More Solutions PDF
More Solutions PDF
More Solutions PDF
1.1 Why Make Rheological Measurements? the system interact (more information on what affects
Anyone beginning the process of learning to think the rheological property can be found in Section 4.8).
Rheo-Logically must first ask the question, “Why The data thus obtained may then be fitted to one of
should I make a viscosity measurement?”. The answer the mathematical models which have been success-
lies in the experiences of thousands of people who fully used with Brookfield instruments. Many of these
have made such measurements, showing that much models may be found in Chapter 5.
useful behavioral and predictive information for various Such mathematical models range from the very
products can be obtained, as well as knowledge of simple to the very complex. Some of them merely
the effects of processing, formulation changes, aging involve the plotting of data on graph paper; others re-
phenomena, etc. quire calculating the ratio of two numbers. Some are
quite sophisticated and require use of programmable
A frequent reason for the measurement of rheological
calculators or computers. This kind of analysis is the
properties can be found in the area of quality control,
best way for getting the most from our data and often
where raw materials must be consistent from batch to
results in one of two “constants” which summarize the
batch. For this purpose, flow behavior is an indirect
data and can be related to product or process perfor-
measure of product consistency and quality.
mance.
Another reason for making flow behavior studies Once a correlation has been developed between
is that a direct assessment of processability can be rheological data and product behavior, the procedure
obtained. For example, a high viscosity liquid requires can then be reversed and rheological data may be
more power to pump than a low viscosity one. Knowing used to predict performance and behavior.
rheological behavior, therefore, is useful when design-
ing pumping and piping systems. 1.3 Three Schools of Thought on Viscosity Mea-
It has been suggested that rheology is the most surement
sensitive method for material characterization because In our experience there are basically three schools
flow behavior is responsive to properties such as mo- of thought on the use of viscometers in applications
lecular weight and molecular weight distribution. This rheology. We present them here and invite you to
relationship is useful in polymer synthesis, for example, decide which you fall into, remembering that there is
because it allows relative differences to be seen without no “right” one and that each has its merits.
making molecular weight measurements. Rheological
measurements are also useful in following the course 1.3.1 The Pragmatic School
of a chemical reaction. Such measurements can be The first school of thought is the most pragmatic.
employed as a quality check during production or to The person who adheres to this school cares only
monitor and/or control a process. Rheological mea- that the Brookfield Viscometer generates numbers
surements allow the study of chemical, mechanical, that tell something useful about a product or process.
and thermal treatments, the effects of additives, or the This person has little or no concern about rheologi-
course of a curing reaction. They are also a way to cal theory and measurement parameters expressed
predict and control a host of product properties, end in absolute terms. Quality control and plant produc-
use performance and material behavior. tion applications are typical of this category.
CLUTCH
3.4.1 Record Keeping
POINTER We recommend that the following informa-
DIAL tion always be recorded when making a viscosity
PIVOT SHAFT
CALIBRATED measurement; viscometer model, spindle (or ac-
cessory), rotational speed, container size or dimen-
SPIRAL SPRING
PIVOT CUP
JEWELLED sions, sample temperature, time of spindle rotation,
GUARDLEG
BEARING
sample preparation procedure (if any), and whether
or not the spindle guardleg was used. Test Report
Forms supplied in the instruction manual with each
Viscometer are convenient for this purpose.
SPINDLE
SAMPLE
3.4.2 The Spindle and the Guardleg
CONTAINER Examine each spindle before using it. If it is
corroded or damaged to the extent of changing its
dimensions, a false viscosity reading may result.
Since all spindles are brightly polished when new,
Figure 3-1
any sign of pitting, dulled edges, or other obvious
damage should dictate the purchase of a new
Below the main case is the pivot cup through which spindle. If you have an unusual problem along
the lower end of the pivot shaft protrudes. A jewel these lines, corrosion-resistant 316 series stainless
bearing inside the pivot cup rotates with the dial or steel and Teflon-coated spindles are available. Also,
transducer; the pivot shaft is supported on this bearing special spindle materials can be employed.
by the pivot point. The lower end of the pivot shaft com- When attaching a spindle, remember that it has
prises the spindle coupling to which the Viscometer’s a left-hand thread and must be screwed firmly to
spindles are attached. the coupling. Always lift up on the spindle coupling
when attaching a spindle to avoid damage to the
3.3 Spring Torque instrument’s pivot point and jewel bearing. After
There are four basic spring torque series offered by attachment, do not hit the spindle against the side
Brookfield: of the sample container since this can damage the
shaft alignment. A good procedure to follow is to
Brookfield Spring Torque immerse and position the spindle in the sample fluid
Terminology dyne-cm milli Newton - m before attaching it to the Viscometer.
LV 673.7 0.0673 The spindle guardleg (supplied with some
RV 7,187.0 0.7187 models) protects the spindle from damage and is
HA 14,374.0 1.4374 significant to the Viscometer’s calibration when us-
HB 57,496.0 5.7496 ing the #1 or #2 spindle for RV torque and #61 or
#62 spindle for LV torque. The guardleg should be
The higher the torque calibration of your instrument, used at all times. If it proves necessary or desirable
the higher the viscosity measurement range for a to operate the Viscometer without the guardleg, this
specific spindle. The viscosity measurement range for fact should be noted when reporting test results. It
each torque calibration and spindle combination may may be desirable to recalibrate the Viscometer to
be found in Appendix B. compensate for the absence of the guardleg. Refer
There are many variations of the standard spring to Section 3.4.10 for this procedure.
torques. Please consult Brookfield Engineering Note: spindle guardlegs are provided only on
Laboratories or your dealer with your special require- LV and RV models of the dial-reading and Digital
ments. Viscometers with standard spindles. HA and HB
models, as well as Cone/Plate models, do not re-
3.4 Viscosity Measurement Techniques quire a guardleg. The guardleg is also not used in
As with any precision instrument, proper operating conjunction with most accessories.
techniques will improve effectiveness of the Brookfield
Viscometer. A step-by-step procedure for Viscometer 3.4.3 Selecting a Spindle Speed
operation can be found in the Instruction Manual sup- When performing a test according to an exist-
plied with each unit, and is not repeated here. Instead, ing specification or procedure, use the spindle and
we present recommendations and advice gleaned from speed specified (after confirming that you have the
Figure 4-3
5.2.1 Cylindrical Spindles Note: Rc should not exceed 2Rb for well defined
The following equations apply to cylindrical shear rates.
spindles only, on any Brookfield Viscometer/Rhe-
ometer.
VISCOSITY
SHEAR STRESS (poise): η = τ
(9)
M (5) γ⋅
(dynes/cm2): τ = 2 π Rb2L
Cone Plate
ω
Definitions: γ⋅ = shear rate at surface of
spindle (sec-1) c
θ
ω
r
ω
L
See Section 5.2.1 for definitions of other variables.
See Section 5.2.1 for other definitions. spindles with special shapes other than cylindrical
or cone configurations, do not have directly defin-
The DIN Adapter and the RST Rheometer with able shear rate and shear stress values. You may
Coaxial Cylinder have geometries which comply with occasionally see the Viscometer’s rotational speed
the requirements set forth in DIN 53019-1, namely referred to as a “shear rate,” particularly when T-bar
Rb / Rc > 0.91. spindles are used. This is incorrect, as mathemati-
cal models are not available for calculating viscosity
functions using T-bar spindles. However, models are
5.2.3 Cone and Plate available for the disc spindles. Refer to Technical
These equations may be used with all models Paper AR-82, available from Brookfield Engineering
of the Wells-Brookfield Cone/Plate Viscometer/Rhe- Laboratories.
ometer, CAP Viscometer/Rheometer and RST-CPS
Rheometer.
below 10 RPM. Eddy currents at higher rotational Definitions: Mx = Viscometer torque reading
speeds could give falsely higher viscosity values. at speed x
M10x = Viscometer torque reading
5.2.8 Other Special Spindles at speed 10x (other ratios
Brookfield can produce special spindles upon may be used)
request. This activity is coordinated through the
Sales Department at Brookfield. Spindles that have 5.3.2 Graphic Methods
come out of this type of activity include modifications The most basic graphic method of analyzing
of the Helipath Stand T-bars (i.e. multiple tines), very non-Newtonian flow is constructing a plot of viscosity
large spindles for low viscosity liquids and special versus spindle speed (using the same spindle for
materials of construction. all readings.). Generally, viscosity is plotted along
the Y-axis and speed (RPM) along the X-axis.
5.3 Analyzing Time-Independent Non-Newtonian Slope and shape of the resulting curve will indicate
Fluids the type and degree of flow behavior. For examples
The equations we have presented thus far will yield of this type graph, see the illustrations accompany-
precisely defined viscosity data for both Newtonian and ing the discussion of non-Newtonian flow types in
non-Newtonian fluids. With Newtonian fluids, this is Section 4.4.
all the analysis that is necessary, since variations in Another method is to plot Viscometer reading (on
shear rate will have no effect on viscosity of the fluid. the X-axis) as a function of speed (on the Y-axis).
When the fluid is non-Newtonian, however, the situ- If the graph is drawn on log-log paper, the result is
MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 23 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.
frequently a straight line. When this happens, the One method of determining yield value involves
slope of the line (indicating the type and degree of plotting Viscometer readings on the X-axis versus
non-Newtonian flow) and its intercept with the X- speed (RPM) on the Y-axis on standard graph paper.
axis (indicating its yield value, if any) can be used The line thus obtained is extrapolated to zero RPM.
as empirical constants. The corresponding value for the Viscometer reading
When shear rate and shear stress are known, represents the dynamic yield value. If a cylindrical
as with cylindrical spindles or coaxial cylinder geom- spindle is used to make the readings, the yield value
etry, these values may be substituted for speed and may be calculated from this equation:
Viscometer reading in the above methods. Thus,
predictions of viscosity at other shear rates may YIELD VALUE
be made by interpolating between or extrapolating y = x1 • fa (11)
beyond the values available with a particular spindle
geometry.
Definitions: y = yield value (dynes/cm2)
When using these methods with disc spindle
x1 = Viscometer reading @ 0 RPM
geometries, it is best to make all measurements fa = constant from table below
with the same spindle. An assumption that can be
made with regard to shear rate is that, for a given Model
Cylindrical Spindle
spindle, the shear rate is proportional to the speed. Spindle Entry Code LV RV HA HB
Therefore the shear rate at 30 RPM (for example) 1 61 0.16 1.72 3.44 13.78
is 10 times the shear rate at 3 RPM. 2 66 0.67 7.11 14.21 56.85
3 67 2.56 27.30 54.60 218.39
4 64 12.48 133.14 266.28 1065.14
5.3.3 Template Method 5 65 25.26 269.45 538.91 2155.63
A more sophisticated technique for the analysis
of non-Newtonian fluids involves use of a “template.” Extrapolating the line to zero RPM is easy if the
Its use is limited to fluids that follow the “power line is fairly straight. This is called Bingham flow. If
law,” meaning ones that display one type of non- the line is curved, as in pseudoplastic or dilatant flow,
Newtonian flow, rather than shifting from one type an estimate of X1 must be made by continuing the
to another as shear rate is varied. For example, a curve until it intersects the X-axis (0 on the Y-axis).
material that changed from pseudoplastic to dilatant This estimated value of X1 is then subtracted from all
flow when a certain shear rate is exceeded would the other readings that comprise the graph. These
not follow the power law over the full range of shear new values are plotted on log-log paper, Viscometer
rates measured. reading versus speed. This graph will usually be
The template method is usable only with data a straight line for power law fluids if the value for
generated with cylindrical spindles or coaxial cylin- X1 was estimated accurately. A curved line on this
ders. The data is fitted to a template to determine a graph indicates that another estimate of X1 should
constant called the “STI.” The STI is a convenient be made.
way to characterize non-Newtonian flow, much like Once a straight line is obtained, the angle this
the Viscosity Index. Certain parameters of the Vis- line forms with the Y-axis (RPM) is measured. The
cometer in use and the STI are fitted to a second power law index of this fluid can then be calculated
template, which is then used to predict the fluid’s from this equation:
viscosity at any selected shear rate.
This is a useful method for predicting viscosity POWER LAW INDEX (12)
at shear rates not attainable by the Brookfield Vis- N = tan θ
cometer, and for characterizing fluid behavior under
a specific set of conditions. A complete description Definitions: θ = Angle formed by plot line
of the template method, including both templates, is with Y-axis of graph
available from Brookfield Engineering Laboratories
If θ is less than 45 degrees, the fluid is pseudo-
as Technical Paper #AR-49.
plastic; greater than 45 degrees, dilatant.
5.3.4. Dynamic Yield Value Determination
The power law index can be used to calculate the
Some fluids behave much like a solid at zero
shear rate. They will not flow until a certain amount effective shear rate at a given speed by using this
of force is applied, at which time they will revert to equation:
fluid behavior. This force is called the “yield value”
SHEAR RATE
and measuring it is often worthwhile. Yield values N (13)
can help determine whether a pump has sufficient (sec-1): γ⋅ =
(0.2095)N
power to start in a flooded system, and often cor-
relate with other properties of suspensions and
emulsions. The pourability of a material is directly Definitions: N = Power law index
related to its yield value. N = Viscometer speed (RPM)
( ( ))
St1 – St2
In
t2
t1
•F
(14)
the start of flow at zero shear rate. These readings, Definitions: St1 = Viscometer reading at t1 minutes
measured in Pascals (Pa), dynes/cm2 or Newton/m2, St2 = Viscometer reading at t2 minutes
may differ from values obtained using dynamic meth- F = Factor for spindle/speed
ods (see preceding section), which back calculate yield combination
stress from flow curve data (shear stress vs. shear
rate). Plots of thixotropic behavior may sometimes be used
to predict the gel point of a fluid. One way to do this
5.5 Analyzing Time-Dependent, Non-Newtonian is to plot log Viscometer reading versus time, using a
Fluids single spindle and speed. If the resulting line has a
In most cases, analysis of thixotropic and rheopectic steep slope, gelling is likely to occur. If the line curves
fluids (see Section 4.5) involves plotting changes in and flattens out, gelation is unlikely.
viscosity as a function of time. The simplest method is Another technique is to plot time versus the recip-
to select a spindle and speed (preferably a low speed) rocal of the Viscometer reading. In this method, the
and leave the Viscometer running for an extended gel point can be read from the curve intercept at a
period, noting the dial or display reading at regular Viscometer reading of 100. Fluids which do not gel
intervals. It is important to control temperature of the will be asymptotic to the vertical axis.
sample fluid carefully so that variations in temperature
won’t affect the results. A change in the fluid’s viscos- 5.6 Temperature Dependence of Viscosity
ity over time indicates time-dependent behavior; a The viscosity of most fluids decreases with an
decrease signifies thixotropy, an increase rheopexy increase in temperature. By measuring viscosity at
(or, in some cases, curing of the sample material). two temperatures (using a single spindle and speed),
A second method is to graph the Viscometer read- it is possible to predict a flow curve representing the
ing versus speed, using a single spindle. Starting at temperature dependence of the viscosity of a fluid
a low speed, note the reading at each successively according to the following relationships using the ap-
higher speed until the reading goes off scale. A graph plication of simultaneous equations:
of these readings is the “up curve.” Without stopping
()
the Viscometer, reduce the speed incrementally to
the starting point, again noting the reading at each B
(15)
speed. This is the “down curve.” It is best to allow a T*
η = A•e
( ) ()
consistent time interval between each speed change.
If the fluid is time-independent, the “up curve” and the T1•T2 η2
“down curve” will coincide. If they do not, the fluid is where B = T1 – T 2 • In η1
time-dependent. Position of the “up curve” and the
“down curve” indicates the type of flow behavior: if the
“up curve” indicates a higher viscosity than the “down
curve,” the fluid is thixotropic; lower, rheopectic. A = η1 • e () –B
T1
An indication of the recovery time of the fluid (how
quickly it returns to its initial viscosity after exposure Definitions: T1 = Temperature at which
to shear conditions) can be obtained by turning off the viscosity η1 was measured
Viscometer at the end of the “down curve,” waiting for T2 = Temperature at which
a given period of time, restarting the Viscometer and viscosity η2 was measured
immediately taking a reading.
A more sophisticated approach is to calculate the
“thixotropic breakdown coefficient.” This is a single
number which quantifies the degree of thixotropy (or
MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 25 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.
5.7 Math Models of drilling mud and fracturing fluid. The latter is a
The analysis of viscometer data may be enhanced material forced into a non-performing well to allow for
through the use of mathematical models. Non-New- additional oil recovery. The power law equation has
tonian behavior can be simply expressed through an been found to closely approximate its pseudoplastic
equation, and in some cases, the coefficients of a behavior. In addition, experience shows that the power
model can be used to infer performance of a fluid under term (n, flow index) indicates the ability of the fluid to
conditions of use. be moved down into the well. The coefficient (k, con-
Newtonian flow is defined by a proportional response sistency index) indicates low shear rate flow behavior
in shear stress for a change in shear rate (a linear of the mud once it is at the far reaches of the well. A
relationship). Non-Newtonian fluids will exhibit a non- fracturing fluid can be modified in its storage vessel
linear stress/rate relationship. Newton’s equation for to obtain the appropriate flow characteristics prior to
viscosity has been modified many times to attempt to being pumped into the well.
characterize non-Newtonian behavior. Some of the In both cases described above, the successful use of
more widely used equations include Bingham, Casson, the math model will prevent the utilization of improper
NCA/CMA Casson and Power Law. fluid, and ultimately, poor performance or rejected
material. The math model should be utilized as a tool
Bingham to better understand and interpret viscometer data.
τ = τo + ηγ The utilization of math models normally requires vis-
Casson cosity data collection under defined conditions of shear
τ = τo + ηγ rate and shear stress. Many spindle geometries are
available for use with your Brookfield Viscometer/Rhe-
NCA/CMA Casson ometer which will provide shear stress and shear rate
(1+a) τ = 2 τo + (1+a) ηγ data. In addition, Brookfield offers several software
packages and some instruments with the embedded
Power Law (also IPC* Paste) capability to analyze data sets using a variety of math-
τ = kγn ematical models. Our brochure “Technical Papers on
Viscosity Measurement and Control and Texture Analy-
Herschel Bulkley sis” lists available papers on specific application areas
τ = τo + kγn
as well as general-interest experimental techniques.
Steiger Ory If you don’t have the current list, you can download
γ = K1τ + K2τ3 it from our website: www.brookfieldengineering.com/
support/documentation/astm-article-reprints
where: τ = shear stress
γ = shear rate 5.8 Brookfield Application Software
η = viscosity Brookfield offers various software programs which
τo= yield stress work in conjunction with viscometers/rheometers to
k = consistency index allow for automatic data collection, analysis including
n = flow index use of math models and the creation of permanent test
a = aspect ratio records:
K = constant
Software Instrument Required
* IPC = Institute for Interconnecting and Packaging Electronic
Circuits
RHEOCALCT DV3T Rheometer
DV2T Viscometer
The chocolate industry utilizes the NCA/CMA version RHEOCALC32 DV-III Ultra Rheometer
of the Casson equation to evaluate chocolate prior to DV-III+ Rheometer
final processing. This equation closely approximates DV-II+ Pro Viscometer
the plastic behavior of chocolate. In addition, experi- WINGATHER32 DV-II+ Pro Viscometer
ence shows that the slope term, η (plastic viscosity), DV-II+ Programmable
indicates the chocolate’s response to being moved in Viscometer
processing (mixing, pumping). Also, the “y” intercept, DV-II+ Viscometer
2 τo (yield stress or zero shear viscosity), indicates the DV-I Prime
force required to start/stop flowing (molding, enrob- CAPCALC32 CAP+ series Viscometers
ing). A particular batch of chocolate can be modified RHEOVISION PVS Rheometer
to achieve the specific performance characteristics RHEO3000 RST Rheometer
required for the next processing step. R/S+ Rheometer
The oil drilling industry in the United States utilizes EZ-YIELD YR-1 Rheometer
the power law equation to evaluate the performance DV3T Rheometer
possible.
η
.
Start Max.
Start Speed Speed
TIME RPM or γ
.
γ
RPM or
Figure 6-2
η
TORQUE
and 0.5 RPM.
Some Time
• Record torque values at defined time intervals.
Sensitivity
η or
Very Time
The maximum torque is an indication of the “static
Sensitive
yield” value. The maximum torque value will prob-
ably change if a different rotational speed is chosen.
TIME
This method is quick, easy to do, and may provide
Figure 6-3 repeatable test data.
TORQUE
• Choose a rotational speed or shear rate.
• Choose a starting minimum temperature and an
end point maximum temperature.
• Record viscosity values at discrete temperature
setpoints; allow the material time to stabilize at TIME
each temperature setpoint.
Figure 6-6
Data
Method
The maximum torque value can be converted into a
yield stress value in Pascals or dynes/cm2 using the
TEMPERATURE
TORQUE or
RPM or
Viscosity Data
x
Dynamic Yield Point
Temp 2
Figure 6-7
Temp 3
Method
TORQUE
No
Recovery
Figure 6-10
Partial
Recovery
Figure 6-8
Figure 6-9
Appendix A is intended to provide the user of Brook- Calibration Spring Torque for Standard Viscom-
field Viscometers, Rheometers and accessories with eters/Rheometers:
all the information required to perform mathematical Standard Brookfield Viscometers/Rheometers use
analyses of viscosity data acquired with this equip- a calibrated spiral spring inside the instrument to
ment. It includes essential dimensions, viscosity measure the resistance sensed by the spindle rotat-
range tables and constants, organized by product in ing in the fluid sample. The following table identi-
data sheet form. The following Brookfield Viscom- fies the four common spring torques available from
eters/Rheometers, Accessories, Special Purpose Brookfield:
Instruments and High End Viscometers/Rheometers
are covered: LV 673.7 dyne-centimeters (Full Scale Range)
RV 7187.0 dyne-centimeters (Full Scale Range)
Standard Viscometers/Rheometers: HA 14,374.0 dyne-centimeters (Full Scale Range)
A.1 Dial Reading Viscometer HB 57,496.0 dyne-centimeters (Full Scale Range)
A.2 Digital Viscometers/Rheometers
A.3 Disc Spindles Notes: 1. These values apply to all models with
A.4 Cylindrical Spindles the same prefix designation: LV refers
to LVF, LVT, LVTD, LVT-CP, LVTDCP,
LVDV-I+, LVDV-II+, LVDV-II+ Program-
Standard Cone/Plate Viscometers/Rheometers: mable, LVDV-II+Pro, LVDV-III+, LVDV-III
A.5 Wells-Brookfield Cone/Plate Ultra, LVDV2T, LVDV3T.
Viscometers/Rheometers
2. For alternative spring torque models
multiply the base spring torque by the
Accessories for Standard Viscometers/
Rheometers: multiplier in the model designation:
5XLVT = 5 X 673.7 = 3368.5 dyne-
A.6 Small Sample Adapter centimeters (full scale).
A.7 UL Adapter 5XHB = 5 X 57,496 = 287,500 dyne-
A.8 Thermosel System centimeters.
A.9 DIN Adapter Multiplier also applies to all factors and
A.10 Helipath Stand ranges.
A.11 Spiral Adapter
A.12 Vane Spindles 3. Torque at any dial or display reading
equals reading multiplied by full-scale
torque divided by 100: RVT model,
Special Purpose Instruments:
reading 40; torque = (40 X 7187.0)/100
A.13 Krebs Viscometer = 2874.8 dyne-centimeters.
A.14 YR-1 Rheometer
A.15 CAP 1000+ and CAP 2000+ Viscometers 4. To calculate the upper limit of viscosity
A.16 Falling Ball Viscometer measuring range (Full Scale Range)
for your instrument, multiply the factor
by 100 after defining the spindle and
High End Viscometers/Rheometers: speed in use. (See A.3, A.4) For digital
A.17 RST Rheometer & RST Soft Solids Tester models, push the autorange button.
A.18 PVS Rheometer
Spindle Factors are listed as constants related to the Viscometers rotational speed. Spindle Factors are
traditionally used to convert the torque value on a Dial Reading Viscometer to a centipoise value. Divide the
given constant by the speed in use to obtain the Spindle Factor for that spindle/speed combination. This
Spindle Factor is then multiplied by the Viscometer’s dial reading to obtain viscosity (in centipoise).
For example: the Spindle Factor for a #62 LV spindle on an LV Viscometer is given as 300/N (see the fol-
lowing Disc Spindle Factors Table). The Viscometer’s rotational speed (RPM) is represented by N. If the
measurement is being made at 12 RPM, the Spindle Factor is 300/12, or 25. Multiply all Dial Viscometer
readings made with this spindle/speed combination by 25 to obtain viscosity in centipoise.
Spindle Factors are listed as constants related to the Viscometers rotational speed. Spindle Factors are tradi-
tionally used to convert the torque value on a Dial Reading Viscometer to a centipoise value. Divide the given
constant by the speed in use to obtain the Spindle Factor for that spindle/speed combination. This Spindle
Factor is then multiplied by the Viscometer’s dial reading to obtain viscosity (in centipoise).
For example: the Spindle Factor for a #61 LV spindle on an LV Viscometer is given as 72/N (see the following
Cylindrical Spindle Factors and Shear Rates Table). The Viscometer’s rotational speed (RPM) is represented
by N. If the measurement is being made at 10 RPM, the Spindle Factor is 72/10, or 7.2. Multiply all Dial
Viscometer readings made with this spindle/speed combination by 7.2 to obtain viscosity in centipoise.
Shear Rate
Spindle LV RV** HA** HB**
(sec-1)
#61 LV* 72/N** 780/N 1560/N 6240/N 0.220N
#66 LV CYL t 330/N** 3350/N 6700/N 26.8K/N 0.212N
#67 LV CYL t 1200/N 12.9K/N 25.8K/N 103.2K/N 0.210N
#64 LV 6000/N 64K/N 128K/N 512K/N 0.209N
#65 LV CYL t 12K/N 128K/N 256K/N 1024K/N 0.209N
#7 RV/H 3750/N 40K/N 80K/N 320K/N 0.209N
N = RPM K = 1000 t = Optional Item
*#61 LV is 60/N with Guard Leg
**Factors are for readings made without using the guardleg.
B B
B
A
A A A
F
D
F
D D
D
C C C C
The following cylindrical spindle table depicts information for use with the equations presented in Section
5.2.1 only.
Radius (cm) Effective Actual Length
Spindle
1/2C Length (cm)* (cm) D
#61 LV 0.9421 7.493 6.510
#66 LV CYL 0.5128 6.121 5.395
#67 LV CYL 0.2941 4.846 4.287
#64 LV 0.1588 3.396 3.101
#65 LV 0.1588 1.684 1.514
#7 RV/H 0.1588 5.620 5.037
*Effective length includes correction for end effect and should be used in equations.
Actual length is given for reference only.
Sample Shear
Angle Radius
ANGLE Cone Spindle Size Rate
(degrees) (cm)
(mL) (sec-1)
CP-40 / CPA-40Z 0.8 2.4 0.5 7.5N*
CP-41 / CPA-41Z 3.0 2.4 2.0 2.0N
CP-42 / CPA-42Z 1.565 2.4 1.0 3.84N
RADIUS CP-51 / CPA-51Z 1.565 1.2 0.5 3.84/N
CP-52 / CPA-52Z 3.0 1.2 0.5 2.0N
*N = RPM
Spindle Factors are listed as constants related to the Viscometers rotational speed. Spindle Factors are
traditionally used to convert the torque value on a Dial Reading Viscometer to a centipoise value. Divide
the given constant by the speed in use to obtain the Spindle Factor for that spindle/speed combination. This
Spindle Factor is then multiplied by the Viscometer’s dial reading to obtain viscosity (in centipoise).
For example: the Spindle Factor for a CPA-40Z spindle on an LV Viscometer is given as 3.07/N (see the
following Cone Spindle Factors Table). The Viscometer’s rotational speed (RPM) is represented by N. If the
measurement is being made at 12 RPM, the Spindle Factor is 3.07/12, or 0.26. Multiply all Dial Viscometer
readings made with this spindle/speed combination by 0.26 to obtain viscosity in centipoise.
Cone Spindle LV RV HB HA
CP-40 / CPA-40Z 3.07/N* 32.7/N 261.6/N 65.4/N
CP-41 / CPA-41Z 11.51/N 122.80/N 982.4/N 245.6/N
CP-42 / CPA-42Z 6.0/N 64.0/N 512.0/N 128.0/N
CP-51 / CPA-51Z 48.54/N 517.8/N 4142.4/N 1035.6/N
CP-52 / CPA-52Z 93.0/N 992.2/N 7937.60/N 1984.4/N
*N = RPM
Spindle Factors are listed as constants related to the Viscometers rotational speed. Spindle Factors are
traditionally used to convert the torque value on a Dial Reading Viscometer to a centipoise value. Divide
the given constant by the speed in use to obtain the Spindle Factor for that spindle/speed combination. This
Spindle Factor is then multiplied by the Viscometer’s dial reading to obtain viscosity (in centipoise).
For example: the Spindle Factor for an SC4-21 spindle and 13R chamber on an RV Viscometer is given as
500/N (see the following SC4 Series Spindle Factors and Shear Rates Table). The Viscometer’s rotational
speed (RPM) is represented by N. If the measurement is being made at 20 RPM, the Spindle Factor is 500/20,
or 25. Multiply all Dial Viscometer readings made with this spindle/speed combination by 25 to obtain viscos-
ity in centipoise.
Spindle/ Sample Shear Rate
LV RV HA HB
Chamber Size (mL) (sec-1)
SC4-14/6R 2.1 1172/N 12.5M/N* 25M/N 100M/N 0.40N
SC4-15/7R 3.8 468.8/N 5000/N 10M/N 40M/N 0.48N
SC4-16/8R 4.2 1200/N 12.8M/N 25.6M/N 102.4M/N 0.29N
SC4-18/13R 6.7 30/N 320/N 640/N 2560/N 1.32N
SC4-21/13R 7.1 46.88/N 500/N 1000/N 4000/N 0.93N
SC4-25/13R 16.1 4800/N 51.2M/N 102.4M/N 409.6M/N 0.22N
SC4-27/13R 10.4 234.4/N 2500/N 5000/N 20M/N 0.34N
SC4-28/13R 11.0 468.8/N 5000/N 10M/N 40M/N 0.28N
SC4-29/13R 13.5 937.5/N 10M/N 20M/N 80M/N 0.25N
SC4-31/13R 9.0 300/N 3200/N 6400/N 25.6M/N 0.34N
SC4-34/13R 9.4 600/N 6400/N 12.8M/N 51.2M/N 0.28N
SC4-DIN-82 5.5 34.2/N 365/N 730/N 2,920/N 1.29N
SC4-DIN-83 1.5 113.4/N 1,213/N 2,426/N 9.704/N 1.29N
*N = RPM M = 1000
The values for the sample size (mL) were adjusted slightly in 2005. If unsure, check 1/8" inch
the fluid level in the chamber to verify that the spindle shaft is covered 1/8-inch above
the point where the cone and shaft come together.
Effective
Diameter Side Length
Spindle Length
inches (mm) inches (mm)
inches (mm)1
SC-14 0.344 (8.74) 0.340 (8.64) 0.478 (12.14)
SC4-15 0.376 (9.55) 0.674 (17.12) 0.821 (20.85)
SC4-16 0.275 (6.99) 0.815 (20.70) 0.989 (25.12)
SC4-18 0.688 (17.48) 1.249 (31.72) 1.399 (35.53)
SC4-21/SD2 0.660 (16.77) 1.230 (31.24) 1.384 (35.15)
SC4-25 0.188 (4.78) 0.520 (13.21) 0.697 (17.70)
SIDE LENGTH SC4-27/SD 2
0.463 (11.76) 1.300 (33.02) 1.547 (39.29)
SC4-28 0.370 (9.39) 1.260 (32.00) 1.480 (37.59)
SC4-29 0.300 (7.62) 1.070 (27.18) 1.250 (31.75)
SC4-31 0.463 (11.76) 0.990 (25.15) 1.208 (30.68)
SC4-34 0.370 (9.39) 0.954 (24.23) 1.156 (29.36)
SC4-DIN-82 0.6915 (17.56) 1.0373 (26.35) 1.237 (31.42)
DIAMETER SC4-DIN-83 0.4617 (11.73) 0.6926 (17.59) 0.826 (20.98)
1. Refer to Section 5.2.1.
2. The “SD” designation indicates that the spindle is also
available in a solid shaft configuration.
.8750 DIA.
Disposable
Chamber
Chamber1 Diameter Depth
SC4-6R/RP 0.500 (12.70) 1.110 (28.19)
SC4-7R/RP 0.501 (12.73) 1.745 (44.32)
SC4-8R/RP 0.515 (13.08) 1.584 (40.23)
2.6720 SC4-13R/RP 0.750 (19.05) 2.550 (64.77)
Dimensions are in inches (mm).
SC4-13RD2
DISPOSABLE SAMPLE CHAMBER
1. The chamber is available with an optional embedded temperature probe, in which case the “RP”
designation is used. E.g. SC4-6RP
2. Disposable chamber is available only in 13R size and comes in quantities of 100 chambers (Part
No. SC4-13RD-100). Outside diameter is slightly larger than standard 13R chamber and requires
special size water jacket (Part No. SC4-45YD) in order to use. Inside diameter and sample volume
required are same as 13R chamber. Contact Brookfield Engineering or an authorized dealer for more
information.
MORE SOLUTIONS TO STICKY PROBLEMS Page 37 Brookfield Engineering Labs., Inc.
A.7 UL Adapter
Spindle Factors are listed as constants related to the Viscometers rotational speed. Spindle Factors are
traditionally used to convert the torque value on a Dial Reading Viscometer to a centipoise value. Divide
the given constant by the speed in use to obtain the Spindle Factor for that spindle/speed combination. This
Spindle Factor is then multiplied by the Viscometer’s dial reading to obtain viscosity (in centipoise).
For example: the Spindle Factor for the UL spindle on an LV Viscometer is given as 6/N (see the following UL
Adapter Spindle Factors and Shear Rates Table). The Viscometer’s rotational speed (RPM) is represented by
N. If the measurement is being made at 60 RPM, the Spindle Factor is 6/60, or 0.1. Multiply all Dial Viscometer
readings made with this spindle/speed combination by 0.1 to obtain viscosity in centipoise.
Shear Rate
LV RV HA HB
(sec-1)
UL 6/N* 64/N 128/N 512/N 1.224N
DIN-UL 11.44/N 122.N 244/N 976/N 1.29N
*N = RPM Sample size 16.0 mL (end cap on).
UL Adapter Dimensions
Spindle Chamber
Actual
Effective Diameter Inside
3.5725 (90.74) 3.6366 (92.37) Length
SIDE LENGTH EFFECTIVE LENGTH Length* Diameter
3.637 (92.39) 3.5725 (90.74) 0.9893 (25.13) 1.0875 (27.62)
Dimensions are in inches (mm).
0.9902 (25.15)
SPINDLE O.D.
1.0875 (27.62)
CHAMBER I.D.
*Effective length includes correction for end effect and should be used in manual calculations
for shear rate/shear stress equations when using Dial Reading Viscometers. Actual length is
given for reference only.
Digital Viscometers/Rheometers have a correction factor built-in to the firmware of the
instrument; no additional calculations are required.
Spindle Factors are listed as constants related to the Viscometers rotational speed. Spindle Factors are
traditionally used to convert the torque value on a Dial Reading Viscometer to a centipoise value. Divide
the given constant by the speed in use to obtain the Spindle Factor for that spindle/speed combination. This
Spindle Factor is then multiplied by the Viscometer’s dial reading to obtain viscosity (in centipoise).
For example: the Spindle Factor for the an SC4-27 spindle with 13R chamber on an RV Viscometer is given
as 2500/N (see the following SC4 Series Spindle Factors and Shear Rates Table). The Viscometer’s rota-
tional speed (RPM) is represented by N. If the measurement is being made at 50 RPM, the Spindle Factor
is 2500/50, or 50. Multiply all Dial Viscometer readings made with this spindle/speed combination by 50 to
obtain viscosity in centipoise.
1. The “BS” designation indicates that the spindle is also available in a solid shaft configuration.
2. DIN geometry for the Thermosel is also available. See Appendix A.9.
DIAMETER
1. The “BS” designation indicates that the spindle is also available in a solid shaft configuration.
Diameter Depth
0.750 (19.05) 3.062 (77.77)
0.5048 DIA.
DAA-1 ULA-DIN-6Y
DIN CHAMBER DIN CHAMBER
Spindle Factors are listed as constants related to the Viscometers rotational speed. Spindle Factors are
traditionally used to convert the torque value on a Dial Reading Viscometer to a centipoise value. Divide
the given constant by the speed in use to obtain the Spindle Factor for that spindle/speed combination. This
Spindle Factor is then multiplied by the Viscometer’s dial reading to obtain viscosity (in centipoise).
For example: the Spindle Factor for a T-C spindle on an RV Viscometer is given as 10,000/N (see the fol-
lowing T-Bar Spindle Factors Table). The Viscometer’s rotational speed (RPM) is represented by N. If the
measurement is being made at 10 RPM, the Spindle Factor is 10,000/10, or 1,000. Multiply all Dial Viscometer
readings made with this spindle/speed combination by 1000 to obtain viscosity in centipoise.
Travel Speed for Helipath drive motor which moves rotating spindle downward into sample:
7/8 inch (22.2 mm) per minute.
Spindle LV RV HA HB
T-A 187.5/N* 2000/N 4000/N 16M/N
T-B 374.4/N 4000/N 8000/N 32M/N
T-C 936/N 10M/N 20M/N 80M/N
T-D 1872/N 20M/N 40M/N 160M/N
T-E 4680/N 50M/N 100M/N 400M/N
T-F 9360/N 100M/N 200M/N 800M/N
*N = RPM M = 1000
T-Bar Spindle Dimensions
1/4
CROSSBAR
LENGTH
Spindle Factors are listed as constants related to the Viscometers rotational speed. Spindle Factors are
traditionally used to convert the torque value on a Dial Reading Viscometer to a centipoise value. Divide
the given constant by the speed in use to obtain the Spindle Factor for that spindle/speed combination. This
Spindle Factor is then multiplied by the Viscometer’s dial reading to obtain viscosity (in centipoise).
For example: the Spindle Factor for a Spiral spindle on an RV Viscometer is given as 10,500/N (see the fol-
lowing Spiral Spindle Factors Table). The Viscometer’s rotational speed (RPM) is represented by N. If the
measurement is being made at 30 RPM, the Spindle Factor is 10,500/30, or 350. Multiply all Dial Viscometer
readings made with this spindle/speed combination by 350 to obtain viscosity in centipoise.
.825 .825
.500 .500
Spindle Factors are listed as constants related to the Viscometers rotational speed. Spindle Factors are
traditionally used to convert the torque value on a Dial Reading Viscometer to a centipoise value. Divide
the given constant by the speed in use to obtain the Spindle Factor for that spindle/speed combination. This
Spindle Factor is then multiplied by the Viscometer’s dial reading to obtain viscosity (in centipoise).
For example: the Spindle Factor for a V-72 spindle on an RV Viscometer is given as 1,110/N (see the following
Vane Spindle Factors Table). The Viscometer’s rotational speed (RPM) is represented by N. If the measure-
ment is being made at 1,100 RPM, the Spindle Factor is 1,100/10, or 110. Multiply all Dial Viscometer readings
made with this spindle/speed combination by 110 to obtain viscosity in centipoise.
Spindle LV RV HA HB
V-71 24.56/N 262/N 524/N 4.6M/N
V-72 104/N 1.11M/N 2.22M/N 8.88M/N
V-73 501/N 5.35M/N 10.7M/N 42.8M/N
V-74 5.09M/N 54.3M/N 108.6M/N 434.4M/N
V-75 1.20M/N 21.3M/N 42.6M/N 170.4M/N
N=RPM M=1,000
Possibility of turbulence at speeds above 10 RPM may give artificially higher viscosity readings.
Spindle Dimensions
B B
A A
D
E E D
C C
The KU-2 (KU-1+, KU-1) Viscometer measures viscosity in Krebs units and grams. The KU-2 Viscometer also
reports the viscosity reading in centipoise. The measurement is made by rotating the spindle at 200 RPM.
The CAP 1000+ Viscometer is a high-torque, single-speed cone/plate instrument used traditionally for testing
at high shear rates around 10,000 sec-1. The CAP 1000+ can also be configured with lower torque range and
choice of lower speed for special purpose applications.
The CAP 2000+ Viscometer is a variable speed cone/plate instrument (5 RPM to 1000 RPM) with integrated
temperature control.
E C
The Falling Ball Viscometer is based on the measuring principle by Höppler for simple but precise dynamic
viscosity measurement of transparent Newtonian fluids. The basic concept is to measure the elapsed time
required for the ball to fall under gravity through a sample-filled tube inclined at an angle*. The tube is mounted
on a pivot bearing which quickly allows rotation of the tube 180 degrees, thereby allowing a repeat test to run
immediately. Three measurements are taken and the average time it takes for the ball to fall is the result. A
conversion formula turns the time reading into a final viscosity value.
The Falling Ball Viscometer is used for quality control in various industries as well as in academic institutions
to illustrate scientific method. The ease of use and straightforward method for recording time measurements
ensures meaningful test results.
* Model KF30 has a fixed angle of 80 degrees; Model KF40 can be angled at 50, 60, 70 and 80 degrees.
The RST Rheometer operates in either controlled stress or controlled rate mode. Controlled stress is useful
for evaluation of yield behavior, creep analysis and viscoelastic response. Controlled rate provides flow curve
information (viscosity vs. shear rate or shear stress). Available spindle geometries include cone/plate, plate/
plate, coaxial cylinder and vane spindles (RST Soft Solids Tester).
The PVS Rheometer is a variable-speed, coaxial cylinder geometry instrument with the capability to pressurize
the sample up to 1000 psi. “Stator” might also be called “bob” or “spindle.” On the PVS Rheometer, the “cup”
(also called the “chamber”) rotates while the stator remains stationary and senses torque.
Viscosity
Bob/Stator Shear Rate Sample
Range cP
No. (sec-1) Volume (mL)
(mPa•s)
B1 1-3M 1.7N 12.5
B2 20-36M 0.38N 55
B5 5-9M 0.85N 25
TA5B5 .5-1M 0.85N 162.5
N=RPM M=1000
Dimensions
B B B
B1 B2 B5
A A A
E D E D E D
C C C
Cup
Stator A B-Diameter C-Diameter D inches E inches Shear Annulus**
Diameter**
No. inches (mm) inches (mm) inches (mm) (mm) (mm) Rate** inches (mm)
inches (mm)
B1 4.527 (114.99) .925 (23.5) 1.358 (34.49) 3.507 (89.08) 3.527 (89.59) 1.703N* 1.45 (36.83) 0.046 (1.168)
B2 4.524 (114.91) .925 (23.5) .967 (24.56) 3.354 (85.19) 3.524 (89.51) 0.377N* 1.45 (36.83) 0.241 (6.135)
B5 4.526 (114.96) .925 (23.5) 1.259 (31.98) 3.462 (87.93) 3.526 (89.56) 0.85N* 1.45 (36.83) 0.095 (2.425)
*N = RPM **Based on PVS-30 (HC) standard cup. Larger cup is available.
E.g. RV Viscometer with RV3 spindle: Range Coefficient is 100,000. At 50 RPM, the maximum viscosity that
can be measured is 100,000/50 or 2,000 cP.
The Entry Code is the two digit number used to identify the spindle in use when operating a standard digital
Viscometer/Rheometer.
C 965-96 Practices for Measuring Viscosity D 3232-88 Method for Measurement of Consis-
of Glass Above the Softening Point tency of Lubricating Greases at High
(Reapproved 2002) Temperatures
C 1276-94 Standard Test Method for Measuring D 3236-88 Test Method for Apparent Viscosity
the Viscosity of Mold Powers Above of Hot Melt Adhesives and Coating
their Melting Point Using a Rotational Materials
Viscometer (Reapproved 1999)
D 115-03 Methods of Testing Varnishes Used D 3468-99 Standard Specification for Liquid-
for Electrical Insulation Applied Neoprene and Chlorosulfo-
D 562-81 Standard Test Method for Consistency nated Polyethylene Used in Roofing
of Paints Using the Stormer Viscom- and Waterproofing
eter D 3716-99 Method of Testing Emulsion Polymers
D 789-91 Test Methods for Determination of for Use in Floor Polishes
Relative Viscosity, Melting Point, and D 3791-90 Standard Practice for Evaluating the
Moisture Content of Polyamide (PA) Effects of Heat on Asphalts
D 1076-88 Specification for Rubber-Concentrat- D 4016-81 Test Method for Viscosity of Chemical
ed, Ammonia Preserved, Creamed Grouts by the Brookfield Viscometer
and Centrifuged Natural Latex (Laboratory Method)
D 1084-97 Test Methods for Viscosity of Adhe- D 4287-94 Standard Test Method for High-Shear
sives Viscosity Using the ICI Cone/Plate
D 1417-90 Methods of Testing Rubber Latices- Viscometer
Synthetic D 4402-87 Standard Method for Viscosity Deter-
D 1439-83a Methods of Testing Sodium Carboxy- minations of Unfilled Asphalts Using
methyl-cellulose the Brookfield Thermosel Apparatus
D 1824-90 Test Method for Apparent Viscosity D 4889-93 Standard Test Methods for Polyure-
of Plastisols and Organosols at Low thane Raw Materials: Determination
Shear Rates by Brookfield Viscometer of Viscosity of Crude or Modified
Isocyanates
D 2196-86 Test Methods for Rheological Proper- D 5018-89 Standard Test Method for Shear
ties on Non-Newtonian Materials by Viscosity of Coal-Tar and Petroleum
Rotational (Brookfield) Viscometer Pitches
D 2364-85 Standard Methods of Testing Hydroxy- (Reapproved 1999)
ethyl-cellulose D 5133-01 Standard Test Method for Low Tem-
D 2556-97 Test Method for Apparent Viscosity of perature, Low Shear Rate, Viscosity/
Adhesives Having Shear Rate Depen- Temperature Dependence of Lubricat-
dent Flow Properties ing Oils Using a Temperature-Scan-
ning Technique
D 2669-87 Test Method for Apparent Viscosity of
Petroleum Waxes Compounded With
Additives (Hot Melts)
D 2983-03 Test Method for Low-Temperature
Viscosity of Automotive Fluid Lubri-
cants Measured by the Brookfield
Viscometer
NON-NEWTONIAN FLOW AND HEAT ISO standards may be purchased in the United
TRANSFER States from:
A.H.P. Skelland American National Standards Institute
John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY. 11 West 42nd Street, New York, NY. 10036
Phone: 212-642-4900; Fax: 212-302-1286
PAINT FLOW AND PIGMENT DISPERSION
Second Edition Outside the United States, please contact ISO’s
Temple C. Patton member in your country or:
Interscience Publishers, New York, NY. International Organization for Standardization
1 rue de Varembe, 1211 Geneva 20, Switzerland
PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF
RHEOLOGY ASTM test methods are available from:
Arnold G. Fredrickson ASTM
Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 1916 Race Street, Philadelphia, PA.
Phone: 215-299-5400; Fax: 215-977-9679
RHEOLOGICAL METHODS IN FOOD
PROCESS ENGINEERING
James F. Steffe Brookfield Engineering Laboratories maintains a li-
Freeman Press, E. Lansing, MI brary of technical papers on viscosity measurement
and control. Reprints are available, in hard copy form
RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF COSMETICS only, upon request at no charge. To download a cur-
AND TOILETRIES rent listing of available technical papers, please visit
Dennis Laba our website: www.brookfieldengineering.com/support/
Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, NY documentation/astm-article-reprints.
China
Guanghzhou Brookfield Viscometers and RheoTec
Texture Instruments Service Co. Ltd. Messtechnik GmbH
Suite 905-906, South Tower, Suntee Plaza 193 a division of Brookfield Engineering
Guangzhou Da Dao Bei Road Schutterwälder Straße 23
Yuexiu District Guangzhou, Guangzhou, P.R.C. D-01458 Otterndorf-Okrilla
510075
Tel: 03 52 05/59 67-0 Fax: 03 52 05/59 67-30
Tel: (86) 20/3760-0995; -8953 e-mail: info@rheotec.de
Fax: (86) 20/3760-0548; -8953
e-mail: info@brookfield.com.cn