshooting
volume, method.
Specific fault diagnosis procedures are detailed ❏ Perform a calibration check in accordance with
in the instruction manual that is provided with each the procedures from the viscometer operating
Viscometer. The chart below lists some of the more manual
common problems that you may encounter while using
S Verify tolerances are calculated correctly.
your Viscometer, along with the probable causes and
S Verify calibration check procedures were
suggested cures. followed exactly.

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 14 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


If the unit is found to be out of tolerance, the unit is DIN 53015. Based on the Höppler principle, the instru-
in need of service. Please contact Brookfield or an ment allows a ball to fall under gravity through a tube
authorized dealer for service. filled with sample material. The time taken to fall a
precise distance is converted into a viscosity value.
3.7 Other Viscosity Measurement Methods
The Brookfield Falling Ball Viscometer measures
viscosity in accord with the German Industry Standard

CHAPTER 4: Rheology Basics


4.1 Coming to Grips with Rheology F dv
Rheology is defined by Webster’s Dictionary as “the = η
study of the change in form and the flow of matter, em- A dx
bracing elasticity, viscosity, and plasticity.” We concern where η is a constant for a given material and is called
ourselves in this chapter with viscosity, further defined its “viscosity.”
F dv
as “the internal friction of a fluid, caused by molecular The velocity gradient,
A
= η
dx
, is a measure of the change
attraction, which makes it resist a tendency to flow.” in speed at which the intermediate layers move with
Your Brookfield Viscometer measures this friction, and respect to each other. It describes the shearing the
therefore functions as a tool of rheology. The purpose liquid experiences and is thus called “shear rate.” This
of this chapter is to acquaint you with the different types will be symbolized as “ γ⋅ ” in subsequent discussions.
of flow behavior and use of the Brookfield Viscometer Its unit of measure is called the “reciprocal second”
as a rheological instrument to enable you to conduct (sec-1).
a detailed analysis of virtually any fluid. This informa- The term F/A indicates the force per unit area re-
tion is useful to all Viscometer users, particularly those quired to produce the shearing action. It is referred
adhering to the Theoretical and Academic schools of to as “shear stress” and will be symbolized by “τ.” Its
thought on viscosity measurement. unit of measurement is “dynes per square centimeter”
(dynes/cm2) or Newtons per square meter (N/m2).
4.2 Viscosity Using these simplified terms, viscosity may be de-
Viscosity is the measure of the internal friction of a fined mathematically by this formula:
fluid. This friction becomes apparent when a layer of τ. shear stress
η = viscosity = =
fluid is made to move in relation to another layer. The γ shear rate
greater the friction, the greater the amount of force re- The fundamental unit of viscosity measurement is
quired to cause this movement, which is called “shear.” “poise.” A material requiring a shear stress of one
Shearing occurs whenever the fluid is physically moved dyne per square centimeter to produce a shear rate
or distributed, as in pouring, spreading, spraying, mix- of one reciprocal second has a viscosity of one poise,
ing, etc. Highly viscous fluids, therefore, require more or 100 centipoise. You will encounter viscosity mea-
force to move than less viscous materials. surements expressed in “Pascal-seconds” (Pa•s) or
“milli-Pascal-seconds” (mPa•s); these are units of the
dv International System and are sometimes used in pref-
erence to the CGS designations. One Pascal-second
V2 A is equal to ten poise; one milli-Pascal-second is equal
F
to one centipoise.
Newton assumed that all materials have, at a given
V1 A dx temperature, a viscosity that is independent of the
shear rate. In other words, twice the force would move
Figure 4-1 the fluid twice as fast.
As we shall see, Newton was only partly right.
Isaac Newton defined viscosity by considering the
model represented in Figure 4-1. Two parallel flat 4.3 Newtonian Fluids
areas of fluid of the same size “A” are separated by a This type of flow behavior which Newton assumed
distance “dx” and are moving in the same direction at for all fluids is called, not surprisingly, “Newtonian.” It
different velocities “V1” and “V2.” Newton assumed is, however, only one of several types of flow behavior
that the force required to maintain this difference in you may encounter. A Newtonian fluid is represented
speed was proportional to the difference in speed graphically in Figure 4-2. Graph A shows that the
through the liquid, or the velocity gradient. To express relationship between shear stress (τ) and shear rate
this, Newton wrote: ( γ⋅ ) is a straight line. Graph B shows that the fluid’s

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 15 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


viscosity remains constant as the shear rate is varied.
Typical Newtonian fluids include water and thin motor
oils.

Figure 4-3

Probably the most common of the non-Newtonian


Figure 4-2 fluids, pseudo-plastics include paints, emulsions,
and dispersions of many types. This type of flow
What this means in practice is that at a given tem- behavior is sometimes called “shear-thinning.” An
perature the viscosity of a Newtonian fluid will remain easily understood model is to imagine that in the
constant regardless of which Viscometer model, moment of turning the spindle in the sample, the
spindle or speed you use to measure it. Brookfield structure of molecules of the sample will be tempo-
Viscosity Standards are Newtonian within the range rarily changed, and the molecule formation will be
of shear rates generated by Brookfield equipment. orientated more parallel to the spindle surface. So
Newtonians are obviously the easiest fluids to mea- the hindering of the spindle rotation will decrease.
sure - just grab your Viscometer and go to it. They The faster the rotation will become, the more the
are not, unfortunately, as common as that much more structure is destroyed and the less the structure of
complex group of fluids, the non-Newtonians, which molecules slide in together, the lower the viscosity
will be discussed in the next section. will be.

4.4 Non-Newtonian Fluids DILATANT: Increasing viscosity with an increase


A non-Newtonian fluid is broadly defined as one for in shear rate characterizes the dilatant fluid; see
which the relationship τ/ γ⋅ is not a constant. In other Figure 4-4.
words, when the shear rate is varied, the shear stress
doesn’t vary in the same proportion (or even necessar-
ily in the same direction). The viscosity of such fluids
will therefore change as the shear rate is varied. Thus,
the experimental parameters of Viscometer model,
spindle and speed all have an effect on the measured
viscosity of a non-Newtonian fluid. This measured vis-
cosity is called the “apparent viscosity” of the fluid and
is accurate only when explicit experimental parameters
are furnished and adhered to.
Non-Newtonian flow can be envisioned by thinking
of any fluid as a mixture of molecules with different Figure 4-4
shapes and sizes. As they pass by each other, as hap-
pens during flow, their size, shape, and cohesiveness Although rarer than pseudoplasticity, dilatancy is
will determine how much force is required to move frequently observed in fluids containing high levels
them. At each specific rate of shear, the alignment may of deflocculated solids, such as clay slurries, candy
be different and more or less force may be required to compounds, corn starch in water, and sand/water
maintain motion. mixtures. Dilatancy is also referred to as “shear-
There are several types of non-Newtonian flow thickening” flow behavior.
behavior, characterized by the way a fluid’s viscosity
changes in response to variations in shear rate. The PLASTIC: This type of fluid will behave as a solid
most common types of non-Newtonian fluids you may under static conditions. A certain amount of stress
encounter include: must be applied to the fluid before any flow is in-
duced; this stress is called the “yield stress” (f’).
PSEUDOPLASTIC: This type of fluid will display a Tomato catsup is a good example of this type fluid;
decreasing viscosity with an increasing shear rate, its yield value will often make it refuse to pour from
as shown in Figure 4-3. the bottle until the bottle is shaken or struck, allowing
the catsup to flow. Once the yield value is exceeded

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 16 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


and flow begins, plastic fluids may display Newto- is extremely variable; under conditions of constant
nian, pseudoplastic, or dilatant flow characteristics. shear, some fluids will reach their final viscosity value
See Figure 4-5. in a few seconds, while others may take up to several
days.
Rheopectic fluids are rarely encountered. Thixot-
ropy, however, is frequently observed in materials such
as greases, heavy printing inks, and paints.
When subjected to varying rates of shear, a thixo-
tropic fluid will react as illustrated in Figure 4-8. A plot of
shear stress versus shear rate was made as the shear
rate was increased to a certain value, then immediately
decreased to the starting point. Note that the “up” and
“down” curves do not coincide. This “hysteresis loop”
Figure 4-5 is caused by the decrease in the fluid’s viscosity with
increasing time of shearing. Such effects may or may
So far we have only discussed the effect of shear
not be reversible; some thixotropic fluids, if allowed to
rate on non-Newtonian fluids. What happens when
stand undisturbed for a while, will regain their initial
the element of time is considered? This question
viscosity, while others never will.
leads us to the examination of two more types of
non-Newtonian flow: “thixotropic” and “rheopectic.”

4.5 Thixotropy and Rheopexy


Some fluids will display a change in viscosity with
time under conditions of constant shear rate. There
are two categories to consider:

THIXOTROPY: As shown in Figure 4-6, a thixotropic


fluid undergoes a decrease in viscosity with time,
while it is subjected to a constant shear rate.
Figure 4-8
The rheological behavior of a fluid can, of course,
have a profound effect on viscosity measurement tech-
nique. In Section 4.8, we will discuss some of these
effects and ways of dealing with them. Chapter 5 will
present advanced mathematical techniques used in
analyzing flow behavior under a wide variety of con-
ditions. First, however, we will discuss the effects of
laminar and turbulent flow on viscosity measurement.
Figure 4-6 4.6 Laminar and Turbulent Flow
RHEOPEXY: This is essentially the opposite of The very definition of viscosity implies the existence
thixotropic behavior, in that the fluid’s viscosity in- of what is called “laminar flow”: the movement of one
creases with time as it is sheared at a constant rate. layer of fluid past another with no transfer of matter
See Figure 4-7. from one to the other. Viscosity is the friction between
these layers.
Depending on a number of factors, there is a cer-
tain maximum speed at which one layer of fluid can
move with relation to another, beyond which an actual
transfer of mass occurs. This is called “turbulence.”
Molecules or larger particles jump from one layer to
another and dissipate a substantial amount of energy
in the process. The net result is that a larger energy
input is required to maintain this turbulent flow than a
laminar flow at the same velocity.
Figure 4-7 The increased energy input is manifested as an ap-
parently greater shear stress than would be observed
Both thixotropy and rheopexy may occur in combina- under laminar flow conditions at the same shear rate.
tion with any of the previously discussed flow behav- This results in an erroneously high viscosity reading.
iors, or only at certain shear rates. The time element The point at which laminar flow evolves into turbulent

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 17 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


flow depends on other factors besides the velocity at cone/plate geometry with either controlled rate or con-
which the layers move. A material’s viscosity and spe- trolled stress mode of operation are strong alternatives.
cific gravity as well as the geometry of the Viscometer These geometries are typically considered to be more
spindle and sample container all influence the point at precise because the fluid is sheared evenly within a
which this transition occurs. defined gap. The advantage of controlled stress over
Care should be taken to distinguish between turbu- controlled rate is that this is a direct method for evaluat-
lent flow conditions and dilatant flow behavior. In gen- ing yield behavior. One disadvantage is that this type
eral, dilatant materials will show a steadily increasing of instrumentation can be much more expensive than
viscosity with increasing shear rate; turbulent flow is a standard controlled-rate, bench-top viscometer. The
characterized by a relatively sudden and substantial results, however, are generally considered to be more
increase in viscosity above a certain shear rate. The accurate. In addition, the amount of sample required
material’s flow behavior may be Newtonian or non- to make the measurements can be minimized with
Newtonian below this point. these types of spindle systems.
Due to the relatively low shear rates at which most In all of the above cases, the sample being tested
Brookfield Viscometers operate, it is unlikely that you experiences some handling prior to the start of the
will encounter turbulent flow unless you are measur- test. Therefore, there may be some adverse impact to
ing viscosities lower than 15 cP with an LV series the sample structure that could affect the test results.
Viscometer or 85 cP with other models. The higher Specifying the step-by-step procedure for handling of
the viscosity of a fluid, the less likely it is to experience the sample is very important.
turbulence. If turbulence is observed while measuring An alternative spindle geometry, vane spindles, are
low viscosity fluids, it can often be eliminated by using suitable for most fluids and are ideal for paste-like
the UL Adapter accessory. materials, gels, fluids with suspended solids, and a
variety of so-called “soft solid” materials (puddings,
4.7 Yield Behavior sauces). Certainly salad dressings fall into this latter
Situation 1: medical ointment will not easily squeeze category. The primary benefit of the vane spindle is
out of the tube when moderate pressure is applied. that it imparts minimal disruption to the sample dur-
Situation 2: salad dressing comes gushing out of the ing spindle immersion. The spindle can be operated
bottle with only a slight pressure squeeze. in either controlled rate or controlled stress mode, as
The fundamental quality control problem plaguing explained above, to determine yield value.
both of the above products is a scientific term known The measurement of yield stress deserves to be-
as “yield stress”. Simply put, this is the amount of force come a standard test method for quality control given
required to get a fluid to begin flowing. For tubes and the importance of assuring proper product behavior
squeeze bottles, this translates into how easily or how as illustrated in the examples at the beginning of this
hard a customer must squeeze to get fluid to begin article. To simplify the burden on QC, one approach
squirting or pouring out of the nozzle. is to incorporate the QC test method for determining
There are several ways to measure this yield stress yield value into a single purpose instrument, such as
in products like ointments and salad dressings. Using the Brookfield YR-1. This type of instrument, called a
a standard bench-top viscometer, the quality control “yield rheometer”, costs roughly the same as a stan-
technician can run an up/down speed ramp and re- dard bench-top viscometer and provides the dedicated
cord the torque values at each speed. We call this a test capability to ensure that yield values are measured
“controlled rate” method. Using a ‘best fit’ line, typically correctly. The firmware algorithm detects the maximum
available in standard software programs, the technician torque value and calculates the equivalent yield stress.
can back-calculate what the torque yield value would In addition, the instrument has the ability to specify
be. This type of calculation determines what is known quality control limits between which the yield value
as “dynamic yield” because the yield value has been must fall when making a measurement. This additional
interpolated. feature will save valuable time for the QC operator in
A more precise method to determine yield is to use making a pass/fail determination on the product prior
a controlled-stress rheometer such as the Brookfield to packaging.
RST-CPS Rheometer. This type of instrument em- The yield measurement capability found in the YR-1
ploys a controlled stress ramp to gradually increase has also been included in the DV3T and RST-SST
the amount of force (torque) on the sample until flow Rheometers.
is initiated. By using a controlled stress ramp, the QC
technician can determine more directly where yield 4.8 What Affects the Rheological Property?
begins. This is known as “static yield”. Viscosity data often functions as a “window” through
The type of spindle geometry used to obtain yield which other characteristics of a material may be ob-
stress data is an important consideration. A practical, served. Viscosity is more easily measured than some
low-cost approach is to use standard disk or cylindrical of the properties that affect it, making it a valuable tool
spindles in a 600 mL beaker with a viscometer. This for material characterization. Earlier in this chapter we
approach will employ a controlled rate test method discussed various types of rheological behavior and
as explained earlier. The use of coaxial cylinder or how to identify them. Having identified a particular rhe-
MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 18 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.
ological behavior in a material, you may wonder what Typical Range of
Situation Application
this information implies about its other characteristics. Shear Rates (s-1)
This section, based on information gleaned from years Sedimentation of 10-6 - 10-4 Medicines, paints
of customer experience, is intended as a “tickler” to get fine powders in a
you thinking about the mysteries your Viscometer can suspending liquid
help you solve. Keep always in mind if you compare Levelling due to 10-2 - 10-1 Paints, printing inks
two results in a measuring series: all parameters and surface tension
all treatment must be kept the same. Draining under 10-1 Painting and coat-
gravity ings, toilet bleaches
4.8.1 Temperature Extruders 100 - 102 Polymers
One of the most obvious factors that can have Chewing and swal- 10 - 10
1 2
Foods
an effect on the rheological behavior of a material lowing
is temperature. Some materials are quite sensitive Dip coating 101 - 102 Paints, confectionery
to temperature, and a relatively small variation will
Mixing and stirring 10 - 10
1 3
Manufacturing liquids
result in a significant change in viscosity. Others are
relatively insensitive. Consideration of the effect of Pipe flow 100 - 103 Pumping, blood flow
temperature on viscosity is essential in the evalua- Rubbing 10 - 10
2 4
Application of creams
tion of materials that will be subjected to temperature and lotions to the
skin
variations in use or processing, such as motor oils,
greases, and hot-melt adhesives. Spraying and 103 - 105 Spray-drying, paint-
brushing ing, fuel atomization
4.8.2 Shear Rate Milling pigments in 103 - 105 Paints, printing inks
fluid bases
Non-Newtonian fluids tend to be the rule rather
than the exception in the real world, making an ap- High speed coating 105 - 106 Paper
preciation of the effects of shear rate a necessity for Lubrication 103 - 107 Gasoline engines
anyone engaged in the practical application of rheo-
logical data. It would, for example, be disastrous to 4.8.3 Measuring Conditions
try to pump a dilatant fluid through a system, only to The condition of a material during measurement
have it go solid inside the pump, bringing the whole of its viscosity can have a considerable effect on
process to an abrupt halt. While this is an extreme the results of such measurement. It is therefore
example, the importance of shear rate effects should important to be aware of, and to control as much
not be underestimated. as possible, the environment of any sample you are
When a material is to be subjected to a variety testing.
of shear rates in processing or use, it is essential First, the viscosity measurement techniques
to know its viscosity at the projected shear rates. If outlined in Section 3.4 should be adhered to. Vari-
these are not known, an estimate should be made. ables such as Viscometer model, spindle/speed
Viscosity measurements should then be made at combination, sample container size, absence or
shear rates as close as possible to the estimated presence of the guard leg, sample temperature,
values. sample preparation technique, etc., all affect not
It is frequently impossible to approximate only the accuracy of your measurements, but the
projected shear rate values during measurement actual viscosity of the material you are measuring.
because these values fall outside the shear rate Second, other less obvious factors that may
range of the Viscometer. In this case, it is necessary affect viscosity must be considered. For example,
to make measurements at several shear rates and the sample material may be sensitive to the ambient
extrapolate the data to the projected values. This atmosphere, as is the case with dental impression
is not the most accurate method for acquiring this materials, blast furnace slag, blood and mucus. It
information, but it is often the only alternative avail- may be that a controlled atmosphere favorable to
able, especially when the projected shear rates are the objectives of the test must be provided (see
very high. In fact, it is always advisable to make information on purge fittings in Section 2.14).
viscosity measurements at several shear rates to Another factor which may affect viscosity mea-
detect rheological behavior that may have an effect surements is the homogeneity of the sample. It is
on processing or use. Where shear rate values are usually desirable to have a homogeneous sample
unknown or not important, a sample plot of viscosity so that more consistent results may be obtained.
versus RPM will often suffice. Sometimes, however, tendency of a material to
Examples of materials that are subjected to, and separate into non-homogeneous layers is the char-
are affected by, wide variations in shear rate during acteristic of most interest. Care must be taken in
processing and use are: paints, cosmetics, liquid such instances not to disturb that which you wish to
latex, coatings, certain food products, and blood in study by mixing or shaking the sample.
the human circulatory system. The following table
shows typical examples of varying shear rates.
MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 19 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.
4.8.4 Time phases dispersed in a liquid phase, can be affected
The time elapsed under conditions of shear obvi- rheologically by a number of factors. In addition to
ously affects thixotropic and rheopectic (time- many of the factors discussed previously, charac-
dependent) materials. But changes in the viscosity teristics peculiar to multiphase materials are also
of many materials can occur over time even though significant to the rheology of such materials. These
the material is not being sheared. Aging phenomena are discussed below.
must be considered when selecting and preparing One of the major characteristics to study is the
samples for viscosity measurement. Consider also state of aggregation of the sample material. Are the
the fact that many materials will undergo changes in particles that make up the solid phase separate and
viscosity during the process of a chemical reaction, distinct, or are they clumped together; how large are
so that a viscosity measurement made at one time the clumps, and how tightly are they stuck together?
in the reaction may differ significantly from one made If the clumps (flocs) occupy a large volume in the
at another time. dispersion, viscosity of the dispersion will tend to
be higher than if the floc volume was smaller. This
4.8.5 Pressure is due to the greater force required to dissipate the
Variations in pressure may cause: dissolved solid component of the dispersion.
gases to form bubbles; entrained gases to change When flocs are aggregated in a dispersion,
size as well as distribution, and in some cases, tur- reaction of the aggregates to shear can result in
bulence. Pressure is not experienced as often as shear-thinning (pseudoplastic) flow. At low shear
other parameters. Pressure compresses fluids, and rates, the aggregates may be deformed but remain
thus, increases intermolecular resistance. Liquids essentially intact. As the shear rate is increased,
are compressible under the influence of very high the aggregates may be broken down into individual
pressures - similar to gases but to a much lesser flocs, decreasing friction and therefore viscosity (For
extent. Increases of pressure tend to increase the more information on pseudoplastic flow, see Section
viscosity. As an example: The flow properties of 4.4).
highly concentrated slurries (above 70-80% by vol- If the bonds within the aggregates are extremely
ume of particles) where there is insufficient liquid strong, the system may display a yield value (see
to fill completely all the voids between the particles Section 4.4 about plastic flow). The magnitude of
results in a three-phase mixture (i.e. solids, liquids, the yield value depends on the force required to
and usually air). Due to the presence of air, the break these bonds.
mixture is compressible, and therefore, the more you If a material’s flocculated structure is destroyed
compress it, the greater the resistance to flow. with time as it is sheared, a time-dependent type of
flow behavior will be observed (see Section 4.5).
4.8.6 Previous History If the shear rate is decreased after destruction of
What has happened to a sample prior to a vis- some or all of the flocculated structure, the material’s
cosity measurement can significantly a f f e c t t h e viscosity may be lower than it previously was at the
result, especially in fluids sensitive to heat or aging. same shear rate. Since flocs begin to link together
Thus, storage conditions and sample preparation after destruction, the rate at which this occurs af-
techniques must be designed to minimize their fects the time required for viscosity to attain previous
effect on subsequent viscosity tests. Thixotropic levels. If the relinking rate is high, viscosity will be
materials in particular are sensitive to prior history, about the same as before. If the relinking rate is low,
as their viscosity will be affected by stirring, mixing, viscosity will be lower. This results in the rheological
pouring, or any other activity which produces shear behavior called “thixotropy” (see Section 4.5).
in the sample. The attraction between particles in a dispersed
phase is largely dependent on the type of mate-
4.8.7 Composition and Additives rial present at the interface between the dispersed
The composition of a material is a determin- phase and the liquid phase. This in turn affects the
ing factor of its viscosity. When this composition rheological behavior of the system. Thus, the intro-
is altered, either by changing the proportions of duction of flocculating or deflocculating agents into
the component substances, or by the addition of a system is one method of controlling its rheology.
other materials, a change in viscosity is quite likely. Shape of the particles making up the dispersed
For example, the addition of solvent to printing ink phase is also of significance in determining a
reduces viscosity of the ink; and additives of many system’s rheology. Particles suspended in a flowing
types are used to control the rheological properties medium are constantly being rotated. If the particles
of paints. are essentially spherical, rotation can occur freely.
If, however, the particles are needle or plate-shaped,
4.8.8 Special Characteristics of Dispersions the ease with which rotation can occur is less pre-
and Emulsions dictable, as is the effect of varying shear rates.
Dispersions and emulsions, which are multi- The stability of a dispersed phase is particularly
phase materials consisting of one or more solid critical when measuring viscosity of a multiphase
MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 20 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.
system. If the dispersed phase has a tendency viscosity will decrease. Data acquired during such
to settle, producing a non-homogeneous fluid, the conditions will usually be erroneous, necessitating
rheological characteristics of the system will change. special precautions to ensure that the dispersed
In most cases, this means that the measured phase remains in suspension.

CHAPTER 5: Data Analysis


5.1 Advanced Methods for Rheological Analysis SHEAR RATE
2 ω Rc2 Rb2
As mentioned in Chapter 1, those who follow the (sec-1): γ⋅ = (1)
x2 (Rc2 — Rb2)
Academic school of thought on viscosity measurement
have more complex needs than those who follow the
Pragmatic or “Theoretical” schools. They need viscos- SHEAR STRESS
M (2)
ity data that are defined in rheological terms. This usu- (dynes/cm2): τ =
2 π Rb2L
ally requires a complete mathematical description of
the Viscometer’s operating parameters and an analysis VISCOSITY
of the rheological behavior of the fluid being studied. (poise): η =
τ (3)
Previous chapters have described various types of γ⋅
fluid behavior and their relationship to measurements
made with Brookfield Viscometers/Rheometers and Definitions: ω = angular velocity of spindle
(rad/sec)
accessories. The Appendix details the significant 2π
operating parameters of this equipment and presents [ = (60 )N], N = RPM
simplified formulas for obtaining shear rate and shear Rc = radius of container (cm)
stress values. However, for many this information is Rb = radius of spindle (cm)
still inadequate to perform the type of analysis they x = radius at which shear rate
require. Having identified a particular flow behavior is being calculated (cm)
and defined it mathematically, these people need more M = torque input by
information to understand how the fluid will react in a instrument (dyne-cm)
certain situation, and how to control that reaction. If L = effective length of
spindle (cm)
is for these people that this chapter is provided.
In it you will find basic formulas from which the (see Appendix A.4)
simplified shear rate and shear stress information in
the Appendix was derived. Also, various methods for
analyzing Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids are
presented. The information presented here represents
a cross-section of the most useful methods developed ω
both by Brookfield Engineering Laboratories and by
others. Other specific methods, usually applicable to
a particular rheological problem, are sometimes avail-
able. Please inquire if you need more information.

5.2 Defining Operating Parameters of Various L


Spindle Geometries
In this section we present equations that define the
operating parameters of spindle geometries found on
various Brookfield Viscometers/Rheometers and ac-
cessories. These are organized according to the type Rb
of geometry being discussed. Definitions and values Rc
not listed may be found in the Appendix A.

5.2.1 Cylindrical Spindles Note: Rc should not exceed 2Rb for well defined
The following equations apply to cylindrical shear rates.
spindles only, on any Brookfield Viscometer/Rhe-
ometer.

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 21 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


5.2.2 Coaxial Cylinders
Coaxial cylinder geometry is found in the UL SHEAR RATE
Adapter, Small Sample Adapter, Thermosel System, (sec-1): γ⋅ =
ω
(7)
sin θ
DIN Adapter, Spiral Adapter, PVS Rheometer and
RST Rheometer.
SHEAR STRESS
M
SHEAR RATE (8)
(sec -1): γ⋅ = ( 2Rc2
Rc2 — Rb2 ) ω (4)
(dynes/cm2): τ = 2 πr 3
3

VISCOSITY
SHEAR STRESS (poise): η = τ
(9)
M (5) γ⋅
(dynes/cm2): τ = 2 π Rb2L

Definitions: θ = cone angle (degrees)


VISCOSITY r = cone radius (cm)
(poise): η = τ (6)
γ⋅

Cone Plate
ω
Definitions: γ⋅ = shear rate at surface of
spindle (sec-1) c
θ

ω
r
ω

L
See Section 5.2.1 for definitions of other variables.

5.2.4 Disc and T-Bar Spindles


Rb The standard disc-type spindles provided with
most Viscometer models and the T-bar spindles
used with the Helipath Stand accessory, as well as
Rc

See Section 5.2.1 for other definitions. spindles with special shapes other than cylindrical
or cone configurations, do not have directly defin-
The DIN Adapter and the RST Rheometer with able shear rate and shear stress values. You may
Coaxial Cylinder have geometries which comply with occasionally see the Viscometer’s rotational speed
the requirements set forth in DIN 53019-1, namely referred to as a “shear rate,” particularly when T-bar
Rb / Rc > 0.91. spindles are used. This is incorrect, as mathemati-
cal models are not available for calculating viscosity
functions using T-bar spindles. However, models are
5.2.3 Cone and Plate available for the disc spindles. Refer to Technical
These equations may be used with all models Paper AR-82, available from Brookfield Engineering
of the Wells-Brookfield Cone/Plate Viscometer/Rhe- Laboratories.
ometer, CAP Viscometer/Rheometer and RST-CPS
Rheometer.

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 22 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


5.2.5 Spiral Adapter Spindle ation is more complicated. While the equations permit
The Spiral Adapter has an inner, threaded complete definition of a reading made with a certain
spindle surrounded by a concentric outer cylinder. spindle at a certain speed, the numbers obtained with
This combination causes the sample to be continu- another spindle and/or speed will most likely be differ-
ally pumped up through the Spiral Adapter chamber. ent. Which set of numbers is the ‘right” one? Both,
The material reaches a steady state of flow during and neither! These differing numbers are part of the
which viscosity is measured. The primary assump- rheological description of the fluid, and therefore must
tion is to think of the screw-shaped spindle as a be considered in the course of its analysis. In this sec-
cylinder rotating inside of the cylindrical chamber. tion we will outline several methods for doing this on
The approximate shear rate in reciprocal seconds time-independent fluids as defined in Section 4.4.
is .667N, where “N” is spindle speed in RPM.
5.3.1 Ratio Methods
5.2.6 “Paddle” / “Paste” Spindles A common method for characterizing and quanti-
The Brookfield KU-1+ Viscometer uses a “paddle” fying non-Newtonian flow is to figure the ratio of the
spindle to measure the reaction torque when rotated fluid’s viscosity as measured at two different speeds
at 200 RPM. Unlike “regular” viscometer spindles, (with the same spindle). These measurements are
the resultant viscosity is in KU (Kreb Units) and g usually made at speeds that differ by a factor of 10
(grams). Because of the unique spindle shape, no (for example, 2 and 20 RPM, 10 and 100 RPM, etc.),
shear rate calculation is possible. but any factor may be established.
The Brookfield KU-2 Viscometer provides the In constructing the ratio, the viscosity value at
same measurement capability as the KU-1+ and the lower speed should be placed in the numera-
also converts the Krebs reading into a centipoise tor, the one at the higher speed in the denominator.
viscosity value. Since the spindle geometry is Therefore, for pseudoplastic (shear thinning) fluids,
unique, the centipoise reading taken with the KU-2 the ratio will exceed 1.0 as the degree of pseudo-
does not correlate with centipoise measurements plastic behavior increases. Conversely, for dilatant
from a standard Brookfield Viscometer using disc (shear thickening) fluids, the ratio will be less than
or cylindrical spindles. 1.0 as the degree of dilatancy increases.
A paste spindle is available as an option to the This procedure is commonly known as the “thixo-
paddle spindle. This spindle is similar to the paddle- tropic index.” The name is misleading since this
type. The design consists of off-set rod-type vanes, ratio quantifies time-independent non-Newtonian
approximately 22 mm x 19 mm long. The resultant behavior, not thixotropy, which is a time-dependent
viscosity is recorded in units of g (grams). It is suit- phenomenon. Analysis of time-dependent proper-
able for use with high consistency materials such ties is detailed in Section 5.4.
as roller mill pastes. A similar method eliminates calculation of viscos-
ity and simply utilizes dial/display torque readings
5.2.7 Vane Spindles to derive what is known as a “viscosity ratio”:
The vane spindle can be treated as a virtual
cylinder with radius and length equal to the equiva-
lent dimensions of a single vane. The equations in
Section 5.2.1 may apply for low rotational speeds
VISCOSITY RATIO = – log
( )Mx
M10x
(10)

below 10 RPM. Eddy currents at higher rotational Definitions: Mx = Viscometer torque reading
speeds could give falsely higher viscosity values. at speed x
M10x = Viscometer torque reading
5.2.8 Other Special Spindles at speed 10x (other ratios
Brookfield can produce special spindles upon may be used)
request. This activity is coordinated through the
Sales Department at Brookfield. Spindles that have 5.3.2 Graphic Methods
come out of this type of activity include modifications The most basic graphic method of analyzing
of the Helipath Stand T-bars (i.e. multiple tines), very non-Newtonian flow is constructing a plot of viscosity
large spindles for low viscosity liquids and special versus spindle speed (using the same spindle for
materials of construction. all readings.). Generally, viscosity is plotted along
the Y-axis and speed (RPM) along the X-axis.
5.3 Analyzing Time-Independent Non-Newtonian Slope and shape of the resulting curve will indicate
Fluids the type and degree of flow behavior. For examples
The equations we have presented thus far will yield of this type graph, see the illustrations accompany-
precisely defined viscosity data for both Newtonian and ing the discussion of non-Newtonian flow types in
non-Newtonian fluids. With Newtonian fluids, this is Section 4.4.
all the analysis that is necessary, since variations in Another method is to plot Viscometer reading (on
shear rate will have no effect on viscosity of the fluid. the X-axis) as a function of speed (on the Y-axis).
When the fluid is non-Newtonian, however, the situ- If the graph is drawn on log-log paper, the result is
MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 23 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.
frequently a straight line. When this happens, the One method of determining yield value involves
slope of the line (indicating the type and degree of plotting Viscometer readings on the X-axis versus
non-Newtonian flow) and its intercept with the X- speed (RPM) on the Y-axis on standard graph paper.
axis (indicating its yield value, if any) can be used The line thus obtained is extrapolated to zero RPM.
as empirical constants. The corresponding value for the Viscometer reading
When shear rate and shear stress are known, represents the dynamic yield value. If a cylindrical
as with cylindrical spindles or coaxial cylinder geom- spindle is used to make the readings, the yield value
etry, these values may be substituted for speed and may be calculated from this equation:
Viscometer reading in the above methods. Thus,
predictions of viscosity at other shear rates may YIELD VALUE
be made by interpolating between or extrapolating y = x1 • fa (11)
beyond the values available with a particular spindle
geometry.
Definitions: y = yield value (dynes/cm2)
When using these methods with disc spindle
x1 = Viscometer reading @ 0 RPM
geometries, it is best to make all measurements fa = constant from table below
with the same spindle. An assumption that can be
made with regard to shear rate is that, for a given Model
Cylindrical Spindle
spindle, the shear rate is proportional to the speed. Spindle Entry Code LV RV HA HB
Therefore the shear rate at 30 RPM (for example) 1 61 0.16 1.72 3.44 13.78
is 10 times the shear rate at 3 RPM. 2 66 0.67 7.11 14.21 56.85
3 67 2.56 27.30 54.60 218.39
4 64 12.48 133.14 266.28 1065.14
5.3.3 Template Method 5 65 25.26 269.45 538.91 2155.63
A more sophisticated technique for the analysis
of non-Newtonian fluids involves use of a “template.” Extrapolating the line to zero RPM is easy if the
Its use is limited to fluids that follow the “power line is fairly straight. This is called Bingham flow. If
law,” meaning ones that display one type of non- the line is curved, as in pseudoplastic or dilatant flow,
Newtonian flow, rather than shifting from one type an estimate of X1 must be made by continuing the
to another as shear rate is varied. For example, a curve until it intersects the X-axis (0 on the Y-axis).
material that changed from pseudoplastic to dilatant This estimated value of X1 is then subtracted from all
flow when a certain shear rate is exceeded would the other readings that comprise the graph. These
not follow the power law over the full range of shear new values are plotted on log-log paper, Viscometer
rates measured. reading versus speed. This graph will usually be
The template method is usable only with data a straight line for power law fluids if the value for
generated with cylindrical spindles or coaxial cylin- X1 was estimated accurately. A curved line on this
ders. The data is fitted to a template to determine a graph indicates that another estimate of X1 should
constant called the “STI.” The STI is a convenient be made.
way to characterize non-Newtonian flow, much like Once a straight line is obtained, the angle this
the Viscosity Index. Certain parameters of the Vis- line forms with the Y-axis (RPM) is measured. The
cometer in use and the STI are fitted to a second power law index of this fluid can then be calculated
template, which is then used to predict the fluid’s from this equation:
viscosity at any selected shear rate.
This is a useful method for predicting viscosity POWER LAW INDEX (12)
at shear rates not attainable by the Brookfield Vis- N = tan θ
cometer, and for characterizing fluid behavior under
a specific set of conditions. A complete description Definitions: θ = Angle formed by plot line
of the template method, including both templates, is with Y-axis of graph
available from Brookfield Engineering Laboratories
If θ is less than 45 degrees, the fluid is pseudo-
as Technical Paper #AR-49.
plastic; greater than 45 degrees, dilatant.
5.3.4. Dynamic Yield Value Determination
The power law index can be used to calculate the
Some fluids behave much like a solid at zero
shear rate. They will not flow until a certain amount effective shear rate at a given speed by using this
of force is applied, at which time they will revert to equation:
fluid behavior. This force is called the “yield value”
SHEAR RATE
and measuring it is often worthwhile. Yield values N (13)
can help determine whether a pump has sufficient (sec-1): γ⋅ =
(0.2095)N
power to start in a flooded system, and often cor-
relate with other properties of suspensions and
emulsions. The pourability of a material is directly Definitions: N = Power law index
related to its yield value. N = Viscometer speed (RPM)

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 24 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


Another method for determining yield value and rheopexy) displayed by the sample fluid. First, plot
plastic viscosity when a plot of Viscometer reading Viscometer reading (using a specified spindle/speed
versus speed produces a curved line is to plot the combination) versus log time, taking readings at regular
square root of the shear stress versus the square intervals. This usually produces a straight line. Then,
root of the shear rate. This often straightens the line apply the following equation:
and facilitates extrapolation to zero shear rate. This
method is most suitable for pseudoplastic fluids with THIXOTROPY BREAKDOWN COEFFICIENT:
a yield value conforming to a model of flow behavior
known as the Casson equation. More information is
available from Brookfield Engineering Laboratories
in Technical Papers AR-77 and AR-79.

5.4 Static Yield Value Determination


Newer instruments from Brookfield, such as the
DV3T, RST and YR-1 Rheometers, physically measure
Tb =

( ( ))
St1 – St2

In
t2
t1
•F
(14)

the start of flow at zero shear rate. These readings, Definitions: St1 = Viscometer reading at t1 minutes
measured in Pascals (Pa), dynes/cm2 or Newton/m2, St2 = Viscometer reading at t2 minutes
may differ from values obtained using dynamic meth- F = Factor for spindle/speed
ods (see preceding section), which back calculate yield combination
stress from flow curve data (shear stress vs. shear
rate). Plots of thixotropic behavior may sometimes be used
to predict the gel point of a fluid. One way to do this
5.5 Analyzing Time-Dependent, Non-Newtonian is to plot log Viscometer reading versus time, using a
Fluids single spindle and speed. If the resulting line has a
In most cases, analysis of thixotropic and rheopectic steep slope, gelling is likely to occur. If the line curves
fluids (see Section 4.5) involves plotting changes in and flattens out, gelation is unlikely.
viscosity as a function of time. The simplest method is Another technique is to plot time versus the recip-
to select a spindle and speed (preferably a low speed) rocal of the Viscometer reading. In this method, the
and leave the Viscometer running for an extended gel point can be read from the curve intercept at a
period, noting the dial or display reading at regular Viscometer reading of 100. Fluids which do not gel
intervals. It is important to control temperature of the will be asymptotic to the vertical axis.
sample fluid carefully so that variations in temperature
won’t affect the results. A change in the fluid’s viscos- 5.6 Temperature Dependence of Viscosity
ity over time indicates time-dependent behavior; a The viscosity of most fluids decreases with an
decrease signifies thixotropy, an increase rheopexy increase in temperature. By measuring viscosity at
(or, in some cases, curing of the sample material). two temperatures (using a single spindle and speed),
A second method is to graph the Viscometer read- it is possible to predict a flow curve representing the
ing versus speed, using a single spindle. Starting at temperature dependence of the viscosity of a fluid
a low speed, note the reading at each successively according to the following relationships using the ap-
higher speed until the reading goes off scale. A graph plication of simultaneous equations:
of these readings is the “up curve.” Without stopping

()
the Viscometer, reduce the speed incrementally to
the starting point, again noting the reading at each B
(15)
speed. This is the “down curve.” It is best to allow a T*
η = A•e

( ) ()
consistent time interval between each speed change.
If the fluid is time-independent, the “up curve” and the T1•T2 η2
“down curve” will coincide. If they do not, the fluid is where B = T1 – T 2 • In η1
time-dependent. Position of the “up curve” and the
“down curve” indicates the type of flow behavior: if the
“up curve” indicates a higher viscosity than the “down
curve,” the fluid is thixotropic; lower, rheopectic. A = η1 • e () –B
T1
An indication of the recovery time of the fluid (how
quickly it returns to its initial viscosity after exposure Definitions: T1 = Temperature at which
to shear conditions) can be obtained by turning off the viscosity η1 was measured
Viscometer at the end of the “down curve,” waiting for T2 = Temperature at which
a given period of time, restarting the Viscometer and viscosity η2 was measured
immediately taking a reading.
A more sophisticated approach is to calculate the
“thixotropic breakdown coefficient.” This is a single
number which quantifies the degree of thixotropy (or
MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 25 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.
5.7 Math Models of drilling mud and fracturing fluid. The latter is a
The analysis of viscometer data may be enhanced material forced into a non-performing well to allow for
through the use of mathematical models. Non-New- additional oil recovery. The power law equation has
tonian behavior can be simply expressed through an been found to closely approximate its pseudoplastic
equation, and in some cases, the coefficients of a behavior. In addition, experience shows that the power
model can be used to infer performance of a fluid under term (n, flow index) indicates the ability of the fluid to
conditions of use. be moved down into the well. The coefficient (k, con-
Newtonian flow is defined by a proportional response sistency index) indicates low shear rate flow behavior
in shear stress for a change in shear rate (a linear of the mud once it is at the far reaches of the well. A
relationship). Non-Newtonian fluids will exhibit a non- fracturing fluid can be modified in its storage vessel
linear stress/rate relationship. Newton’s equation for to obtain the appropriate flow characteristics prior to
viscosity has been modified many times to attempt to being pumped into the well.
characterize non-Newtonian behavior. Some of the In both cases described above, the successful use of
more widely used equations include Bingham, Casson, the math model will prevent the utilization of improper
NCA/CMA Casson and Power Law. fluid, and ultimately, poor performance or rejected
material. The math model should be utilized as a tool
Bingham to better understand and interpret viscometer data.
τ = τo + ηγ The utilization of math models normally requires vis-
Casson cosity data collection under defined conditions of shear
τ = τo + ηγ rate and shear stress. Many spindle geometries are
available for use with your Brookfield Viscometer/Rhe-
NCA/CMA Casson ometer which will provide shear stress and shear rate
(1+a) τ = 2 τo + (1+a) ηγ data. In addition, Brookfield offers several software
packages and some instruments with the embedded
Power Law (also IPC* Paste) capability to analyze data sets using a variety of math-
τ = kγn ematical models. Our brochure “Technical Papers on
Viscosity Measurement and Control and Texture Analy-
Herschel Bulkley sis” lists available papers on specific application areas
τ = τo + kγn
as well as general-interest experimental techniques.
Steiger Ory If you don’t have the current list, you can download
γ = K1τ + K2τ3 it from our website: www.brookfieldengineering.com/
support/documentation/astm-article-reprints
where: τ = shear stress
γ = shear rate 5.8 Brookfield Application Software
η = viscosity Brookfield offers various software programs which
τo= yield stress work in conjunction with viscometers/rheometers to
k = consistency index allow for automatic data collection, analysis including
n = flow index use of math models and the creation of permanent test
a = aspect ratio records:
K = constant
Software Instrument Required
* IPC = Institute for Interconnecting and Packaging Electronic
Circuits
RHEOCALCT DV3T Rheometer
DV2T Viscometer
The chocolate industry utilizes the NCA/CMA version RHEOCALC32 DV-III Ultra Rheometer
of the Casson equation to evaluate chocolate prior to DV-III+ Rheometer
final processing. This equation closely approximates DV-II+ Pro Viscometer
the plastic behavior of chocolate. In addition, experi- WINGATHER32 DV-II+ Pro Viscometer
ence shows that the slope term, η (plastic viscosity), DV-II+ Programmable
indicates the chocolate’s response to being moved in Viscometer
processing (mixing, pumping). Also, the “y” intercept, DV-II+ Viscometer
2 τo (yield stress or zero shear viscosity), indicates the DV-I Prime
force required to start/stop flowing (molding, enrob- CAPCALC32 CAP+ series Viscometers
ing). A particular batch of chocolate can be modified RHEOVISION PVS Rheometer
to achieve the specific performance characteristics RHEO3000 RST Rheometer
required for the next processing step. R/S+ Rheometer
The oil drilling industry in the United States utilizes EZ-YIELD YR-1 Rheometer
the power law equation to evaluate the performance DV3T Rheometer

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 26 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


5.9 Miscellaneous Methods materials using “spring relaxation” procedures
There are many other techniques available for (AR-84).
analyzing the rheological behavior of fluids under a S Computer analysis of certain rheological char-
variety of conditions. Space doesn’t permit a detailed acteristics.
discussion here, but more information can be obtained
from Brookfield Engineering Laboratories on these and The following methods provide various ways to obtain
other advanced methods: information on the viscosity behavior of your material
S Approximation of shear rate and shear stress using a Brookfield Viscometer or Rheometer. Choose
values using disc type spindles (AR-82). the appropriate method to suit your requirements. Con-
tact Brookfield or our authorized dealer if you require
S Techniques for determination of extremely low-
additional assistance.
shear viscosity and leveling behavior of coating

CHAPTER 6: Test Methods


6.1 Single Point Viscosity Test 6.3 Up-Down Rate Ramp
• Choose a spindle. • Use the same method defined above in “CON-
• Select a rotational speed or shear rate. TROLLED RATE RAMP” to create the “UP
• Control temperature if required. RAMP”.
• Specify how long the spindle rotates before mak- • Upon reaching the maximum rotational speed
ing the measurement. or shear rate, reverse direction and return to the
• Make sure the torque reading is > 10%. starting speed or shear rate. This creates the
• Record the viscosity value in cP or mPa•s. “DOWN RAMP”.
• Record sample temperature in °F or °C. • Record viscosity and torque data at each speed
or shear rate.
6.2 Controlled Rate Ramp • Try to keep the torque readings > 10% if possible.
• Choose a starting rotational speed or shear rate. • For each specific speed or shear rate, observe
• Choose a maximum rotational speed or shear whether the viscosity value on the “UP RAMP” is
rate. different from the viscosity value on the “DOWN
• Choose in-between speeds or shear rates as RAMP”. Different viscosity values indicate that
appropriate. the material is “time sensitive” to shearing action.
• Specify how long the spindle rotates before mak-
ing the measurement. Method Viscosity Data
• Record data at each speed or shear rate, similar Max.
Speed x Viscosity Value at Start of Test

to the method defined above in “SINGLE POINT”. .


• Try to keep the torque readings above 10%, if
γRPM or

possible.
η

Method Viscosity Data

.
Start Max.
Start Speed Speed
TIME RPM or γ
.
γ
RPM or

Figure 6-2
η

This method shows how viscosity can change as a


function of both rotational speed/shear rate and time.
TIME RPM or γ 6.4 Time Sensitivity Test
.

Figure 6-1 • Choose a rotational speed or shear rate.


• Choose a time interval to record viscosity data.
This method shows one example of how viscosity can • Observe whether the viscosity or torque values
change as a function of rotational speed or shear rate. change as a function of time.

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 27 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


Viscosity Data 6.7 EZ-Yield Method
Time • Choose a vane spindle.
• Choose a low rotational speed between .01 RPM
Independent
Material

TORQUE
and 0.5 RPM.
Some Time
• Record torque values at defined time intervals.
Sensitivity

η or
Very Time
The maximum torque is an indication of the “static
Sensitive
yield” value. The maximum torque value will prob-
ably change if a different rotational speed is chosen.
TIME
This method is quick, easy to do, and may provide
Figure 6-3 repeatable test data.

This method shows how sensitive the material is to Method

being sheared at a fixed speed or shear rate.


Max.
Torque
6.5 Temperature Sensitivity Test

TORQUE
• Choose a rotational speed or shear rate.
• Choose a starting minimum temperature and an
end point maximum temperature.
• Record viscosity values at discrete temperature
setpoints; allow the material time to stabilize at TIME
each temperature setpoint.
Figure 6-6
Data
Method
The maximum torque value can be converted into a
yield stress value in Pascals or dynes/cm2 using the
TEMPERATURE

formula provided with Brookfield vane spindles.


η

6.8 Dynamic Yield Test


Use coaxial cylinder or cone/plate spindle geometry.
• Run a controlled rate ramp as defined in method
6.2. One suggestion is to use the lowest possible
TIME TEMPERATURE
speeds for the controlled rate ramp.
Figure 6-4 • Record the torque values or shear stress values
at defined time intervals.
Most materials exhibit decreasing viscosity behavior • Review the data and determine a best fit straight
with increasing temperature. line through the data.
• The “dynamic yield” point is where the best fit
6.6 Temperature Profiling with Up-Down Rate straight line intersects the torque or shear stress
Ramp Test axis. This is where RPM and γ̇ = 0.
This method combines the approaches described in
methods 6.3 and 6.5. Method Viscosity Data

• Choose specific temperatures of interest.


• At each temperature, run the Up-Down ramp and .
τ

record the viscosity data.


γ

TORQUE or
RPM or

Viscosity Data

x
Dynamic Yield Point

Temp 1 TIME RPM or γ


η

Temp 2
Figure 6-7
Temp 3

The dynamic yield stress value will probably be dif-


ferent from the static yield stress value.
RPM or γ
Figure 6-5 6.9 Recovery
This parameter characterizes how rapidly a mate-
This method shows how viscosity can change as a rial returns to its original condition after it has been
function of temperature, time and rotational speed sheared.
or shear rate.
MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 28 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.
• Perform the time sensitivity test described in
method 6.4. At the end of the time interval during
which the material is sheared, set the rotational
speed to 0 RPM.
• Observe the torque signal to see what happens.

Method
TORQUE

No
Recovery

Figure 6-10
Partial
Recovery

Spindle Stops Complete


Creep/Recovery: material flow under constant stress
Spindle Starts
Rotating
Rotating Recovery
is measured by detecting angular rotation of spindle.
TIME

Figure 6-8

Some materials recover to their original condition


within a very short time while others will recover only
partially or not at all. This behavior is observed if,
during the recovery period, the drive is decoupled
from the spindle, as in the RST-SST Rheometer. If a
spring torque instrument is used such as a standard
Brookfield LV/RV/HA/HB Viscometer or Rheometer,
then the torque will decrease as the spring unwinds!

6.10 Tests Unique to RST Rheometer


• Direct Yield Stress (Static)
• Creep/Recovery
• Thixotrophy Calculation Figure 6-11

Thixotrophy Calculation: up/down shear rate ramp


produces two shear stress vs. shear rate curves;
thixotrophy calculation is 20977 Pa/s (the area be-
tween the curves).

Figure 6-9

Direct Yield Stress (Static): shear stress ramp from 0


to 800 Pa over 2 minutes shows yield stress values
of 200 and 400 Pa for two materials.

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 29 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


APPENDIX A: Specifications, Ranges, and Operating Parameters

Appendix A is intended to provide the user of Brook- Calibration Spring Torque for Standard Viscom-
field Viscometers, Rheometers and accessories with eters/Rheometers:
all the information required to perform mathematical Standard Brookfield Viscometers/Rheometers use
analyses of viscosity data acquired with this equip- a calibrated spiral spring inside the instrument to
ment. It includes essential dimensions, viscosity measure the resistance sensed by the spindle rotat-
range tables and constants, organized by product in ing in the fluid sample. The following table identi-
data sheet form. The following Brookfield Viscom- fies the four common spring torques available from
eters/Rheometers, Accessories, Special Purpose Brookfield:
Instruments and High End Viscometers/Rheometers
are covered: LV 673.7 dyne-centimeters (Full Scale Range)
RV 7187.0 dyne-centimeters (Full Scale Range)
Standard Viscometers/Rheometers: HA 14,374.0 dyne-centimeters (Full Scale Range)
A.1 Dial Reading Viscometer HB 57,496.0 dyne-centimeters (Full Scale Range)
A.2 Digital Viscometers/Rheometers
A.3 Disc Spindles Notes: 1. These values apply to all models with
A.4 Cylindrical Spindles the same prefix designation: LV refers
to LVF, LVT, LVTD, LVT-CP, LVTDCP,
LVDV-I+, LVDV-II+, LVDV-II+ Program-
Standard Cone/Plate Viscometers/Rheometers: mable, LVDV-II+Pro, LVDV-III+, LVDV-III
A.5 Wells-Brookfield Cone/Plate Ultra, LVDV2T, LVDV3T.
Viscometers/Rheometers
2. For alternative spring torque models
multiply the base spring torque by the
Accessories for Standard Viscometers/
Rheometers: multiplier in the model designation:
5XLVT = 5 X 673.7 = 3368.5 dyne-
A.6 Small Sample Adapter centimeters (full scale).
A.7 UL Adapter 5XHB = 5 X 57,496 = 287,500 dyne-
A.8 Thermosel System centimeters.
A.9 DIN Adapter Multiplier also applies to all factors and
A.10 Helipath Stand ranges.
A.11 Spiral Adapter
A.12 Vane Spindles 3. Torque at any dial or display reading
equals reading multiplied by full-scale
torque divided by 100: RVT model,
Special Purpose Instruments:
reading 40; torque = (40 X 7187.0)/100
A.13 Krebs Viscometer = 2874.8 dyne-centimeters.
A.14 YR-1 Rheometer
A.15 CAP 1000+ and CAP 2000+ Viscometers 4. To calculate the upper limit of viscosity
A.16 Falling Ball Viscometer measuring range (Full Scale Range)
for your instrument, multiply the factor
by 100 after defining the spindle and
High End Viscometers/Rheometers: speed in use. (See A.3, A.4) For digital
A.17 RST Rheometer & RST Soft Solids Tester models, push the autorange button.
A.18 PVS Rheometer

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 30 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


Some notes about the terms appearing in this Ap- (in centipoise).
pendix: For example: the Spindle Factor for a #62 LV
1. Shear rate constants (where given) are simply spindle on an LV Viscometer is given as 300/N (see
multiplied by the Viscometer’s rotational speed Section A.1.4). The Viscometer’s rotational speed
(in RPM) to obtain the shear rate (in reciprocal (RPM) is represented by N. If the measurement
seconds) for that speed. The constants are inde- is being made at 12 RPM, the Spindle Factor is
pendent of Viscometer model, sample viscosity, 300/12, or 25. Multiply all Dial Viscometer readings
or temperature. made with this spindle/speed combination by 25
2. Spindle Factors are listed as constants related to to obtain viscosity in centipoise.
the Viscometers rotational speed. Spindle Factors 3. Where given, Sample Chamber Diameter refers
are traditionally used to convert the torque value on to inside diameter (I.D.). Spindle Diameters are
a Dial Reading Viscometer to a centipoise value. outside diameters (O.D.).
Divide the given constant by the speed in use to 4. All dimensions are given in inches and in millime-
obtain the Spindle Factor for that spindle/speed ters (in parentheses) unless otherwise noted. Be
combination. This Spindle Factor is then multiplied sure to use the metric values when required for
by the Viscometer’s dial reading to obtain viscosity rheological equations.

A.1 Dial-Reading Viscometer Spindles and Speeds

Model No. of Spindles No. of Speeds Speeds (RPM)


LVF* 4 4 60, 30, 12, 6
LVT 4 8 60, 30, 12, 6, 3, 1.5, 0.6, 0.3
RVF* 7 4 20, 10, 4, 2
RVF-100* 7 4 100, 50, 20, 10
RVT, HAT, HBT 6 10 100, 50, 20, 10, 5, 4, 2.5, 2, 1, 0.5

*This model is no longer available.



Notes: 1. Speed variations (other than standard models listed above) are identi-
fied by suffix in model designation: RVT-200 fastest speed is 200 RPM.
All other speeds are in same proportion as standard models: RVT-200
speeds are 200, 100, 40, 20, 10, 5, 2, 1 RPM.
2. RPM specifications apply to all Viscometers with same model designation:
LVT refers to LVT, LVTD, LVT-CP, LVTDCP, etc. (each of these instruments
has eight speeds as shown above for LVT model).
3. Check with Brookfield or an authorized dealer regarding availability of
non-standard calibration spring torques and rotational speeds.
4. RVT, HAT, HBT Dial Reading Viscometers built before September 2001
have only eight speeds.
5. RVT, HAT, HBT are supplied with six spindles as of September 2001.
#1 RV or H-1 spindles are available as an option.

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 31 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


A.2 Digital Viscometers/Rheometers Spindles and Speeds

Current Viscometer/ No. of No. of Former Viscometer/


Speeds (RPM)
Rheometer Model Spindles Speeds Rheometer Model
LVDV-E 100, 60, 50, 30, 20, 12, 10,
4 18
6, 5, 4, 2.5, 2, 1, .6, .5, .3
RV/HA/HB DV-E 100, 60, 50, 30, 20, 12, 10,
6* 18
6, 5, 4, 2.5, 2, 1, .6, .5, .3
LVDV-I+ 100, 60, 50, 30, 20, 12, 10,
4 18
6, 5, 4, 2.5, 2, 1, .6, .5, .3
RV/HA/HBDV-I+ 100, 60, 50, 30, 20, 12, 10,
6* 18
6, 5, 4, 2.5, 2, 1, .6, .5, .3
LVDV2T .01 to 200 RPM LVDV-II+ Programmable,
4 54
LVDV-II+, LVDV-II, LVDV-II+Pro
RV/HA/HBDV2T .01 to 200 RPM RV/HA/HBDV-II+ Programmable,
RV/HA/HBDV-II+,
6* 54
RV/HA/HBDV-II,
RV/HA/HBVD-II+Pro
LVDV3T .01 to 250 RPM
LVDV-III+, LVDV-III,
4 2,600 (.1 RPM increments from
LVDV-III Ultra
0.1 to 250)
RV/HA/HBDV3T .01 to 250 RPM RV/HA/HBDV-III+,
6* 2,600 (.1 RPM increments from RV/HA/HBDV-III,
0.1 to 250) RV/HA/HBDV-III Ultra
BF35 1 8 600, 300, 200, 100, 60, 30 Similar to FANN 35 Viscometer
*#1 RV or H-1 Spindles are available as an option.

A.3 Disc Spindle Information for Standard Viscometers/Rheometers

Spindle Factors are listed as constants related to the Viscometers rotational speed. Spindle Factors are
traditionally used to convert the torque value on a Dial Reading Viscometer to a centipoise value. Divide the
given constant by the speed in use to obtain the Spindle Factor for that spindle/speed combination. This
Spindle Factor is then multiplied by the Viscometer’s dial reading to obtain viscosity (in centipoise).

For example: the Spindle Factor for a #62 LV spindle on an LV Viscometer is given as 300/N (see the fol-
lowing Disc Spindle Factors Table). The Viscometer’s rotational speed (RPM) is represented by N. If the
measurement is being made at 12 RPM, the Spindle Factor is 300/12, or 25. Multiply all Dial Viscometer
readings made with this spindle/speed combination by 25 to obtain viscosity in centipoise.

Disc Spindle Factors


Spindle LV RV HA/HB
#62 LV 300/N* — —
#63 LV 1200/N — —
#1 RV or H-1 — 100/N 200/N
#2 RV or H-2 — 400/N 800/N
#3 RV/H — 1000/N 2000/N
#4 RV/H — 2000/N 4000/N
#5 RV/H — 4000/N 8000/N
#6 RV/H — 10K/N K20K/N
*N = RPM K = 1000
#1 RV or H-1 Spindles are available as an option

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 32 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


Disc Spindle Dimensions

Spindle Figure C-Diameter D E F


#62 LV 1 0.7370 (18.72) 0.270 (6.86) 1.000 (25.40) 1.969 (50.00)
#63 LV 1 0.4970 (12.60) 0.070 (1.78) 1.007 (25.60) 1.969 (50.00)
#1 RV 2 2.2150 (56.26) 0.885 (22.48) 1.062 (26.97) 2.406 (61.12)
#1 H 2 2.2150 (56.26) 0.908 (23.06) 1.062 (26.97) 2.406 (61.12)
#2 RV 3 1.8477 (46.93) 0.063 (1.65) 1.062 (26.97) 1.938 (49.21)
#2 H 3 1.8550 (47.12) 0.063 (1.65) 1.062 (26.97) 1.938 (49.21)
#3 RV/H 3 1.3658 (34.69) 0.063 (1.65) 1.062 (26.97) 1.938 (49.21)
#4 RV/H 3 1.0748 (27.3) 0.063 (1.65) 1.062 (26.97) 1.938 (49.21)
#5 RV/H 3 0.8324 (21.14) 0.063 (1.65) 1.062 (26.97) 1.938 (49.21)
#6 RV/H 1 0.5757 (14.62) 0.063 (1.57) 1.188 (30.17) 1.938 (49.21)
Dimensions are in inches (mm). Dimension A is 4.531 (115) on LV spindles;
5.250 (133) on RV/H spindles. Dimension B is 0.125 (3.2) on all spindles.

Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3

A.4 Cylindrical Spindles for Dial-Reading Viscometer and Digital Viscometers/Rheometers

Spindle Factors are listed as constants related to the Viscometers rotational speed. Spindle Factors are tradi-
tionally used to convert the torque value on a Dial Reading Viscometer to a centipoise value. Divide the given
constant by the speed in use to obtain the Spindle Factor for that spindle/speed combination. This Spindle
Factor is then multiplied by the Viscometer’s dial reading to obtain viscosity (in centipoise).

For example: the Spindle Factor for a #61 LV spindle on an LV Viscometer is given as 72/N (see the following
Cylindrical Spindle Factors and Shear Rates Table). The Viscometer’s rotational speed (RPM) is represented
by N. If the measurement is being made at 10 RPM, the Spindle Factor is 72/10, or 7.2. Multiply all Dial
Viscometer readings made with this spindle/speed combination by 7.2 to obtain viscosity in centipoise.

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 33 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


Cylindrical Spindle Factors and Shear Rates

Shear Rate
Spindle LV RV** HA** HB**
(sec-1)
#61 LV* 72/N** 780/N 1560/N 6240/N 0.220N
#66 LV CYL t 330/N** 3350/N 6700/N 26.8K/N 0.212N
#67 LV CYL t 1200/N 12.9K/N 25.8K/N 103.2K/N 0.210N
#64 LV 6000/N 64K/N 128K/N 512K/N 0.209N
#65 LV CYL t 12K/N 128K/N 256K/N 1024K/N 0.209N
#7 RV/H 3750/N 40K/N 80K/N 320K/N 0.209N
N = RPM K = 1000 t = Optional Item
*#61 LV is 60/N with Guard Leg
**Factors are for readings made without using the guardleg.

Cylindrical Spindle Dimensions

Spindle Figure C-Diameter D F


#61 LV 1 0.7418 (18.84) 2.563 (65.1) 3.188 (80.97)
#66 LV CYL 1 0.4037 (10.25) 2.124 (53.95) 2.624 (66.65)
#67 LV CYL 2 0.2315 (5.88) 1.688 (42.86) 2.094 (53.19)
#64 LV 3 0.125 (3.2) 1.226 (31.14) N/A
#65 LV 3 0.125 (3.2) 0.536 (13.61) N/A
#7 RV/H 3 0.125 (3.2) 1.983 (50.37) N/A
ABZ 4 0.125 (3.2) 0.750 (19.05) N/A
Dimensions are in inches (mm).
Dimension A is 4.531 (115) on LV spindles; 5.250 (133) on RV/H and ABZ spindles.
Dimension B is 0.125 (3.2) on all spindles.

B B
B

A
A A A

F
D
F

D D
D

C C C C

Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3 Fig. 4

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 34 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


Cylindrical Spindle Equation

The following cylindrical spindle table depicts information for use with the equations presented in Section
5.2.1 only.
Radius (cm) Effective Actual Length
Spindle
1/2C Length (cm)* (cm) D
#61 LV 0.9421 7.493 6.510
#66 LV CYL 0.5128 6.121 5.395
#67 LV CYL 0.2941 4.846 4.287
#64 LV 0.1588 3.396 3.101
#65 LV 0.1588 1.684 1.514
#7 RV/H 0.1588 5.620 5.037
*Effective length includes correction for end effect and should be used in equations.
Actual length is given for reference only.

A.5 Wells-Brookfield Cone/Plate Viscometers/Rheometers

Cone Spindle Dimensions and Shear Rates

Sample Shear
Angle Radius
ANGLE Cone Spindle Size Rate
(degrees) (cm)
(mL) (sec-1)
CP-40 / CPA-40Z 0.8 2.4 0.5 7.5N*
CP-41 / CPA-41Z 3.0 2.4 2.0 2.0N
CP-42 / CPA-42Z 1.565 2.4 1.0 3.84N
RADIUS CP-51 / CPA-51Z 1.565 1.2 0.5 3.84/N
CP-52 / CPA-52Z 3.0 1.2 0.5 2.0N
*N = RPM

Cone Spindle Factors

Spindle Factors are listed as constants related to the Viscometers rotational speed. Spindle Factors are
traditionally used to convert the torque value on a Dial Reading Viscometer to a centipoise value. Divide
the given constant by the speed in use to obtain the Spindle Factor for that spindle/speed combination. This
Spindle Factor is then multiplied by the Viscometer’s dial reading to obtain viscosity (in centipoise).

For example: the Spindle Factor for a CPA-40Z spindle on an LV Viscometer is given as 3.07/N (see the
following Cone Spindle Factors Table). The Viscometer’s rotational speed (RPM) is represented by N. If the
measurement is being made at 12 RPM, the Spindle Factor is 3.07/12, or 0.26. Multiply all Dial Viscometer
readings made with this spindle/speed combination by 0.26 to obtain viscosity in centipoise.

Cone Spindle LV RV HB HA
CP-40 / CPA-40Z 3.07/N* 32.7/N 261.6/N 65.4/N
CP-41 / CPA-41Z 11.51/N 122.80/N 982.4/N 245.6/N
CP-42 / CPA-42Z 6.0/N 64.0/N 512.0/N 128.0/N
CP-51 / CPA-51Z 48.54/N 517.8/N 4142.4/N 1035.6/N
CP-52 / CPA-52Z 93.0/N 992.2/N 7937.60/N 1984.4/N
*N = RPM

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 35 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


ACCESSORIES FOR STANDARD VISCOMETERS/RHEOMETERS

A.6 Small Sample Adapter

SC4 Series Spindle Factors and Shear Rates

Spindle Factors are listed as constants related to the Viscometers rotational speed. Spindle Factors are
traditionally used to convert the torque value on a Dial Reading Viscometer to a centipoise value. Divide
the given constant by the speed in use to obtain the Spindle Factor for that spindle/speed combination. This
Spindle Factor is then multiplied by the Viscometer’s dial reading to obtain viscosity (in centipoise).

For example: the Spindle Factor for an SC4-21 spindle and 13R chamber on an RV Viscometer is given as
500/N (see the following SC4 Series Spindle Factors and Shear Rates Table). The Viscometer’s rotational
speed (RPM) is represented by N. If the measurement is being made at 20 RPM, the Spindle Factor is 500/20,
or 25. Multiply all Dial Viscometer readings made with this spindle/speed combination by 25 to obtain viscos-
ity in centipoise.

Spindle/ Sample Shear Rate
LV RV HA HB
Chamber Size (mL) (sec-1)
SC4-14/6R 2.1 1172/N 12.5M/N* 25M/N 100M/N 0.40N
SC4-15/7R 3.8 468.8/N 5000/N 10M/N 40M/N 0.48N
SC4-16/8R 4.2 1200/N 12.8M/N 25.6M/N 102.4M/N 0.29N
SC4-18/13R 6.7 30/N 320/N 640/N 2560/N 1.32N
SC4-21/13R 7.1 46.88/N 500/N 1000/N 4000/N 0.93N
SC4-25/13R 16.1 4800/N 51.2M/N 102.4M/N 409.6M/N 0.22N
SC4-27/13R 10.4 234.4/N 2500/N 5000/N 20M/N 0.34N
SC4-28/13R 11.0 468.8/N 5000/N 10M/N 40M/N 0.28N
SC4-29/13R 13.5 937.5/N 10M/N 20M/N 80M/N 0.25N
SC4-31/13R 9.0 300/N 3200/N 6400/N 25.6M/N 0.34N
SC4-34/13R 9.4 600/N 6400/N 12.8M/N 51.2M/N 0.28N
SC4-DIN-82 5.5 34.2/N 365/N 730/N 2,920/N 1.29N
SC4-DIN-83 1.5 113.4/N 1,213/N 2,426/N 9.704/N 1.29N
*N = RPM M = 1000

The values for the sample size (mL) were adjusted slightly in 2005. If unsure, check 1/8" inch
the fluid level in the chamber to verify that the spindle shaft is covered 1/8-inch above
the point where the cone and shaft come together.

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 36 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


SC4 Series Spindle Dimensions

Effective
Diameter Side Length
Spindle Length
inches (mm) inches (mm)
inches (mm)1
SC-14 0.344 (8.74) 0.340 (8.64) 0.478 (12.14)
SC4-15 0.376 (9.55) 0.674 (17.12) 0.821 (20.85)
SC4-16 0.275 (6.99) 0.815 (20.70) 0.989 (25.12)
SC4-18 0.688 (17.48) 1.249 (31.72) 1.399 (35.53)
SC4-21/SD2 0.660 (16.77) 1.230 (31.24) 1.384 (35.15)
SC4-25 0.188 (4.78) 0.520 (13.21) 0.697 (17.70)
SIDE LENGTH SC4-27/SD 2
0.463 (11.76) 1.300 (33.02) 1.547 (39.29)
SC4-28 0.370 (9.39) 1.260 (32.00) 1.480 (37.59)
SC4-29 0.300 (7.62) 1.070 (27.18) 1.250 (31.75)
SC4-31 0.463 (11.76) 0.990 (25.15) 1.208 (30.68)
SC4-34 0.370 (9.39) 0.954 (24.23) 1.156 (29.36)
SC4-DIN-82 0.6915 (17.56) 1.0373 (26.35) 1.237 (31.42)
DIAMETER SC4-DIN-83 0.4617 (11.73) 0.6926 (17.59) 0.826 (20.98)

1. Refer to Section 5.2.1.
2. The “SD” designation indicates that the spindle is also
available in a solid shaft configuration.

SC4 Series Small Sample Chamber Dimensions

.7500 Inside DIA.


Standard
Chamber

.8750 DIA.
Disposable
Chamber
Chamber1 Diameter Depth
SC4-6R/RP 0.500 (12.70) 1.110 (28.19)
SC4-7R/RP 0.501 (12.73) 1.745 (44.32)
SC4-8R/RP 0.515 (13.08) 1.584 (40.23)
2.6720 SC4-13R/RP 0.750 (19.05) 2.550 (64.77)
Dimensions are in inches (mm).

SC4-13RD2
DISPOSABLE SAMPLE CHAMBER

1. The chamber is available with an optional embedded temperature probe, in which case the “RP”
designation is used. E.g. SC4-6RP
2. Disposable chamber is available only in 13R size and comes in quantities of 100 chambers (Part
No. SC4-13RD-100). Outside diameter is slightly larger than standard 13R chamber and requires
special size water jacket (Part No. SC4-45YD) in order to use. Inside diameter and sample volume
required are same as 13R chamber. Contact Brookfield Engineering or an authorized dealer for more
information.
MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 37 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.

A.7 UL Adapter

UL Adapter Spindle Factors and Shear Rates

Spindle Factors are listed as constants related to the Viscometers rotational speed. Spindle Factors are
traditionally used to convert the torque value on a Dial Reading Viscometer to a centipoise value. Divide
the given constant by the speed in use to obtain the Spindle Factor for that spindle/speed combination. This
Spindle Factor is then multiplied by the Viscometer’s dial reading to obtain viscosity (in centipoise).

For example: the Spindle Factor for the UL spindle on an LV Viscometer is given as 6/N (see the following UL
Adapter Spindle Factors and Shear Rates Table). The Viscometer’s rotational speed (RPM) is represented by
N. If the measurement is being made at 60 RPM, the Spindle Factor is 6/60, or 0.1. Multiply all Dial Viscometer
readings made with this spindle/speed combination by 0.1 to obtain viscosity in centipoise.

Shear Rate
LV RV HA HB
(sec-1)
UL 6/N* 64/N 128/N 512/N 1.224N
DIN-UL 11.44/N 122.N 244/N 976/N 1.29N
*N = RPM Sample size 16.0 mL (end cap on).

UL Adapter Dimensions

Spindle Chamber
Actual
Effective Diameter Inside
3.5725 (90.74) 3.6366 (92.37) Length
SIDE LENGTH EFFECTIVE LENGTH Length* Diameter
3.637 (92.39) 3.5725 (90.74) 0.9893 (25.13) 1.0875 (27.62)
Dimensions are in inches (mm).

0.9902 (25.15)
SPINDLE O.D.

1.0875 (27.62)
CHAMBER I.D.

*Effective length includes correction for end effect and should be used in manual calculations
for shear rate/shear stress equations when using Dial Reading Viscometers. Actual length is
given for reference only.
Digital Viscometers/Rheometers have a correction factor built-in to the firmware of the
instrument; no additional calculations are required.

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 38 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


A.8 Thermosel System

SC4 and HT Series Spindle Factors and Shear Rates

Spindle Factors are listed as constants related to the Viscometers rotational speed. Spindle Factors are
traditionally used to convert the torque value on a Dial Reading Viscometer to a centipoise value. Divide
the given constant by the speed in use to obtain the Spindle Factor for that spindle/speed combination. This
Spindle Factor is then multiplied by the Viscometer’s dial reading to obtain viscosity (in centipoise).

For example: the Spindle Factor for the an SC4-27 spindle with 13R chamber on an RV Viscometer is given
as 2500/N (see the following SC4 Series Spindle Factors and Shear Rates Table). The Viscometer’s rota-
tional speed (RPM) is represented by N. If the measurement is being made at 50 RPM, the Spindle Factor
is 2500/50, or 50. Multiply all Dial Viscometer readings made with this spindle/speed combination by 50 to
obtain viscosity in centipoise.

Sample Shear Rate


Spindle1 LV RV HA HB
Size (mL) (sec-1)
SC4-18 8.0 30/N* 320/N 640/N 2560/N 1.32N
SC4-21 8.0 46.88/N 500/N 1000/N 4000/N 0.93N
SC4-027/BS 10.5 234.4/N 2500/N 5000/N 20M/N 0.34N
SC4-28/BS 11.5 468.8/N 5000/N 10M/N 40M/N 0.28N
SC4-29/BS 13.0 937.5N 10M/N 20M/N 80M/N 0.25N
SC4-31/BS 10.0 300/N 3200/N 6400/N 25.6M/N 0.34N
SC4-34/BS 9.5 600/N 6400/N 12.8M/N 51.2M/N 0.28N
HT-DIN-81 7 34.2/N 365/N 730/N 2,920/N 1.29N
*N = RPM M = 1000

1. The “BS” designation indicates that the spindle is also available in a solid shaft configuration.
2. DIN geometry for the Thermosel is also available. See Appendix A.9.

SC4 and HT Series Spindle Dimensions

Diameter Side Length Effective Length


Spindle1
inches (mm) inches (mm) inches (mm)*
SC4-18 0.688 (17.48) 1.249 (31.72) 1.399 (35.53)
SC4-21 0.660 (16.76) 1.230 (31.24) 1.384 (35.15)
SC4-27/BS 0.463 (11.76) 1.300 (33.02) 1.547 (39.29)
SC4-28/BS 0.370 (9.39) 1.260 (32.00) 1.480 (37.59)
SC4-29/BS 0.300 (7.62) 1.070 (27.18) 1.250 (31.75)

SIDE LENGTH SC4-31/BS 0.463 (11.76) 0.990 (25.15) 1.208 (30.68)


SC4-34/BS 0.370 (9.39) 0.954 (24.23) 1.156 (29.36)
HT-DIN-81 0.6915 (17.56) 1.0373 (26.35) 1.237 (31.42)
Dimensions are in inches (mm). *Refer to Section 5.2.1

DIAMETER

1. The “BS” designation indicates that the spindle is also available in a solid shaft configuration.

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 39 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


HT-2 Sample Chamber Dimensions

Diameter Depth
0.750 (19.05) 3.062 (77.77)

Disposable HT-2DB chambers for use with Thermosel are


available from Brookfield Engineering or an authorized dealer.

A.9 DIN Adapter

DIN Spindle Factors and Shear Rates

Spindle LV RV HA HB Shear Rate


ULA-DIN-85 11.44/N 122/N 244/N 976/N 1.29N
ULA-DIN-86 34.2/N 365/N 730/N 2,920/N 1.29N
ULA-DIN-87 113.4/N 1,213/N 2,426/N 9,704/N 1.29N
N=RPM

DIN Spindle Dimensions

Spindle No. A B-Diameter C-Diameter D E


ULA-DIN-85 6.066 (154.08) 0.125 (3.18) 1.0026 (25.47) 1.504 (38.2) 1.793 (45.54)
ULA-DIN-86 3.911 (99.34) 0.125 (3.18) .6952 (17.66) 1.0428 (26.49) 1.244 (31.6)
B
A ULA-DIN-87 3.500 (88.9) 0.125 (3.18) 0.4654 (11.82) 0.6981 (17.73 0.833 (21.16)

D Dimensions are in inches (mm)


E

DIN Chamber Dimensions


1.0850 0.7540 DIA.
DIA.

Spindle No. Chamber No. Chamber ID Accessory Used With...


ULA-DIN-85 DAA-1 1.0875 (27.62) DIN Adapter
ULA-DIN-86 ULA-DIN-6Y 0.7540 (19.15) DIN Adapter
ULA-DIN-87 ULA-DIN-6Y 0.5048 (12.82) DIN Adapter

Dimensions are in inches (mm)

0.5048 DIA.

DAA-1 ULA-DIN-6Y
DIN CHAMBER DIN CHAMBER

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 40 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


A.10 Helipath Stand with T-Bar Spindles

T-Bar Spindle Factors

Spindle Factors are listed as constants related to the Viscometers rotational speed. Spindle Factors are
traditionally used to convert the torque value on a Dial Reading Viscometer to a centipoise value. Divide
the given constant by the speed in use to obtain the Spindle Factor for that spindle/speed combination. This
Spindle Factor is then multiplied by the Viscometer’s dial reading to obtain viscosity (in centipoise).

For example: the Spindle Factor for a T-C spindle on an RV Viscometer is given as 10,000/N (see the fol-
lowing T-Bar Spindle Factors Table). The Viscometer’s rotational speed (RPM) is represented by N. If the
measurement is being made at 10 RPM, the Spindle Factor is 10,000/10, or 1,000. Multiply all Dial Viscometer
readings made with this spindle/speed combination by 1000 to obtain viscosity in centipoise.

Maximum recommended rotational speed for spindle: 10-12 RPM.

Travel Speed for Helipath drive motor which moves rotating spindle downward into sample:
7/8 inch (22.2 mm) per minute.

There is no defined shear rate for T-bar spindles.

Spindle LV RV HA HB
T-A 187.5/N* 2000/N 4000/N 16M/N
T-B 374.4/N 4000/N 8000/N 32M/N
T-C 936/N 10M/N 20M/N 80M/N
T-D 1872/N 20M/N 40M/N 160M/N
T-E 4680/N 50M/N 100M/N 400M/N
T-F 9360/N 100M/N 200M/N 800M/N
*N = RPM M = 1000

T-Bar Spindle Dimensions

Spindle Crossbar Length


T-A 1.894 (48.1)
T-B 1.435 (36.4)
T-C 1.065 (27.1)
4 1/2
T-D 0.804 (20.4)
T-E 0.604 (15.3)
T-F 0.403 (10.9)
Dimensions are in inches (mm)

1/4

CROSSBAR
LENGTH

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 41 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


A.11 Spiral Adapter

Spiral Spindle Factors and Shear Rate

Spindle Factors are listed as constants related to the Viscometers rotational speed. Spindle Factors are
traditionally used to convert the torque value on a Dial Reading Viscometer to a centipoise value. Divide
the given constant by the speed in use to obtain the Spindle Factor for that spindle/speed combination. This
Spindle Factor is then multiplied by the Viscometer’s dial reading to obtain viscosity (in centipoise).

For example: the Spindle Factor for a Spiral spindle on an RV Viscometer is given as 10,500/N (see the fol-
lowing Spiral Spindle Factors Table). The Viscometer’s rotational speed (RPM) is represented by N. If the
measurement is being made at 30 RPM, the Spindle Factor is 10,500/30, or 350. Multiply all Dial Viscometer
readings made with this spindle/speed combination by 350 to obtain viscosity in centipoise.

Spindle LV RV HA HB Shear Rate


Spiral 984/N 10.5M/N 21M/N 84M/N 0.667N
N=RPM M=1,000

Spiral Spindle Dimensions Spiral Chamber Dimensions

.825 .825

.500 .500

.250 DIA. .250 DIA.


.275 DIA. .275 DIA.

Spindle Diameter Spiral
Length
Spiral Spindle Spindle Spiral Spiral Chamber
Diameter
Chamber Length
0.250 0.825 0.275 0.500

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 42 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


A.12 Vane Spindles

Vane Spindle Factors

Spindle Factors are listed as constants related to the Viscometers rotational speed. Spindle Factors are
traditionally used to convert the torque value on a Dial Reading Viscometer to a centipoise value. Divide
the given constant by the speed in use to obtain the Spindle Factor for that spindle/speed combination. This
Spindle Factor is then multiplied by the Viscometer’s dial reading to obtain viscosity (in centipoise).

For example: the Spindle Factor for a V-72 spindle on an RV Viscometer is given as 1,110/N (see the following
Vane Spindle Factors Table). The Viscometer’s rotational speed (RPM) is represented by N. If the measure-
ment is being made at 1,100 RPM, the Spindle Factor is 1,100/10, or 110. Multiply all Dial Viscometer readings
made with this spindle/speed combination by 110 to obtain viscosity in centipoise.


Spindle LV RV HA HB
V-71 24.56/N 262/N 524/N 4.6M/N
V-72 104/N 1.11M/N 2.22M/N 8.88M/N
V-73 501/N 5.35M/N 10.7M/N 42.8M/N
V-74 5.09M/N 54.3M/N 108.6M/N 434.4M/N
V-75 1.20M/N 21.3M/N 42.6M/N 170.4M/N
N=RPM M=1,000

Possibility of turbulence at speeds above 10 RPM may give artificially higher viscosity readings.

Vane Spindle Dimensions

Vane Length Vane Diameter


Spindle
inches cm inches cm
V-71 2.708 6.878 1.354 3.439
A V-72 1.708 4.338 0.853 2.167
V-73 0.998 2.535 0.499 1.267
V-74 0.463 1.176 0.232 0.589
C V-75 0.632 1.61 0.316 0.803

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 43 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


SPECIAL PURPOSE INSTRUMENTS

A.13 KU-2 (Krebs) Viscometer

Spindle Dimensions

Standard Krebs Spindle Paste Spindle


KU1-10 KU1-75Y

B B

A A

D
E E D

C C

The KU-2 (KU-1+, KU-1) Viscometer measures viscosity in Krebs units and grams. The KU-2 Viscometer also
reports the viscosity reading in centipoise. The measurement is made by rotating the spindle at 200 RPM.

Spindle No. A B-Diameter C D E


KU1-10 3.562 (90.47) 0.188 (4.77) 2.125 (53.98) 0.312 (7.92) 1.625 (41.28)
KU1-75Y 3.562 (90.47) 0.188 (4.77) 1.688 (42.88) 0.078 (1.98) 1.625 (41.28)
There is no defined shear rate for the Krebs and Paste Spindles.

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 44 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


A.14 YR-1 Yield Stress Rheometer
The YR-1 uses a unique method to apply a controlled torque ramp to the vane spindle in order to measure
yield stress behavior in the sample material. Standard torque ranges available for the YR-1 Rheometer are:
LV, 1/4RV, RV, HA, and HB.

YR-1 Spindle Shear Stress Range Data

Torque Shear Stress Range


Spindle
Range Pa Dyne/cm2
V-71 LV 0.047-0.47 0.47-4.7
V-72 LV 0.188-1.88 1.88-18.8
V-73 LV 0.94-9.4 9.4-94
V-74 LV 9.4-94 94-940
V-75 LV 3.75-37.5 37.5-375
V-71 1/4RV 0.125-1.25 1.25-12.5
V-72 1/4RV 0.5-5 5-50
V-73 1/4RV 12.5-25 25-250
V-74 1/4RV 25-250 250-2500
V-75 1/4RV 10-1000 100-1000
V-71 RV 0.5-5 5-50
V-72 RV 2-20 20-200
V-73 RV 10-100 100-1000
V-74 RV 100-1000 1000-10000
V-75 RV 40-400 400-4000
V-71 HA 1-40 10-100
V-72 HA 4-40 40-400
V-73 HA 20-200 200-2000
V-74 HA 200-2000 2000-20000
V-75 HA 80-800 800-8000
V-71 HB 4-40 40-400
V-72 HB 16-160 160-1600
V-73 HB 80-800 800-8000
V-74 HB 800-8000 8000-80000
V-75 HB 320-3200 3200-32000

Vane Spindle Dimensions

Spindle Vane Length Vane Diameter


V-71 2.708 in. / 6.878 cm 1.354 in. / 3.439 cm
A
V-72 1.708 in. / 4.338 cm 0.853 in. / 2.167 cm
V-73 0.998 in. / 2.535 cm 0.499 in. / 1.267 cm
C V-74 0.463 in. / 1.176 cm 0.232 in. / 0.589 cm
V-75 0.632 in. / 1.61 cm 0.316 in. / 0.803 cm

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 45 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


A.15 CAP 1000+ and CAP 2000+ Viscometers

The CAP 1000+ Viscometer is a high-torque, single-speed cone/plate instrument used traditionally for testing
at high shear rates around 10,000 sec-1. The CAP 1000+ can also be configured with lower torque range and
choice of lower speed for special purpose applications.

Torque Range: Standard: (High Torque) CAP or 181,000 dyne•cm


Option: (Low Torque) 23 CAP or 7,800 dyne•cm

The CAP 2000+ Viscometer is a variable speed cone/plate instrument (5 RPM to 1000 RPM) with integrated
temperature control.

Torque Range: Standard: (High Torque) CAP or 181,000 dyne•cm


Option: (Low Torque) 23 CAP or 7,800 dyne•cm

Full Scale Range Viscosity for LOW TORQUE CAP Viscometer


FSR Poise
Cone Cone Constant Shear Rate FSR Poise FSR Poise at any
at 500
Number Range Constant at 100 RPM RPM
RPM
01 1875 13.33N 0.83 0.17 1875/(22.7*N)
02 3750 13.33N 1.65 0.33 3750/(22.7*N)
03 7500 13.33N 3.30 0.66 7500/(22.7*N)
04 15000 3.33N 6.61 1.32 15000/(22.7*N)
05 30000 3.33N 13.22 2.64 30000/(22.7*N)
06 75000 3.33N 13.04 6.61 75000/(22.7*N)
07 3150 2N 1.39 0.28 3150/(22.7*N)
08 12500 2N 5.51 1.10 12500/(22.7*N)
09 50000 2N 22.03 4.41 50000/(22.7*N)
10 5000 2N 2.20 0.44 5000/(22.7*N)
N = RPM
Poise x 100 = centipoise

Full Scale Range Viscosity for HIGH TORQUE CAP Viscometer


Cone FSR Poise FSR Poise FSR Poise FSR Poise FSR Poise
Cone Shear Rate
Constant at at at at at
Number Constant
Range 100 RPM 400 RPM 750 RPM 900 RPM any RPM
01 1875 13.33N 18.75 4.69 2.50 2.08 1875/(N)
02 3750 13.33N 37.50 9.38 5.00 4.17 3750/(N)
03 7500 13.33N 75.00 18.75 10.00 8.33 7500/(N)
04 15000 3.33N 150.00 37.50 20.00 16.67 15000/(N)
05 30000 3.33N 300.00 75.00 40.00 33.33 30000/(N)
06 75000 3.33N 750.00 187.50 100.00 83.33 75000/(N)
07 3150 2N 31.50 7.88 N/A* N/A* 3150/(N)
08 12500 2N 125.00 31.25 N/A* N/A* 12500/(N)
09 50000 2N 500.00 125.00 N/A* N/A* 50000/(N)
10 5000 2N 50.00 12.50 6.67 5.56 5000/(N)
N = RPM
Poise x 100 = centipoise
* Use of this cone at this RPM is not recommended

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 46 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


CAP Viscometer Spindle Dimensions

E C

Spindle Sample Cone Cone


A B-Diameter C-Angle D-Diameter E
No. Volume Angle Radius
CAP-S-01 2.075 (52.71) 0.187 (4.75) 0° -27' 1.190 (30.23) 0.010 (0.25) 67 mL 0.45° 1.511cm
CAP-S-02 2.075 (52.71) 0.187 (4.75) 0° -27' 0.945 (24.0) 0.010 (0.25) 38 mL 0.45° 1.200cm
CAP-S-03 2.075 (52.71) 0.187 (4.75) 0° -27' 0.750 (19.05) 0.010 (0.35) 24 mL 0.45° 0.953cm
CAP-S-04 2.075 (52.71) 0.187 (4.75) 1° -48' 0.945 (24.0) 0.010 (0.25) 134 mL 1.8° 1.200cm
CAP-S-05 2.075 (52.71) 0.187 (4.75) 1° -48' 0.750 (19.05) 0.010 (0.25) 67 mL 1.8° 0.953cm
CAP-S-06 2.075 (52.71) 0.187 (4.75 1° -48' 0.553 (14.05) 0.010 (0.25) 30 mL 1.8° 0.702cm
CAP-S-07 2.075 (52.71) 0.187 (4.75) 3° -0' 1.889 (47.98) 0.010 (0.25) 1700 mL 3.0° 2.399cm
CAP-S-08 2.075 (52.71) 0.187 (4.75) 3° -0' 1.190 (30.23) 0.010 (0.25) 400 mL 3.0° 1.511cm
CAP-S-09 2.075 (52.71) 0.187 (4.75) 3° -0' 0.750 (19.05) 0.010 (0.25) 100 mL 3.0° 0.953cm
CAP-S-10 2.075 (52.71) 0.187 (4.75) 1° -12' 1.190 (30.23) 0.010 (0.25) 170 mL 1.2° 1.511cm

A.16 Falling Ball Viscometer

The Falling Ball Viscometer is based on the measuring principle by Höppler for simple but precise dynamic
viscosity measurement of transparent Newtonian fluids. The basic concept is to measure the elapsed time
required for the ball to fall under gravity through a sample-filled tube inclined at an angle*. The tube is mounted
on a pivot bearing which quickly allows rotation of the tube 180 degrees, thereby allowing a repeat test to run
immediately. Three measurements are taken and the average time it takes for the ball to fall is the result. A
conversion formula turns the time reading into a final viscosity value.

The Falling Ball Viscometer is used for quality control in various industries as well as in academic institutions
to illustrate scientific method. The ease of use and straightforward method for recording time measurements
ensures meaningful test results.

* Model KF30 has a fixed angle of 80 degrees; Model KF40 can be angled at 50, 60, 70 and 80 degrees.

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 47 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


A.17 RST Rheometer & RST Soft Solids Tester

The RST Rheometer operates in either controlled stress or controlled rate mode. Controlled stress is useful
for evaluation of yield behavior, creep analysis and viscoelastic response. Controlled rate provides flow curve
information (viscosity vs. shear rate or shear stress). Available spindle geometries include cone/plate, plate/
plate, coaxial cylinder and vane spindles (RST Soft Solids Tester).

Angle Diameter Sample Size Max Shear Max Shear Viscosity


Spindle
(Degrees) (mm) (mL) Rate (sec-1) Stress (kPa) Range (cP)
RST-CPS
Cone
RCT-25-1 1 25 0.1 7,800 24.4 5-407M
RCT-25-2 2 25 0.2 3,900 24.4 10-804M
RCT-50-1 1 50 1 7,800 3.05 0.6-50.9M
RCT-50-2 2 50 2 3,900 3.05 1.2-101M
RCT-75-1 1 75 2.5 7,800 0.905 0.2-15M
RCT-75-2 2 75 5 3,900 0.905 0.4-30M
Plate
RPT-25 N/A 25 Variable 1,700 32.6 30-249M
RPT-50 N/A 50 Variable 3,400 4.07 2-155M
RPT-75 N/A 75 Variable 5,100 1.2 0.4-307M
RST-Coaxial
CCT-8 N/A 8 1 1,680 69.6 65-5.4B
CCT-14 N/A 14 3.4 1,680 13 12-1B
CCT-25 N/A 25 16.8 1,680 2.28 2-177M
CCT-40 N/A 40 68.5 2.79 594 0.3-27.6M
CCT-45 N/A 45 70 1,680 385 0.3-29.8M
CCT-48 N/A 48 100 6,565 385 0.1-7.6M
CCT-DG N/A Double Gap 15.7 5,640 177 0.05-4.07M
HT-DIN-81 N/A 17-56 7 1,680 6,587 5-509M
RST-SST
Length Diameter Sample Size Max Shear Max Shear Viscosity
Vane
(mm) (mm) (mL) Rate (sec-1)* Stress (kPa) Range (cP)
VT-80-70 80 70 Variable 306 0.12 0.5-45M
VT-80-40 80 40 Variable 306 0.42 2-152M
VT-60-30 60 30 Variable 306 1 4-362M
VT-60-15 60 15 Variable 306 4.3 18-1.6B
VT-60-8 60 8 Variable 306 15 65-5.6B
VT-50-25 50 25 Variable 306 1.7 7-625M
VT-40-40 40 40 Variable 306 0.74 3-267M
VT-40-20 40 20 Variable 306 3.4 14-1.2B
VT-30-15 30 15 Variable 306 8 33-2.9B
VT-20-20 20 20 Variable 306 5.9 25-2.1B
VT-20-10 20 10 Variable 306 41 113-9.7B
VT-10-5 10 5 Variable 306 218 900-78B

k = 1,000 M = 1,000,000 B = 1,000,000,000


*Assumes 2:1 ratio of vane diameter of chamber wall

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 48 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


A.18 PVS Rheometer

The PVS Rheometer is a variable-speed, coaxial cylinder geometry instrument with the capability to pressurize
the sample up to 1000 psi. “Stator” might also be called “bob” or “spindle.” On the PVS Rheometer, the “cup”
(also called the “chamber”) rotates while the stator remains stationary and senses torque.

Viscosity Ranges and Shear Rates

Viscosity
Bob/Stator Shear Rate Sample
Range cP
No. (sec-1) Volume (mL)
(mPa•s)
B1 1-3M 1.7N 12.5
B2 20-36M 0.38N 55
B5 5-9M 0.85N 25
TA5B5 .5-1M 0.85N 162.5
N=RPM M=1000

Dimensions

B B B

B1 B2 B5

A A A

E D E D E D

C C C

Cup
Stator A B-Diameter C-Diameter D inches E inches Shear Annulus**
Diameter**
No. inches (mm) inches (mm) inches (mm) (mm) (mm) Rate** inches (mm)
inches (mm)
B1 4.527 (114.99) .925 (23.5) 1.358 (34.49) 3.507 (89.08) 3.527 (89.59) 1.703N* 1.45 (36.83) 0.046 (1.168)
B2 4.524 (114.91) .925 (23.5) .967 (24.56) 3.354 (85.19) 3.524 (89.51) 0.377N* 1.45 (36.83) 0.241 (6.135)
B5 4.526 (114.96) .925 (23.5) 1.259 (31.98) 3.462 (87.93) 3.526 (89.56) 0.85N* 1.45 (36.83) 0.095 (2.425)
*N = RPM **Based on PVS-30 (HC) standard cup. Larger cup is available.

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 49 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


Optional Stator/Cup Geometry TA5 Used for Low Viscosity Fluids

Triple Annulus Dimensions


Outer Annulus 2.44 (61.98) ID x 2.12 (53.85) OD
Intermediate Annulus 1.99 (50.55) ID x 1.73 (43.94) OD
Inner Annulus 1.45 (36.83) ID x 1.259 (31.98) OD

Shaded area depicts Stationary


Stator, Skirt and Cup

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 50 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


APPENDIX B: Spindle Entry Codes and Range Coefficients
The Range Coefficient is a convenient tool for quickly determining the maximum viscosity that can be measured
with a specific spindle/speed combination. Identify the spindle in use and the torque range (LV, RV, HA, HB) of
the Viscometer/Rheometer. Look up the Range Coefficient in the following table. Divide the Range Coefficient
by the spindle speed to determine the maximum viscosity in centipoise that can be measured.

E.g. RV Viscometer with RV3 spindle: Range Coefficient is 100,000. At 50 RPM, the maximum viscosity that
can be measured is 100,000/50 or 2,000 cP.

The Entry Code is the two digit number used to identify the spindle in use when operating a standard digital
Viscometer/Rheometer.

Spindle Entry Code LV RV HA HB


RV1 01 937 10000 20000 80000
RV2 02 3750 40000 80000 320000
RV3 03 9375 100000 200000 800000
RV4 04 18750 200000 400000 1600000
RV5 05 37500 400000 800000 3200000
RV6 06 93750 1000000 2000000 8000000
RV7 07 375000 4000000 8000000 32000000

HA1 01 937 10000 20000 80000


HA2 02 3750 40000 80000 320000
HA3 03 9375 100000 200000 800000
HA4 04 18750 200000 400000 1600000
HA5 05 37500 400000 800000 3200000
HA6 06 93750 1000000 2000000 8000000
HA7 07 375000 4000000 8000000 32000000

HB1 01 937 10000 20000 80000


HB2 02 3750 40000 80000 320000
HB3 03 9375 100000 200000 800000
HB4 04 18750 200000 400000 1600000
HB5 05 37500 400000 800000 3200000
HB6 06 93750 1000000 2000000 8000000
HB7 07 375000 4000000 8000000 32000000

LV1 61 6000 64000 128000 512000


LV2 62 30000 320000 640000 2560000
LV3 63 120000 1280000 2560000 10240000
LV4 or 4B2 64 600000 6400000 12800000 51200000
LV5 65 1200000 12800000 25600000 102400000

LV-2C 66 30000 320000 640000 2560000


LV-3C 67 120000 1280000 2560000 10240000

T-A 91 18750 200000 400,000 1600000


T-B 92 37440 400000 800,000 3200000
T-C 93 93600 1000000 2,000,000 8000000
T-D 94 187200 2000000 4000000 16000000

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 51 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


Spindle Entry Code LV RV HA HB
T-E 95 468000 5000000 10000000 40000000
T-F 96 936000 10000000 20000000 80000000

Spiral 70 98400 1050000 2100000 8400000

ULA 00 600 6,400 12,800 51,200

HT-DIN-81 81 3420 36500 73000 292000


SC4-DIN-82 82 3420 36500 73000 292000
SC4-DIN-83 83 11340 121300 242600 970400
ULA-DIN-85 85 1144 12200 24400 97600
ULA-DIN-86 86 3420 36500 73000 292000
ULA-DIN-87 87 11340 121300 242600 970400

SC4-14/6R 14 117200 1250000 2500000 10000000


SC4-15/7R 15 46880 500000 1000000 4000000
SC4-16/8R 16 120000 1280000 2560000 10240000
SC4-18/13R 18 3000 32000 64000 256000
SC4-21/13R 21 4688 50000 100000 400000
SC4-25/13R 25 480000 5120000 10240000 40960000
SC4-27/13R 27 23440 250000 500000 2000000
SC4-28/13R 28 46880 500000 1000000 4000000
SC4-29/13R 29 93750 1000000 2000000 8000000
SC4-31/13R 31 30000 320000 640000 2560000
SC4-34/13R 34 60000 640000 1280000 5120000

CPA/CPE/CP-40 40 307 3270 6540 26160


CPA/CPE/CP-41 41 1151 12280 24560 98240
CPA/CPE/CP-42 42 600 6400 12800 51200
CPA/CPE/CP-51 51 4854 51780 103560 414240
CPA/CPE/CP-52 52 9300 99220 198440 793760

V-71 71 2456 26200 52400 209600


V-72 72 10404 111000 222000 888000
V-73 73 50146 535000 1070000 4280000
V-74 74 508954 5430000 10860000 43440000
V-75 75 199645 2130000 4260000 8520000

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 52 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


APPENDIX C: ASTM Specifications
The following ASTM specifications describe the use of Brookfield Viscometers and accessories. Copies of these
documents are available from Brookfield upon request.

C 965-96 Practices for Measuring Viscosity D 3232-88 Method for Measurement of Consis-
of Glass Above the Softening Point tency of Lubricating Greases at High
(Reapproved 2002) Temperatures
C 1276-94 Standard Test Method for Measuring D 3236-88 Test Method for Apparent Viscosity
the Viscosity of Mold Powers Above of Hot Melt Adhesives and Coating
their Melting Point Using a Rotational Materials
Viscometer (Reapproved 1999)
D 115-03 Methods of Testing Varnishes Used D 3468-99 Standard Specification for Liquid-
for Electrical Insulation Applied Neoprene and Chlorosulfo-
D 562-81 Standard Test Method for Consistency nated Polyethylene Used in Roofing
of Paints Using the Stormer Viscom- and Waterproofing
eter D 3716-99 Method of Testing Emulsion Polymers
D 789-91 Test Methods for Determination of for Use in Floor Polishes
Relative Viscosity, Melting Point, and D 3791-90 Standard Practice for Evaluating the
Moisture Content of Polyamide (PA) Effects of Heat on Asphalts
D 1076-88 Specification for Rubber-Concentrat- D 4016-81 Test Method for Viscosity of Chemical
ed, Ammonia Preserved, Creamed Grouts by the Brookfield Viscometer
and Centrifuged Natural Latex (Laboratory Method)
D 1084-97 Test Methods for Viscosity of Adhe- D 4287-94 Standard Test Method for High-Shear
sives Viscosity Using the ICI Cone/Plate
D 1417-90 Methods of Testing Rubber Latices- Viscometer
Synthetic D 4402-87 Standard Method for Viscosity Deter-
D 1439-83a Methods of Testing Sodium Carboxy- minations of Unfilled Asphalts Using
methyl-cellulose the Brookfield Thermosel Apparatus

D 1824-90 Test Method for Apparent Viscosity D 4889-93 Standard Test Methods for Polyure-
of Plastisols and Organosols at Low thane Raw Materials: Determination
Shear Rates by Brookfield Viscometer of Viscosity of Crude or Modified
Isocyanates
D 2196-86 Test Methods for Rheological Proper- D 5018-89 Standard Test Method for Shear
ties on Non-Newtonian Materials by Viscosity of Coal-Tar and Petroleum
Rotational (Brookfield) Viscometer Pitches
D 2364-85 Standard Methods of Testing Hydroxy- (Reapproved 1999)
ethyl-cellulose D 5133-01 Standard Test Method for Low Tem-
D 2556-97 Test Method for Apparent Viscosity of perature, Low Shear Rate, Viscosity/
Adhesives Having Shear Rate Depen- Temperature Dependence of Lubricat-
dent Flow Properties ing Oils Using a Temperature-Scan-
ning Technique
D 2669-87 Test Method for Apparent Viscosity of
Petroleum Waxes Compounded With
Additives (Hot Melts)
D 2983-03 Test Method for Low-Temperature
Viscosity of Automotive Fluid Lubri-
cants Measured by the Brookfield
Viscometer

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 53 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


APPENDIX D: References
References
The following publications are available from the publishers listed for further reading on the subject of rheology
and viscosity measurement:

NON-NEWTONIAN FLOW AND HEAT ISO standards may be purchased in the United
TRANSFER States from:
A.H.P. Skelland American National Standards Institute
John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY. 11 West 42nd Street, New York, NY. 10036
Phone: 212-642-4900; Fax: 212-302-1286
PAINT FLOW AND PIGMENT DISPERSION
Second Edition Outside the United States, please contact ISO’s
Temple C. Patton member in your country or:
Interscience Publishers, New York, NY. International Organization for Standardization
1 rue de Varembe, 1211 Geneva 20, Switzerland
PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF
RHEOLOGY ASTM test methods are available from:
Arnold G. Fredrickson ASTM
Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 1916 Race Street, Philadelphia, PA.
Phone: 215-299-5400; Fax: 215-977-9679
RHEOLOGICAL METHODS IN FOOD
PROCESS ENGINEERING
James F. Steffe Brookfield Engineering Laboratories maintains a li-
Freeman Press, E. Lansing, MI brary of technical papers on viscosity measurement
and control. Reprints are available, in hard copy form
RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF COSMETICS only, upon request at no charge. To download a cur-
AND TOILETRIES rent listing of available technical papers, please visit
Dennis Laba our website: www.brookfieldengineering.com/support/
Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, NY documentation/astm-article-reprints.

RHEOLOGY FOR CERAMISTS For additional information, applications, etc., please


Dennis R. Dinger visit our website at www.brookfieldengineering.com.
Dinger Ceramic Consulting Services,
Clemson, SC

VISCOMETRIC FLOWS OF NON-NEWTONIAN


FLUIDS
Colemen/Markovitz/Noll
Springer-Verlag New York Inc., New York, NY.

VISCOSITY AND FLOW MEASUREMENT


Van Wazer/Lyons/Kim/Colwell
Interscience Publishers, New York, NY.

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 54 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


APPENDIX E: Brookfield Regional Locations

United States United Kingdom


Brookfield Engineering Laboratories, Inc. Brookfield Viscometers Limited
11 Commerce Boulevard 1 Whitehall Estate
Middleboro, MA 02346 Flex Meadow, Pinnacles West
Harlow, Essex CM19 5TJ, England
Tel: 508-946-6200 or 800-628-8139
Fax: 508-946-6262 Tel: (44) 1279/451774 Fax: (44) 1279/451775
e-mail: sales@brookfieldengineering.com e-mail: sales@brookfield.co.uk

Brookfield Engineering Laboratories, Inc.


Midwest Regional Office
8 North Maple Street Germany
Mt. Prospect, IL 60065
Brookfield Engineering Labs. Vertriebs GmbH
Tel: 847-368-8472 Hauptstrasse 18
e-mail: d_larson@brookfieldengineering.com D-73547 Lorch, Germany

Tel: (49) 7172/927100 Fax: (49) 7172/927105


e-mail: info@brookfield-gmbh.de

China
Guanghzhou Brookfield Viscometers and RheoTec
Texture Instruments Service Co. Ltd. Messtechnik GmbH
Suite 905-906, South Tower, Suntee Plaza 193 a division of Brookfield Engineering
Guangzhou Da Dao Bei Road Schutterwälder Straße 23
Yuexiu District Guangzhou, Guangzhou, P.R.C. D-01458 Otterndorf-Okrilla
510075
Tel: 03 52 05/59 67-0 Fax: 03 52 05/59 67-30
Tel: (86) 20/3760-0995; -8953 e-mail: info@rheotec.de
Fax: (86) 20/3760-0548; -8953
e-mail: info@brookfield.com.cn

MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 55 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.


Copyright 2014

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