LEARNING FROM OTHERS AND REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

SELECTING THE RELATED LITERATURE

 Have you clearly indicated the scope and purpose of the review?
 Have you included a balanced coverage of what is available?
 Have you included the most recent and relevant studies?
 Have you included enough material to show the development and limitations in this area?
 Have you indicated the source of the literature by referencing accurately?
 Have you used mostly primary sources or appropriate secondary sources?

CRITIQUING SOURCES FOUND

 Have you clearly (and logically) ordered and sorted the research, focusing on themes or ideas
rather than the authors?
 Does the review move from broader concepts to a more specific focus?
 Is there adequate critique of research limitations, including design and methodology?
 Are the studies compared and contrasted with controversies highlighted?
 Is the relevance to your problem clear?


UNDERSTANDING DATA AND WAYS TO SYSTEMATICALLY COLLECT DATA

Qualitative research design is a research method used extensively by scientists and researchers studying
human behavior and habits.

It is also very useful for product designers who want to make a product that will sell.

For example, a designer generating some ideas for a new product might want to study people’s habits
and preferences, to make sure that the product is commercially viable. Quantitative research is then
used to assess whether the completed design is popular or not.

Qualitative research is often regarded as a precursor to quantitative research, in that it is often used to
generate possible leads and ideas which can be used to formulate a realistic and testable hypothesis.
This hypothesis can then be comprehensively tested and mathematically analyzed, with standard
quantitative research methods.

For these reasons, these qualitative methods are often closely allied with interviews, survey design
techniques and individual case studies, as a way to reinforce and evaluate findings over a broader scale.

A study completed before the experiment was performed would reveal which of the multitude of brands
were the most popular. The quantitative experiment could then be constructed around only these
brands, saving a lot of time, money and resources.

Qualitative methods are probably the oldest of all scientific techniques, with Ancient Greek philosophers
qualitatively observing the world around them and trying to come up with answers which explained
what they saw.
Design

The design of qualitative research is probably the most flexible of the various experimental techniques,
encompassing a variety of accepted methods and structures.

From an individual case study to an extensive interview, this type of study still needs to be carefully
constructed and designed, but there is no standardized structure.

Case studies, interviews and survey designs are the most commonly used methods.

When to use the Qualitative Research Design

Advantages

Qualitative techniques are extremely useful when a subject is too complex be answered by a simple yes
or no hypothesis. These types of designs are much easier to plan and carry out. They are also useful
when budgetary decisions have to be taken into account.

The broader scope covered by these designs ensures that some useful data is always generated,
whereas an unproved hypothesis in a quantitative experiment can mean that a lot of time has been
wasted. Qualitative research methods are not as dependent upon sample sizes as quantitative methods;
a case study, for example, can generate meaningful results with a small sample group.

Disadvantages

Whilst not as time or resource consuming as quantitative experiments, qualitative methods still require
a lot of careful thought and planning, to ensure that the results obtained are as accurate as possible.

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

1. Methods of data ColleCtion

2. INTRODUCTION• Various methods of collecting data are employed by social scientists. Here we will
discuss the varied dimensions relevant to : data generation and attempt to arrive at an abstract typology
involving stimuli, responses and setting for data collection. The task of data collection begins after a
research problem has been defined and research design /plan chalked out.

3. TYPES OF DATA1) PRIMARY DATA : Are those which are collected a fresh and for the first time and
thus happen to be original in character and known as Primary data.2) SECONDARY DATA : Are those
which have been collected by someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical
process are known as Secondary data.

4. COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA• There are several methods of collecting primary data, particularly in
surveys and descriptive researches. In descriptive research, we obtain primary data either through
observation or through direct communication with respondents in one form or another or through
personal interviews.

5. COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA• These are already available i.e. they refer to the data which have
already been collected and analyzed by someone else.• Secondary data may either be published or
unpublished data. Researcher must be very careful in using secondary data, because the data available
may be sometimes unsuitable.
6. Methods of data Collection :Primary Data • 1) OBSERVATION METHOD : Observation method is a
method under which data from the field is collected with the help of observation by the observer or by
personally going to the field. • In the words of P.V. Young, “Observation may be defined as systematic
viewing, coupled with consideration of seen phenomenon.”

7. ADVANTAGES:• Subjective bias eliminated (No bias info)• Information researcher gets is Current
information• Independent to respondent’s variable (as in interview and may be bias )• DISADVANTAGES
:• It is expensive method (time requires more)• Limited information• Unforeseen factors may interfere
with observational task• Respondents opinion can not be recorded on certain subject

8. TYPES OF OBSERVATIONStructured and Unstructured Observation• When observation is done by

characterizing style of recording the observed information, standardized conditions of observation ,
definition of the units to be observed , selection of pertinent data of observation then it is structured
observation• When observation is done without any thought before observation then it is unstructured
observation

9. Participant & Non Participant Observation• When the Observer is member of the group which he is
observing then it is Participant Observation• In participant observation Researcher can record natural
behavior of group , Researcher can verify the truth of statements given by informants in the context of
questionnaire , Difficult to collect information can obtain through this method but in this researcher may
loose objectivity of research due emotional feelings. Prob. of control in observation isn’t solved.

10. Non Participant Observation• When observer is observing people without giving any information to
them then it is non participant observation

11. Controlled & Uncontrolled Observation• When the observation takes place in natural condition i.e.
uncontrolled observation. It is done to get spontaneous picture of life and persons• When observation
takes place according to definite pre arranged plans , with experimental procedure then it is controlled
observation generally done in laboratory under controlled condition.

12. INTERVIEW METHOD• This method of collecting data involves presentation or oral-verbal stimuli and
reply in terms of oral-verbal responses.• Interview Method This is Oral Verbal communication . Where
interviewer asks questions( which are aimed to get information required for study ) to respondentThere
are different type of interviews as follows : PERSONAL INTERVIEWS : The interviewer asks questions
generally in a face to face contact to the other person or persons.

13. Types of Personal InterviewPersonal Interview Structured Interview • Flexibility in asking questions•
Predetermined questions• Standardized techniques of • No Predetermined questions recording•
Interviewer follows rigid • No Standardized techniques of procedure laid down i.e. asking recording
questions in form & order prescribed • Interviewer has freedom to ask ,• Time required for such
interview omit , add questions in any is less than non structured manner interview • Ask questions
without following sequence• Not necessary of skill or specific knowledge • Deep knowledge & skill•
Analysis of data becomes easier required Bcoz information is collected in • Analysis of data is difficult
prescribed manner

14. Merits of Personal Interview• Information at greater depth• Flexibility of restructuring the
Questionnaire• Interviewer by his skill can come over resistance• Non Response generally low• Samples
can controlled more effectively• Personal information can be obtained
15. • Interviewer can collect supplementary information about respondent’s personal characteristics
and environment which has value in interpreting results

16. De Merits Of Interview Expensive method Respondent may give bias information Some Executive
people are not approachableso data collected may be inadequate Takes more time when samples are
more Systematic errors may be occurred Supervisors has to do complex work ofselecting ,training and
supervising the field staff.

17. TELEPHONIC INTERVIEWS• Contacting samples on telephone• Uncommon method may be used in
developed regionsMERITS• Flexible compare to mailing method• Faster than other methods• Cheaper
than personal interview method• Callbacks are simple and economical also• High response than mailing
method.• when it is not possible to contact the respondent directly, then interview is conducted
through – Telephone.

18. • Replies can be recorded without embarrassment to respondents• Interviewer can explain
requirements more easily• No field staff is required• Wider distribution of sample is possible

19. DEMERITS • Little time is given to respondents • Survey is restricted to respondents who have
telephones • Not suitable for intensive survey where comprehensive answers are required • Bias
information may be more • Very difficult to make questionnaire because it should short and to the point

20. • structured interviews : in this case, a set of pre- decided questions are there.• unstructured
interviews : in this case, we don’t follow a system of pre-determined questions.• focused interviews :
attention is focused on the given experience of the respondent and its possible effects.• clinical
interviews : concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or with the course of individual’s
life experience, rather than with the effects of the specific experience, as in the case of focused
interview.

21. • group interviews : a group of 6 to 8 individuals is interviewed.• qualitative and quantitative

interviews : divided on the basis of subject matter i.e. whether qualitative or quantitative.• individual
interviews : interviewer meets a single person and interviews him.• selection interviews : done for the
selection of people for certain jobs.• depth interviews : it deliberately aims to elicit unconscious as well
as other types of material relating especially to personality dynamics and motivations.

22. QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD• This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of big
enquiries. The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and understand the
questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the questionnaire itself. The
respondents have to answer the questions on their own.• Questionnaire Method Questionnaire is sent
to persons with request to answer the questions and return the questionnaire Questions are printed in
definite order , mailed to samples who are expected to read that questions understand the questions
and write the answers in provided space .

23. Merits of Questionnaire • Merits of Questionnaire Low cost even the geographical area is large to
cover Answers are in respondents word so free from bias Adequate time to think for answers Non
approachable respondents may be conveniently contacted Large samples can be used so results are
more reliable
24. Demerits of Questionnaire• Demerits of Questionnaire Low rate of return of duly filled questionnaire
Can be used when respondent is educated and co operative It is inflexible Omission of some questions
Difficult to know the expected respondent have filled the form or it is filled by some one else Slowest
method of data collection

25. Main Aspects of Questionnaire • Main Aspects of Questionnaire General Form Structured
Questionnaire Alternatives or yes no type questions are asked Easy to interpret the data but unuseful
for the survey which is aimed to probe for attitudes, and reasons for certain actions Unstructured
Questionnaire open ended questions

26. • Respondents gives answers in his own words On the basis of the pre test researcher can decide
about which type of questionnaire should be used Question Sequence Question sequence should be
clear and smoothly moving (relation of one question to another should readily apparent First question
important for creating interest in respondents mind

27. • Question which gives stress on memory or of a personal character and wealth should be avoided
as opening questions Easier question should be at the start of the questionnaire General to specific
questions should be the sequence of questions Question Formulation and Wording Question should
easily understood Question should be simple and concrete.

28. • Closed questions are easy to handle but this is like fixing the answers in people’s mouth. So
depending upon problem for which survey is going on both close ended and open ended question may
be asked in Questionnaire. Words having ambiguous meaning should be avoided, catch words ,words
with emotional connotations , danger words should be avoided

29. Essentials of Good Questionnaire• Essentials of Good Questionnaire Should Short & simple
Questions should arranged in logical sequence (From Easy to difficult one) Technical terms should
avoided Some control questions which indicate reliability of the respondent ( To Know consumption first
expenditure and then weight or qty of that material)• Questions affecting the sentiments of the
respondents should avoided Adequate space for answers should be provided in questionnaire Provision
for uncertainty (do not know, No preference) Directions regarding the filling of questionnaire should be
given Physical Appearance - - Quality of paper, color

30. HOW TO CONSTRUCT A QUESTIONNAIRE Researcher should note the following with regard to these
three main aspects of a questionnaire: • General form • Question Sequence • Determine the type the
Questions : • A) Direct Question • B) Indirect Question • C) Open Form Questionnaire • D) Closed Form
Questionnaire • E) Dichotomous Questions • F) Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)

31. SCHEDULE METHOD• It is one of the important methods for the study of social problems.•
Schedules Like Questionnaires but it filled by enumerator . Enumerators are specially appointed for
filling questionnaire Enumerators explain the aim and objective to respondent and fill the answers in
provided space .• In the words of Thomas Carson Macormic, “The schedule is nothing more than a list of
questions which it seems necessary to test the hypothesis .”

32. Questionnaire V/S ScheduleQuestionnaire Schedule• Q generally sent • Schedule is filled by the
through mail and no enumerator or research further assistance from worker sender • Costly requires
field• Q is cheaper method workers• Non Response is high • Non response is low
33. Questionnaire Schedule• In questionnaire it is not • In Schedule identity of confirmed that expected
person is known respondent have filled • Information is collected the answers well in time• Very slow
method • Direct personal contact• No Personal contact • Info can collected from• Q can be used only
illiterates also when respondent is educated and co operative

34. • Wider distribution of • Difficulty for wider area sample is possible • Relatively more correct•
Incomplete and wrong and complete information is more • Depends on Honesty• Depends on quality of
and competence of questionnaire enumerator• Physical appearance of • Not necessary in questionnaire
should Schedule method attractive • It is possible to use• Observation method can observation at the
time not use of filling schedule by enumerator

35. Other Methods Of Data Collection • Warranty Cards Post card size cards sent to customers and
feedback collected through asking questions on that card • Distributor or Store Audits Audits are done
by distributor or manufacturer’s salesperson. Observation or copying information about inventory in
retail shops. Useful method for knowing market share ,market size , effect of in store promotion.

36. • Pantry Audits From the observation of pantry of customer to know purchase habit of the people
(which product , of what brand etc.) Questions may be asked at the time of audit• Consumer Panels
When pantry audit is done at regular basis, Daily record of consumption of certain customers. Or
repeatedly interviewed at the specific periods to know their consumption.• Transitory consumer panels
– for limited time Continuing Consumer panel For indefinite period

37. • Use of Mechanical Device Eye Cameras to record eyes focus on certain sketch• Psycho
galvanometer to measure body excitement to visual stimulus• Motion Picture camera to record
movement of body at the time of purchase• Audiometer concerned to TV . Useful to know Channel,
program preference of people

38. • Depth Interview To discover the underlying motives or desires of samples . To explore needs ,
feelings of respondents. Skill is required , indirect question or projective techniques are used to know
behavior of the respondent.• Content Analysis analyzing contents of documentary material as news
paper , books , magazines about certain characteristics to identify and count

39. CASE STUDY METHOD• It is essentially an intensive investigation of the particular unit under
consideration. Its important characteristics are as follows : a) the researcher can take one single social
unit or more of such units for his study purpose. b) the selected unit is studied intensively i.e. it is
studied in minute details.

40. SURVEY METHOD• One of the common methods of diagnosing and solving of social problems is that
of undertaking surveys.• Festinger and Kat of the opinion that, “Many research problems require
systematic collection of data from population through the use of personal interviews or other data
gathering devices”.

41. PANEL METHODIn this method, data is collected from the same sample respondents at the some
interval either by mail or by personal interview. This is used for studies on :• 1) Expenditure Pattern• 2)
Consumer Behaviour• 3) Effectiveness of Advertising• 4) Voting Behaviour and so on
42. Secondary DataSources of data• Publications of Central, state , local government• Technical and
trade journals• Books, Magazines, Newspaper• Reports & publications of industry ,bank, stock
exchange• Reports by research scholars, Universities, economist• Public Records

43. Factors to be considered before using secondary data • Reliability of data – Who, when , which
methods, at what time etc. • Suitability of data – Object ,scope, and nature of original inquiry should be
studied, as if the study was with different objective then that data is not suitable for current study •
Adequacy of data– Level of accuracy, • Area differences then data is not adequate for study

44. Selection of proper Method for collection of Data • Nature ,Scope and object of inquiry • Availability
of Funds • Time Factor • Precision Required