1. Self explanatory.

2. In electrical power generation, droop speed control is a speed control mode of a prime mover
driving a synchronous generator connected to an electrical grid. This mode allows synchronous
generators to run in parallel, so that loads are shared among generators in proportion to their
power rating.

An automatic voltage regulator (AVR) is a electronic device for automatically maintaining

generator output terminal voltage at a set value under varying load and operating temperature. It
controls output by sensing the voltage Vout at a power-generating coil and comparing it to a
stable reference.

The excitation of a synchronous generator is usually done by an AVR (Automatic Voltage

Regulator) that uses generator voltage and/or current as inputs in order to control its output to a
pre-set value.

3. Wires are rated by current carrying capability; higher capacity means a larger diameter wire and
more weight. Power companies use high voltage transmission lines and step down the voltage at
the pole just before connecting to building service so they can use smaller gauge wire for
transmission; reducing both wire cost and weight.

P=IV; to deliver 1000W, you can have V=1000V and I = 1A, V=100V and I = 10A, etc. A 1A current
can be carried in a much smaller diameter wire than 10A.
4.

5. An op amp is configured in its non-inverting amplifier format, linking the output directly to the
inverting input and applying the input signal to the non-inverting input. From the gain equation it
is possible to see that the voltage gain of this circuit is unity. Av = 1 + R2 / R1.
The Closed-Loop Voltage Gain of an Inverting Amplifier is given as. and this can be transposed to
give Vout as: Linear Output. The negative sign in the equation indicates an inversion of the output
signal with respect to the input as it is 180o out of phase. This is due to the feedback being
negative in value.

In electronics, a differentiator is a circuit that is designed such that the output of the circuit is
approximately directly proportional to the rate of change (the time derivative) of the input. An
active differentiator includes some form of amplifier.
 The operational amplifier integrator is an electronic integration circuit. Based on the operational
amplifier (op-amp), it performs the mathematical operation of integration with respect to time;
that is, its output voltage is proportional to the input voltage integrated over time

6. For certain types of electric motors or generators to function, the coils of the rotor must be
connected to complete an electrical circuit. To accomplish this, a copper or brass commutator or
'slip rings' are affixed to the shaft, and springs press braided copper wire 'brushes' onto the rings
which conduct the current.
 Why the brushes are made of carbon?
High enough to melt metals. Carbon has a very high melting point (~3500degC) compared with
other conductors. Brushes made with copper or steel would wear out faster because of factors
including: 1) The melted metal will break away from, or even be vaporized, leaving the brush with
less material to do its job.

The brushes transfer the electricity from outside the motor to the spinning winding in the center
of the motor. They undergo quite a lot of friction, and after a while wear out. Carbon is used as it
is a reasonable conductor, and is soft enough to wear down instead of wearing down the
"comutator" - the ring the brushes press against. Brushes are designed to be replaceable in large
motors because of this.

When brushes are first put into a motor they won't be the exact same shape and size as the
commutator (which may have had a small amount of wear) and thus won't make a perfect smooth
contact. With time the brushes will wear to fit the commutator perfectly. The noise you hear is
probably the brushes undergoing this initial shaping wear and will stop soon enough.

Also, the brushes are located inside a tube-like recess, and are pushed against the commutator
using small springs. If the noise doesn't stop after a while a small amount of grease to help stop
vibration in the brushes may be in order. make sure of the thermal properties of the grease
though, as brushes are liable to get rather hot.

7. Self-explanatory.
8. Self-explanatory.
9. In an alternating current electric power system, synchronization is the process of matching the
speed and frequency of a generator or other source to a running network. An AC generator cannot
deliver power to an electrical grid unless it is running at the same frequency as the network. If two
segments of a grid are disconnected, they cannot exchange AC power again until they are brought
back into exact synchronization.
A direct current (DC) generator can be connected to a power network by adjusting its open-circuit
terminal voltage to match the network voltage, by either adjusting its speed or its field excitation.
The exact engine speed is not critical. However, an AC generator must match both the amplitude
and the timing of the network voltage, which requires both speed and excitation to be
systematically controlled for synchronization.

There are five conditions that must be met before the synchronization process takes place. The
source (generator or sub-network) must have equal line voltage, frequency, phase sequence,
phase angle, and waveform to that of the system to which it is being synchronized.[1]

Waveform and phase sequence are fixed by the construction of the generator and its connections
to the system. During installation of a generator, careful checks are made to ensure the generator
terminals and all control wiring is correct so that the order of phases (phase sequence) matches
the system. Connecting a generator with the wrong phase sequence will result in a short circuit as
the system voltages are opposite to those of the generator terminal voltages.[2]

The voltage, frequency and phase angle must be controlled each time a generator is to be
connected to a grid.[1]
 Generating units for connection to a power grid have an inherent droop speed control that allows
them to share load proportional to their rating. Some generator units, especially in isolated
systems, operate with isochronous frequency control, maintaining constant system frequency
independent of load.

SEE Generating Synchronizing pdf for more detailed explanations.

10. Self explanatory.
11. Self explanatory.
12. A strain gauge is a device used to measure strain on an object.
A strain gauge takes advantage of the physical property of electrical conductance and its
dependence on the conductor's geometry. When an electrical conductor is stretched within the
limits of its elasticity such that it does not break or permanently deform, it will become narrower
and longer, changes that increase its electrical resistance end-to-end. Conversely, when a
conductor is compressed such that it does not buckle, it will broaden and shorten, changes that
decrease its electrical resistance end-to-end. From the measured electrical resistance of the strain
gauge, the amount of induced stress may be inferred.
The Pt100 (PT500, PT1000)-sensor is used for precise temperature
monitoring applications, where errors in measurement.
("Pt" is the symbol for platinum, "100" for the resistance in ohms at 0 °C).

have to be excluded. The linear relationship of the

resistor to temperature, simplifies its use in many
electronic applications.
The precision of the Pt100 allows its universal use
for
temperature monitoring, control, and switching in
windings, bearings, machines, motors, transformers
and many other industrial applications.

A thermocouple is an electrical device consisting of two dissimilar electrical conductors forming

electrical junctions at differing temperatures. A thermocouple produces a temperature-dependent
voltage as a result of the thermoelectric effect, and this voltage can be interpreted to measure
temperature. Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature sensor.

In practical use, the voltage generated at a single junction of two different types of wire is what is
of interest as this can be used to measure temperature at very high and low temperatures. The
magnitude of the voltage depends on the types of wire used. Generally, the voltage is in the
microvolt range and care must be taken to obtain a usable measurement. Although very little
current flows, power can be generated by a single thermocouple junction.
The standard configuration for thermocouple usage is shown in the figure. Briefly, the desired
temperature Tsense is obtained using three inputs—the characteristic function E(T) of the
thermocouple, the measured voltage V, and the reference junctions' temperature Tref. The
solution to the equation E(Tsense) = V + E(Tref) yields Tsense. These details are often hidden from the
user since the reference junction block (with Tref thermometer), voltmeter, and equation solver
are combined into a single product.

A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance is dependent on temperature, more so than in

standard resistors. The word is a portmanteau of thermal and resistor. Thermistors are widely
used as inrush current limiter, temperature sensors (Negative Temperature Coefficient or NTC
type typically), self-resetting overcurrent protectors, and self-regulating heating elements
(Positive Temperature Coefficient or PTC type typically).
Thermistors are of two opposite fundamental types:
• With NTC thermistors, resistance decreases as temperature rises. An NTC is commonly used
as a temperature sensor, or in series with a circuit as an inrush current limiter.
• With PTC thermistors, resistance increases as temperature rises. PTC thermistors are
commonly installed in series with a circuit, and used to protect against overcurrent
conditions, as resettable fuses.
 Thermistors differ from resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) in that the material used in a
thermistor is generally a ceramic or polymer, while RTDs use pure metals.The thermistors are in
the form of beads ,rods and discs but RTDs are in different shapes and sizes. The temperature
response is also different; RTDs are useful over larger temperature ranges, while thermistors
typically achieve a greater precision within a limited temperature range, typically −90 °C to
130 °C.

13. Toxic decomposition products are formed when SF6 gas is subjected to an electric arc. The
decomposition products are metal fluorides and form a white or tan powder. Toxic gases are also
formed which have the characteristic odor of rotten eggs. Do not breathe the vapors remaining in
a circuit breaker.

Sulfur hexafluoride circuit breakers protect electrical power stations and distribution systems by
interrupting electric currents, when tripped by a protective relay. Instead of oil, air, or vacuum, a
sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker uses sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) gas to cool and quench the arc on
opening a circuit. Advantages over other media include lower operating noise and no emission of
hot gases, and relatively low maintenance. Developed in the 1950's and onward, SF6 circuit
breakers are widely used in electrical grids at transmission voltages up to 800 kV, as generator
circuit breakers, and in distribution systems at voltages up to 35 kV.

14. SEE System Voltage Consideration PDF file.

15. A piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID) is a detailed diagram in the process industry which
shows the piping and vessels in the process flow, together with the instrumentation and control
devices.

https://www.lucidchart.com/pages/p-id-symbols-legend

16. See PDFs Generator KW & KVAR.

17. Source: http://control.com/thread/1267218529
"The only way that an in increase in electrical load can decrease speed is if the load is greater than
the generation. So, if the load is 20MW and the frequency is stable, if the load increases to 21 MW
(actually any value above 20MW) and fuel is not increased then the speed (and the frequency will
decrease).
Think about riding a bicycle along a flat road at a stable speed which is about three-fourths of your
maximum speed and you need to maintain that steady speed for the duration of your ride. And
you are approaching a hill. A hill that is long and fairly steep.
As you start up the hill, you increase the torque you are applying to the pedals to maintain your
speed. But, the hill is long and you reach the limit of your ability to produce torque and maintain
the speed and the bike begins to slow down.
 A generator is a device for converting torque into amperes. Power is expressed by multiplying
volts times amps (basically) and since generators generally run at a relatively constant voltage
(usually no more than plus or minus 5 percent of rated terminal voltage), the power produced by a
generator increases and decreases as the amperes that are flowing in the generator stator
windings.
And, to increase the amperes it is necessary to increase the torque input into the generator from
the prime mover (be it a reciprocating engine, a combustion turbine, a steam turbine, a wind
turbine, a hydro turbine--any device that can produce torque). More fuel equals more torque; less
fuel equals less torque. Just exactly like on the bicycle, in the example above and in the real world.
When a generator is paralleled with other generators on an alternating current grid, the load is
the sum of all the lights and motors and computers and other electrical loads. The total amount of
electrical generation must exactly match the amount of electrical load in order for the grid
frequency to remain at rated. If the total generation exceeds the load then the frequency (and the
speed) of all the generators will increase above the desired grid frequency. If the total generation
is less than the load then the frequency (and the speed) of all the generators will decrease below
the desired grid frequency.
And one of the most important aspects of any AC grid is its frequency (in most parts of the world).
The frequency of an AC machine is expressed by the formula:
F = (P * N) / 120
where F = Frequency, in hertz
P = the number of poles of the generator rotor
N = the speed of the generator rotor (in RPM)
When synchronous generators (alternators) are connected in parallel with each other on an AC
grid, they are all operating at a speed that is directly proportional to the frequency of the AC grid.
No generator can go faster or slower than the speed which is proportional to the frequency.
There are great magnetic forces at work in the synchronous generator to keep the rotating
magnetic field of the generator in locked synchronism with the magnetic fields induced in the
stator winding by the current flowing in the stator windings. These forces keep every generator's
rotor locked in synchronous speed with the frequency of the grid with which they are connected.
The production of electricity is all about producing torque in one place, to be used in another. The
torque is converted to amperes, transmitted over wires, and then reconverted into torque. So,
generators are just supplying torque from where they are located to many different locations--
anywhere wires can be run."
18. Self explanatory.

19. A bipolar junction transistor (bipolar transistor or BJT) is a type of transistor that uses both
electron and hole charge carriers. In contrast, unipolar transistors, such as field-effect transistors,
only use one kind of charge carrier. For their operation, BJTs use two junctions between two
semiconductor types, n-type and p-type.
 BJTs are manufactured in two types, NPN and PNP, and are available as individual components, or
fabricated in integrated circuits, often in large numbers. The basic function of a BJT is to amplify
current. This allows BJTs to be used as amplifiers or switches, giving them wide applicability in
electronic equipment, including computers, televisions, mobile phones, audio amplifiers, industrial
control, and radio transmitters.

20. See Generator Excitation pdf.