FIRST SEMESTER LAB: General

TO SETUP LCR SERIES CIRCUIT AND STUDY

RESONANCE FREQUENCY, QUALITY FACTOR,
IMPEDANCE AND PHASOR DIAGRAM
Dr. Hari Pd Lamichhane

Aim of the Experiment:

After conducting the LCR Series Circuit experiment students will understand
1) the meaning and condition of resonance,
2) impedance of the circuit,
3) the quality factor (Q) of the circuit,
4) the bandwidth (BW), and
5) the phasor diagram.

Apparatus Required:Signal generator, inductor, capcitor, resistors, oscilloscope etc.

Theory:
LCR series circuit is shown in Figure 1. As shown in Figure 1, a sinusoidal voltage V in sets up a sinusoidal
current I in an LCR series circuit. Differential equation of the LCR series circuit obtained using Kirchhoff’s
loop rule is given in equation 1.

Figure 1. LCR Series Circuit.

ୢୢI
୯
V୧୬ = VL + VC + Vୢୖ = L ୢୢ୲ + C + IR -------------

(1)
iωt
The sinusoidal current (I) in the circuit can be taken as real or imaginary part of Ioe . For simplicity, let us put I
iωt
= Ioe in equation 1 and set integration constant equal to zero, then we get
 ୧

V୧୬ = IሺiωL − ωC + Rሻ ------------- (2)

Observing equation 2, one can easily obtain the impedance of the LCR series circuit (Z) to be

ଵ
Z = R + iሺωL −ωC ሻ------------- (3)

The magnitude of the impedance is

ଵ
Z = √Rଶ + ሺωL −ωC ሻଶ ------------- (4)

Equation 4 shows that the impedance of LCR series circuit depends on the angular frequency (ω = 2πf). The
magnitude of the current in the LCR series circuit is given in equation 5.
 Vin
I =మ భ
మ
------------- (5)
√ୢୖ +ሺωL− ሻ
ωC

The current-frequency curve at constant input voltage is shown in Figure 2. The current is very small both at
very low and very high values of frequency. It results from the dependance of the circuit impedance on the
frequency of the ac signal. The capacitive reactance is dominant at low frequency and the inductive reactance is
dominant at high frequency. The impedance will be minimum and equal to R when the imaginary term (total
reactive part) in equation 3 is equal to zero. On the other hand, the current in the circuit at this condition will be
maximum and equal to Vin/R. This phenomena is called resonance. By setting imaginary term equal to zero in

ଵ
equation 3 one gets the resonance frequency equal to f଴ = √LC ------------- (6)

The frequency (f) is in Hz, inductance (L) in Henry and the capcitance C is in Farad in equation 5. Sharpness
of
the resonance is directly proportional to the quality factor (Q) of the circuit. The quality factor of the circuit is
defined as

E୬ୢୣ୰଴y ୢୗ୲୭୰ୢୣୢୢ ୧୬ ୲୦ୣ C୧୰ୡ୳୧୲

Q = 2π ቀ ቁ ------------- (7)
ωL
= E୬ୢୣ୰଴y L୭ୱୱ ୮ୣ୰ Cyୡlୢୣ ୢୖ

Another important parameter of the resonant circuit is the bandwidth (BW). The bandwidth is the difference in
the values of the half-power frequencies.

଴బ
BW = fଶ − fଵ ≈ ଴ ------------- (8)
Figure 2. A typical I-f plot of LCR series circuit. The component values of the circuit are: L = 1 mH, C = 1 μF,
R = 10 Ω, Vin = 2 V. Here f0, f1 and f2 are resonant, lower and upper cut-off frequencies respectively.

The Phasor Diagram:

The phenomena of resonance occurs not only due to the frequency dependence of impedance but also due to
proper phase relationships of potential drop across the inductor, capacitor and resistor. Since the imaginary
iπ/2
quantity, i = e , potential difference across the inductor (VL) leads the current (I) or the potential differnce
across the resistor (VR) by π/2 whereas potential difference across the capacitor (VC) lags the current by π/2 (see
equations 2 and 3). VL is, thus, leads VC by π. Therefore, the vector sum of potential differences across the
inductor and the capacitor will be smaller than the maximum value of either voltage. The vector sum of V L and
VC is zero at the resonance condition. An example of phasor diagram of LCR series circuit with ideal inductor
at frequency greater than the resonance frequency and way of measurng phase difference is shown in Figure 3.
The phase difference between two signals of the same frequency can be calculated using formula
 ∆଴
∆φ = 2π ቀ ଴ ቁ ------------- (9)

Here ∆T and T are time interval between cosequitive peaks and the time period of the signals respectively.
 a b

Figure 3. a) Phasor Diagram of LCR Series Circuit. b) Measurent of phase difference.

Observations:
1) Current – frequency Plot
Connect the LCR series circuit as shown in Figure 1. The ac current in the LCR circuit should be
measured in a wide range of frequency ( 50 Hz to 20 kHz) for a constant input voltage. Choose the
components as:
L = …………… mH, C = …………… µF, R = …………Ω, Vin = ……………Volts.

Table 1. Observation table for I-f curve. The impedance (Z) is equal to Vin/ I.

S. N. f (Hz) I (mA) Experimental Theoretical Comments

Z (Ω) Z (Ω)
1 50
2 100
3 200
4 500
5 1k
.
.
.
Complete Table 1 for frequency value up to at least 20 kHz. Then, plot I-f curve as shown in Figure 2. Estimate
maximum value of the current from the graph. Also, locate half power frequency positions as shown the Figure
2. Also estimate band width (BW) and quality factor (Q) of the circuit. Discuss on the results whether the
experimental and theoretical values of BW and Q matches or not.

Phasor Diagram:

Relative phases of the potential drop across electrical components do not depend on the position of the
components provided the component is in series circuit. However, due to the problem of the common point
generally called the ground point one should experimently measure the magnitude and phase of the potential
difference with respect to the ground point. To avoid the confusion, students are suggested that they should
experimentally measure the relative phase between the input voltage and potential drop across the element
connected to the ground as shown in Figure 4.

a b c

Figure 4. Experimental circuits for measuring relative phase between Vin and a) VR, b) VL and c) VC. Table 2.

Observation table for measurement of amplitudes of potential differences and relative phases between
Vin and VR, VL and VC.

Vin = ………., L = …………, C = ………….., R = …………..

f (Hz) VR VL VC ∆φ between ∆φ between ∆φ between

Vin and VR Vin and VL Vin and VC
100
10 k
f = f0
Plot the phasor diagram in each case. Whether the phasor diagrams are similar to ideal phasor diagram as shown
in Figure 3? Also, find out which component of the potential difference is dominent at particular frequency and
also justify your answer.

Innovation:
Finally, measure the resistance (RL) of the inductor coil and replace the ideal inductor with the real inductor (an

inductor with its resistance in series as ) in Figure 1 and 4. Theoretically recalculate VR,

V L,
VC, Z, BW, Q, and relative phases and compare with experimental values. You can use error due to precision in
this experiment.

Result:

Discussion:

Reference: Ryder J.D. – Network, Lines and Fields, Prentice Hall of India (1955).
FIRST SEMESTER LAB: General

TO SETUP LCR PARALLEL CIRCUIT AND STUDY ANTI-

RESONANCE FREQUENCY, IMPEDANCE,
SELECTIVITY AND MODIFY THE CIRCUIT TO
INTRODUCE DESIRED PHASE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
INPUT AND OUTPUT
 Dr. Hari Pd Lamichanne

Aim of the Experiment:

After conducting the LCR parallel circuit experiment students will understand

1) the meaning and condition of anti-resonance,

2) admittance and impedance of the circuit,
3) the selectivityof the circuit (far/BW), and
4) how to create desired phase difference between the input and the optput.

Apparatus Required: Signal generator, inductor, capcitor, resistors, oscilloscope etc.

Theory:
a) Resistor in the L-branch
LCR parallelcircuit with a resistor in the L-branch is shown in Figure 1. As shown in Figure 1, a
sinusoidal voltage Vs sets up a sinusoidal current Iin an LCR parallelcircuit. The source current I is
divided into IL and ICin the tank.Student are expected to plot the graphs of I and ICwith respect to
frequency.

Figure 1. LCR Papallel Circuit.

By neglecting the impedance of the current meter, the admittance of the tank circuit can be calculated to be
 1 RL ωL
Y଴ = + jωC = + j ቆωC − ቇ − − − − − − − ሺ1ሻ
R ଶ ଶ ଶ ଶ ଶ ଶ
+ jωL R +ω L R +ω L

L
The anti-resonance condition of the circuit
L is obtained when the
L imaginary part of the admittance is equal to

zero. Therefore, the anti-resonance frequency

�𝑎� �మ
�𝑎� = ଶ𝜋
= ଶ𝜋ଵ √ �଴଴
ଵ− -------------
଴଴
మ (2)
�
The impedance of the tank circuit at antiresonance condition is:

మ
మ
RL + ω
మar L L
Zar = = CRL
------------- (3)
RL

Sensitivity:
Parallel LCR circuit is usally used for selecting a particular signal from a mixture. For example, tunning radio
signal means separating right signal from a mixture of many radio waves. Sensitivity of parallel LCR circuit
depends not only on the impedance of the tank circuit but also on the value of the series resistance R1.
Sensitivity of parallel LCR circuit increases with increase in the value of R1 as can be seen in Figure 2.
far
Sensitivity (S) of a resonating circuit can be defined as:S = fమ
---------------- (4)
−f భ

Values of frequencies far, f1 and f2can be obtained from the graph as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Graph between the output voltage and the frequency for constant source voltage. The resistance R1 is
varied to obtain another plot for studyingthe sensitivity of the circuitshown in Figure 1.

b) Resistors in both branches

LCR parallel circuit with resistors in both branchesis shown in Figure 3.Eventhough the position of
antiresonance frequency changes with the inclusion of resitances in both branches, this circuit is useful to find
out relative phases of currents through the inductor and the capacitor in the LCR parallel circuit. Since the
current and voltage are in phase in the resistor, the phase difference between V2 and V3 in the circuit shown in
Figure 3 is also the phase difference between IL and IC.

Figure 3. LCR Parallel Circuit with resestances present in both branches.

Anti-resonance frequency of LCR Parallel Circuit with resestances present in both branch can be calculated to
be
 మ
ଵ ଵ L−R C
far = √ ሻ ------------- (5)
ሺ ଶπ LC మ
−Rబ C

L
య
R0 = RL + R2.

A special situation comes when the term in the bracket of equation 2 becomes indeterminate. In this case the
circuit will be at anti-resonance at all frequencies. Circuit shown in Figure 2 reduces to the circuit shown in
Figure 1 when resistors R2 and R3 become zero. If the values of R2 and R3 are very small compared to the
magnitudes of inductive and capcitive reactances, the phase difference between V2 and V3 can approximately be
taken as the phase difference between the currents flowing through the inductive and the capacitive branches in
the absence of R2 and R3.In order to have net current in the L-C tank there should be some phase difference
between IL and IC. In the ideal case and at anti-resonance condition the IL and ICcurrents will have equal
magnitude but 180° phase difference.

c) Resistor in the C-branch

LCR parallel circuit with resistors in the capacitive branch is shown in Figure 4. This circuit is useful to
introduce desired phase difference between the output voltage and the circuit current without altering the
magnitude of the output impedance.
 Figure 4. The variable phase angle circuit.

The impedance of the tank circuit shown in Figure 3 is

j
jωLሺR−ωC ሻ
Z= ----------- (6)
R+ሺωL−
ሻ
ωC
When we choose frequency such that �଴଴ = , the impedance given in equation 6 reduces to
ଶ
��

ଶ π
ejሺ
మ − ଶθ ሻ
Z= ωC
---------- (7)

-1
where θ = Tan (1/ωRC).One can change the phase angle from – π/2 to π/2 by varying R from zero to infinity
keeping the impedance constant.

Observation:
1) I-V characteristics

I-V characteristics of the parallel LCR circuit can be plotted using the circuit shown in Figure 1. Students can
set R1 equal to zero for simplicity.

Table 1. Observation Table for I-f curve using the circuit shown in Figure 1.

Vs = ………….. V, L = ……………. mH, C = ………. µF.

S. N. f (Hz) I (mA) Z (Ω) IC (mA) I - IC Comments

= V0/I
1 50
2 100
3 200
4 500
5 1k
Complete Table 1 for frequency value up to at least 20 kHz. Then, plot I-f curve. Estimate minimum value of
the current from the graph. Also, plot Z-f curve. Locate 0.707Z points and find the bandwidth (BW = f2 – f1).
Finally, compare observed value of Z at the antiresonance condition with the theoretical value given in the
equation 3.

2) Sensitivity and phase angle measurement

Remove the current meters from the circuit shown in Figure 1 and use oscilloscope in order to measure the
sensitivity (S) of the circuit and the phase difference (θ) between the output voltage (V0) and the source voltage
(VS). Keep VS, C, L and RL fixed and then measure the magnitude of V0 and its phase difference (θ)with respect
to the source voltage by varying f. Repeat this observation for different values of R1 including zero and very
high values to complete observation Table 2. Then, plot V0-f as well as θ–f graphs and find the maximum value
(V0max) of V0from the graph and also locate 0.707 V0max points in the graph as shown in Figure 2. Finally,
calculate the sensitivity (S) of the circuit using the formula give in the equation 4.

Table 2. Observation Table for V0-f and θ-f curves using the circuit shown in Figure 1. Remove the current
meters and use oscilloscope to measure voltages.

Vs = ………….. V, L = ……………. mH, C = ………. µF.

S. N. f (Hz) R1 V0 (Volts) θ (°) Comments

1 50
2 100
3 200
4 500
5 1k
.
.
.

3) Phase relations between IL and IC

Use circuit shown in Figure 3 to measure the phase difference between IL and IC. The phase difference between
V2 and V3 is equal to phase difference between IL and IC. Make sure that values of resistors R2 and R3 should
not severely divert the tank circuit from ideal condition.

Table 3. Observation Table for measuring the difference (θ) between IL and IC using the circuit shown in Figure
3. Use oscilloscope to measure voltages. Value of R1 can be zero.Vs = ------ V, L = ----- mH, C = ----- µ F, RL =
----- Ω, R2 = ----- Ω, R3 = ----- Ω.
 S. N. f (Hz) V2 (Volts) V3 (Volts) θ (°) Comments
1 50
2 100
3 200
4 500
5 1k
.
.
.
Note: The phase difference between V2 and V3 is equal to the phase difference between IL and IC. Also, plot θ-f
graph.

4) Introduction of desired phase difference between the output voltage and the circuit
current

Circuit shown in Figure 4 can be used to introduce a desired phase difference between the output voltage and
the circuit current. When the series resistance R1 is much larger than the impedance of the tank circuit, the
source and R1 combination can be equivalent to the constant current source. In this special situation, the phase
difference between V0 and VS can be equal to the phase difference (θ) between the output voltage (V0) and the
circuit current (I). If the resistance (RL) of the inductor coil is negligible, ideal circuit shown in Figure 4 can
be
 ଵ
constructed. At a fixed frequency, f = √ , the phase angle (θ) can ideally be varied from –π/2 to π/2.
ଶ
ଶπ LC

Table 4. Observation Table for measuring the difference (θ) between V0 and I using the circuit shown in Figure
4. Use oscilloscope to measure voltages. Vs = ------ V, L = ----- mH, C = ----- µ F, R1 = ----- Ω, f = -------(Hz).

S. N. R (Ω) V0 (Volts) ‫׀‬V0/VS‫׀‬ θ (°) Comments

1 0
2 100
3 200
4 500
5 1k
.
.
.
Note: Also, plot θ-R graph.
Innovation:
Replace the sinusoidal voltage source by a square wave and discuss on the nature of the output signal observed
at the tank circuit by varying the frequency of the signal. You can use error due to precision in this experiment.

Referance: Ryder J.D. – Network, Lines and Fields, Prentice Hall of India (1955).
FIRST SEMESTER LAB: General

Use hollow prism to (i) study the variation of refractive index

with concentration of sugar solution (ii) compare the refractive
indices for different liquids like methanol, water, Ethanol.
-Narayan Prasad Adhikari

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT:

After conducting this experiment students will understand
1) measurement technique of refractive index of liquid
2) variation of refractive index with concentration,
3) probable application of it.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
a hollow prism; spirit level; spectrometer;sugar; water; methanol; ethanol.

THEORY: The refractive index of prism is given by

�+
ቀ
𝑆଴଴𝑛
଴଴�
ቁ
2
�=
𝑆଴଴଴଴
଴଴
ሺ ሻ
2
where µ is the refractive index, A is the angle of prism and Dm is the angle of minimum deviation. (Derive and
understand above formula).

Dm

Fig.1: For minimum deviation

 Fig.2: For Angle of prism

PROCEDURE:
1. (Adjusting spectrometer):
(a) Keep the base of the spectrometer, telescope and collimator horizontal.
(b) Keep the sodium light on the axis of the collimator.
(c) Make the prism table horizontal.

2. Place the prism on the Prism Table (you can fill the prism with water also) and lock the prism table in
the position so the incident beam falls on one of the edges of the prism. Now, move the telescope and
locate the images of the slit and note down the angles. The difference between both the angles is 2A.
Hence, half of the difference will give us A, i.e. angle of prism.
3. Repeat 2 for 5 times to get A.
4. Fill up the prism with water and keep it in the prism table.
5. Choose an angle of incidence other than the previous chosen one andwith eye locate approximately
the angle at which the spectrum starts to movein the opposite direction as the prism table is rotated,
and lock the prismtable. Now, using the telescope, fix the telescope on the spectrum of the lightand
then use the fine adjustment for the movement of prism table tomove the table so that we get the
precise location of the angle where theline starts to move in the opposite direction, and note the angle
for this.
6. Without disturbing anything, remove the prism and get the measure of theangle of the direct image of
the slit in the telescope. The difference betweenthese two angles is the Angle of Minimum Deviation
(Dm).
 7. Repeat the above steps 5 & 6 for at least five times to get average value of Dm.
8. Make sugar solution (100 ml) including 20 gm of sugar.
9. Carry on above steps 5, 6 & 7 for at least five times to get average value of Dm.
10. Repeat above steps 8 & 9 for 10 gm, 5 gm and 2.5 gm of sugar to prepare 100 ml sugar solution.
11. Similarly find Dmfor methanol & ethanol.
12. Make separate observation tables for A, Dm for the (water, sugar solutions with different
concentrations, methanol and ethanol).
13. Estimate µ for all the liquids and solutions mentioned in the objects & estimate Error.

OBSERVATION:
଴ …... divisions of Main Scale =

1 ‫׵‬ division of Main Scale(MS) =

And,
Number of divisions on the Vernier Scale (VS) =
 value of one M Sdivision
 VC  =
number of divisionon
VS

Table: 1

1 2

Vernier Readings of Face I Readings of Face II 2A Mean A

No.
MS VS Total MS VS Total
of
= R1-R2
2A = 2A
(R ) (R ) 2
obs deg deg deg deg deg deg deg
deg deg
VER I
1
VER II

VER I
2
VER II

VER I
3
VER II
 Table: 2

No. Concen- Vernier Readings of Readings of Dm Mean

tration minimum deviation direct Dm
of MS VS Total MS VS Total = R1-R2
obs (R1) (R2)
deg deg deg deg deg deg deg deg
VER I
1
VER II

VER I
2
VER II

VER I
3
VER II

1 VER I

VER II

2 VER I

VER II

3 VER I

VER II

1 VER I

VER II

2 VER I

VER II

3 VER I

VER II

CALCULATIONS:
ERROR ANALYSIS:

RESULTS:

DISCUSSIONS:

References: Arora C. L. - B.Sc. Practical Physics, S. Chand and Company Ltd. (2010)
FIRST SEMESTER LAB: General

USE PHENOMENON OF INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT TO

DETERMINE THE THICKNESS OF A THIN MICA SHEET
OR A THIN PAPER BY MEASUREMENT OF WIDTH OF
INTERFERENCE FRINGES IN AN AIR WEDGE
-Hari Shankar Mallik
AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT:
After conducting this experiment students will understand
1) the meaning of interference,
2) concept of air wedge,
3) probable application of it.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Travelling microscope; Monochromatic light source (such as Na-lamp),

One pair of microscope slide; Black paper (larger than the glass slide size)

45° inclined a plain glass plate (~ 6 cm  6 cm),

Convex lens (~ 10 cm focal length);

Given thin paper or thin mica-sheet

[Note:please take 70 g or 80 g printing paper so that one can compare the thickness with its standard
value given by its manufacturer]

THEORY:
When a thin piece of paper (or thin mica-sheet) is introduced between two optically plane glass plates, wedge-
shaped air film is formed. On this arrangement, when a parallel beam of monochromatic light is incident
normally, a pattern of alternate dark and bright interference fringes are produced as Fig.1.

Monochromatic

Fringes

Fig.1: Theoretical arrangement for fringes

 Fig.2: Experimental setup for the experiment.

If  be the wavelength of the monochromatic incident light,  is the fringe-width, l is the distance between the
edge of contact and the edge of separation, then thickness of paper or mica-sheet is given by
 ��
�= … … … … ሺ଴଴ሻ
ʹ�
PROCEDURE:
1. Turn on the sodium lamp source.
2. Take a clean black paper and placed on the travelling microscope base.
3. Clean the surfaces of the two glass slides so that no stains are left on surfaces.
4. These two glass slides placed one over other parallelly and gently placed it on the black paper.
5. The given piece of paper (or mica-sheet) is gently inserted in one side of the slides while other end of the
slides remains connected. (Caution! angle of separation should be very small)
[Note:do not disturb the setup throughout the experiment.]
6. A convex lens is used to produce parallel beam from the monochromatic light source.
7. With the help of a plain glass plate (adjusted for 45° inclination with parallel beam) the parallel beam is
focused on the glass slides as perpendicular beam.
8. The reflected light from the slides is viewed through the eye-piece of a microscope. The microscope is
adjusted for clear alternate dark and bright interference fringes.

For Table: 1

th
9. The microscope is fixed so that the vertical cross-wire coincides with the dark fringe (say n band)
and the reading is noted as initial microscope reading.
10. The microscope is moved across the fringes and readings are noted when the vertical cross-wire
th
coincides with the (n+10) dark fringe as final microscope reading.
11.Repeat steps 9 and 10 for remaining observations throughout the range. (Caution! While taking readings on
the travelling microscope, screw should be always moved in same direction.)

For Table: 2

12. Adjust the microscope for contact edge and reading is noted.
13. Adjust the microscope for another edge separated by paper sheet (or mica-sheet) and reading is noted.
14. Repeat steps 12 and 13 two more times.

OBSERVATION:
଴ Value of ……. division of Main Scale (M.S.) =

‫ ׵‬alue of …1..division of Main Scale (M.S.) =

V

଴ ……division of Vernier Scale (V.S.) coincides with …….. division of M.S.

‫׵‬
1……division of Vernier Scale (V.S.) coincides with …….. division of M.S.

‫ ׵‬Vernier Constant (V.C.) =

Table 1: Determination of  using monochromatic light (……) with wavelength () ……….

Initial Final
No. No. of Microscope Reading Microscope Reading Difference ˈ =
of fringes M.S. V.S.  V.C. Total M.S. V.S.  V.C. Total x = |a-b| x/n
Obs. (n) (a) (b)
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
1 10
2 10
3 10
4 10
5 10
6 10
7 10
8 10
9 10
10 10

∑ ଴଴′
‫= ׵‬
� =
ͳͲ
Table 2: Determination of the length (l) between the edge of the contact and the separation.

Contact edge Separation edge

No. Microscope Reading Microscope Reading Difference l = x /3
of M.S. V.S.  V.C. Total M.S. V.S.  V.C. Total x = |a-b|
Obs. (a) (b)
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
1
2
3
x =
CALCULATION:

By using equation (i),

The thickness of the ……………… is,

 ��
�=
ʹ �

= =

ERROR ANALYSIS: (may add additional page)

RESULT:

The thickness of the given ……………………. is …………… ……… m

DISCUSSIONS:(may add additional page)

Reference: 1. Arora C. L. - B.Sc. Practical Physics, S. Chand and Company Ltd. (2010)
2. Subrahmanyam N. and Lal B. - Text Book of Optics, S. Chand and Co., Ltd. (1994)
FIRST SEMESTER LAB: General

Study the diffraction phenomenon by (i) single slit (ii) double

slit (iii) plane transmission grating and determine wavelength
of sodium light in each case. Use the phenomena of diffraction
to find the lines per mm in a given grating using known
wavelength of light.
-Narayan Prasad Adhikari
AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT:
After conducting this experiment students will understand
1) the concept of diffraction phenomenon,
2) Comparision of diffraction patterns in different conditions,
3) probable application of it.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Sodium light source; Spectrometer, Single slit, Double slit, Grating, Table lamp

THEORY:
The intensity of light diffracted from a single slit is given by
Sin 
2
2
I  A0
2
where   ( bSin ) /  A0  ab / L . L is the distance on
and
screen from center of slit, b is the amplitude of the light wave
incident on the slit and a is the width of the slit. (Derive above
formula).
λ= a. Sin(θ).

Similarly for double slit the intensity is given by

2
Sin 
2 2
I  4A 02 Cos  where Ȗ is given by (d/b)*ȕ. (Refer the

figure and derive above formula.)
λ= d. Sin(θ).
For the diffraction of light from plane transmission grating:
(a+b) Sin θ = n.λ (for grating)
a is the slit width and b is the distance between slits, n is the
order of diffraction.
 PROCEDURE:
Single Slit:
1. Shine a laser through single slit of width (a) hence obtain maxima & minima patterns of the diffracted
light.
2. Find the distance between two maxima (principal maxima & nearest maxima), (y say).
3. Measure the distance between the slits and screen (wall), (L say).
4. Obtain the value of θ (=y/L).
5. Repeat the experiments at least 5 times.

Double Slit:

1. Shine a laser through a pair of narrow slits separated by small distance (d) hence obtain maxima &
minima patterns of the diffracted light.
2. Find the distance between two maxima (principal maxima & nearest maxima), (y say).
3. Measure the distance between the slits and screen (wall), (L say).
4. Obtain the value of θ (=y/L).
5. Repeat the experiments at least 5 times.

Grating:
1. Set the optical leveling and then mount the grating on the turn table.
2. Set the grating normal to the incident light.
3. Turn on the Na light and illuminate the slit with the light.
4. Turn the telescope from normal position to one side to see first order spectrum of the light. Note the
angle of first order diffraction.
5. Take readings of first order diffraction in other side also.
nd
6. Similarly, take readings for 2 order diffractions on both sides.
7. Repeat the readings for 5 times.

OBSERVATIONS:
Single slit
Slit width (a) = [Note: if not provided, measure it with Travelling microscope]
Distance of wall from the slit (L) =
 Diffraction S.N.
Distancey  = y/L λ= a. Sin(θ)
order n
i

1 ii
iii
i

2 ii
iii
i

3 ii
iii

Double slit
Slit separation (d) =
[Note: if not provided, measure it with Travelling microscope]
Distance of wall from the slit (L) =

Diffraction S.N.
Distancey  = y/L λ= d. Sin(θ)
order n
i
1 ii
iii
i
2 ii
iii
i
3 ii
iii

Vernier constant of the spectrometer =

Number of Lines on the grating (N) =
Grating constant (a+b) =
 Telescope reading Telescope reading
Vernie one side other side 2 Mea
Order = x-y n
r
MS VS Total MS VS Total 
x y
V1
st
1
order V2
V1
nd
2
order V2

Wavelength from first order =

Wavelength from first order =
Mean wavelength =

Wavelength of sodium light = 5893 Ǻ

Relative error =
% Error =
Standard error =

SECOND PART OF EXPT

To get grating constant – Repeat the above procedure for given wavelength but with unknown grating
constant. Hence estimate the grating constant.
Estimate error in grating constant.

RESULT:

DISCUSSION:

References: 1.Arora C. L. - B.Sc. Practical Physics, S. Chand and Company Ltd. (2010)
2.Jenkins F. A. and White H. E. - Fundamentals of Optics, McGraw Hill Book Co. Ltd., 4th
Edition (2011)
FIRST SEMESTER LAB: General

TO CONSTRUCT GENERATOR OF DIRAC DELTA

FUNCTION FROM THE DISCRETE ORTHONORMAL
BASIS OF THE FUNCTION SPACE AND STUDY VARIOUS
PROPERTIES OF THE DIRAC DELTA FUNCTION
Dr. Hari Prasad Lamichhane
Aim of the Experiment:
After conducting this experiment students will understand
1) meaning and properties of the orthonormal basis,
2) properties of Dirac delta function,
3) how to construct a generator of Dirac delta function by using closure relation of orthonormal basis and
4) various properties of the generator of Dirac delta function.

Introduction:
Under Graduate and Graduate course on quantum mechanics stems on observables, orthonomal basis functions
or vectors, Dirac delta function and Schrodinger equation. These basic quantum mechanical terms generally
shocks the physics graduate students in the beginning of the semester. One of the most striking problems is
understanding what the closure property of orthonormal basis functions is. Closure property of orthonormal
basis functions is not only important for testing completeness of the basis functions but also for constructing
and studying various properties of Dirac delta function. Such type of work takes enormous effort so that it is
better to design a numerical experiment which will digout various properties of Dirac delta function and the
basis functions and finally the students will be able to better understand quantum mechanics.

Theory:
State of a quantum particle is described using a wavefunction. The wavefunction of a particle can be expanded
in terms of the complete set of orthonormal basis functions. Set of eigen functions of an observable forms an
orthonormal basis in the wave function space. Orthonormal basis of the function space satisfies the following
properties:
a) The scalar product of two basis functions is equal to Kroncker delta function.
b) The set of basis functions should be complete. In other words, any function of the wave function space
can uniquely be expanded in terms of the orthonormal basis. This property can be tested by studying
closure property of the basis functions. Closure property is very important because it can be used to
construct a Dirac delta function.
Among various options of observables we can consider Hamiltonian oparator of a particle bounded in one
dimensional potential well defined as:
 ℏ2 d2
H = ଶm ∙ dx2 + Vሺxሻ--------------(1)

Where V(x) = 0 for 0≤ x ≤ L;

= ∞ otherwise.

Graphical representation of the potential energy V(x) is shown in Figure 1.

V(x) ∞

X
0 L
Figure 1. Infinite Potential Energy Well

Time independent energy eigen functions of the Hamiltonian operator can be obtained by solving Schrodinger
wave equation:

H u(x) = E u(x) -----------------(2)

where E is the energy eigenvalue and u(x) is the energy eigen function.

The normalized wavefunctions of the Schrodinger wave equation (2) for a particle whose Hamiltonian operator
is given by equation 1 are

ଶ ଴𝜋�
 �଴ ሺ଴଴ ሻ = √ ቁ -------------------(3) for 0≤ x ≤ L.
� �
Sin ቀ

Otherwise equal to 0. Values of n are positive integers 1, 2, 3, …… The energy eigenvalues are
ћ2 ଴ 2
଴଴ 2
‫ܧ‬଴ = ଶ଴଴଴ .
2

The scalar product of two eigenfunctions is defined as

� ∗
((଴଴ ሺ଴଴ሻ, ଴଴଴ ሺ଴଴ሻ) = ∫଴ ଴଴଴ ሺ଴଴ሻ଴଴଴ ሺ଴଴ሻ𝑑� = ଴଴଴଴ ---------------------(4)
The closure relation is
∗ ሺ଴଴ሻ଴଴
∑଴ ଴଴ ′ ′
଴ ଴ ሺ� ሻ = ଴଴ሺ� − � ሻ ---------------------(4)

where δ(x-x’) is the Dirac delta function and the sum runs upto n equals to infinity.

Basic Properties of Dirac Delta Function are as follows:

1) δ(x-x’) = ∞ when x = x’;

 2) δ(x-x’) = 0 when x ≠ x’;
∞
3) ∫−∞ ଴଴ ሺ� − ଴଴ ′ ሻ 𝑑� = 1
Third property of Dirac delta function can be simplified as

∞ � 4 ሺଶ଴′−ଵሻ଴଴�
଴଴ሺ� − ଴଴ ′ ሻ 𝑑� = ∫ ∑ ሺ଴଴ ′ ሻ𝑑� = ∑ Sin{ } ------(5) where n can take
1=∫
଴଴∗ ሺ଴଴ ሻ� positive
଴ ଴ ଴ ଴ ሺଶ଴−ଵሻ𝜋 �
−∞ ଴
integer values 1, 2, 3, ……..

The sum on the left hand side term of equation 4 for finite n can be defined as a generator of Dirac delta
function as

∗ ′
‫ܨ‬ሺ଴଴, ଴଴ ′ , ଴଴ሻ = ∑଴ ଴଴଴ ሺ଴଴ሻ଴଴଴ ሺ� ሻ

……………….(6).

Students can use computer programs such as excel, origin, matlab, etc. to study the properties of the generator
of Dirac delta function in the lab. One of the noteworthy properties of the generator will be its dependance on n.
By changing n for given values of x and x’ students will understand how the generator of the Dirac delta
function will actually be attained the Dirac delta function and hence, proved the closure relation of discrete
orthonormal basis functions.

Observation:
Use Microshoft Excel program to generate the generator function F(x, x’, n) as defined in equation 6. Take
infinite well potential eigenfunctions for un(x) as given in equation 3. As an example, plot of the function F(x,
x’, n) against x for L = 1, n = 100 and x’ = 0.1. is shown in Figure 2. The generator function is almost zero
everywhere except at x = x’ = 0.1. This generator function clearly shows the nature of Dirac delta function
except the finite height at x equal to x’. The students can vary n and x’ to get more results.

Figure 2. Generator of Dirac delta function as a function of x for n = 100, x’= 0.1 and L = 1. un(x) is given by
equation 3.
Plot shown in Figure 2 was actually contructed by calculating values of the generator function F 1 at each point
of x in the interval of 0.01 from 0 to 1 for x’ = 0.1 and n = 100. Many intersting results can be extrated by fixing
values of x and x’ and varying n.

The height variation of the generator function on the value of n at x = x’ = 0.1 and L =1 is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3 shows that the height of the generator function almost linearly increases on increasing n with average
slope 1 and period n = 10.

Figure 3. Generator of Dirac delta function as a function of n for x = x’= 0.1 and L = 1. un(x) is given by
equation 3.

The nature of generator function can also be studied for different values of x and x’. The generator functions F3
and F4 as defined in Figure 4 are not zero for x not equal to x’ as implied in Figure 2 but show periodic nature
on n. The amplitude and the period of the generator function depend on the values of x and x’. Figure 4 A
shows that the generator F3 has amplitude 4.14 and period 20 for x = 0.1 and x’ = 0.2. On the otherhand Figure
4 B shows that the generator function F4 has amplitude 0.78 and many oscillations within the period 20.
However, the average values of both functions are equal to zero.

A B
Figure 4. Generator of Dirac delta function as a function of n for A) x = 0.1, x’= 0.2 and L = 1; B) x = 0.1, x’=
0.8 and L = 1. un(x) is given by equation 3.
How the number of terms in the generator function affects the height and width of the generator of Dirac delta
function can be studied by calculating values of the generator function at fixed x’ and varied x in the interval of
0.001 from 0 to 1 and the sum is run up to given value of n. The values of the generator plotted against x at x’
equal to 0.1 and n equal to 14 and 94 is shown in Figure 5. As can be seen in Figure 5, the function F 5 is
oscillating more rapidly at n = 94 as compared to at n = 14. The function F5 is also larger and narrower at n =
94 than at n = 14. We can concluded from this result that the generator of Dirac delta function will be much
larger as well as much narrower at x = x’. The generator of Dirac delta function will oscillate at very high
frequency with mean value 0 in the region where x is not eqal to x’. Generally, an ordinary function ( a
sufficiently regular function) does not rapidly vary in any short interval of x and hence can be taken as constant
in that interval of x but over the same region of x the Dirac Delta function oscillates many times. That is why
one should take an average value of Dirac delta function in an infinitesimal interval of x in order to expand an
ordinary function.

Figure 5. Generator of Dirac delta function as a function of x for x’= 0.1, L = 1, n = 14 and 94.

Students can also study how the integration of Dirac delta function converges to unity by using generator of the
Derac delta function. The students should integrate the generator function with respect to x in the given interval
and then do the summation. The integral of the generator of Dirac delta function as a function of n for x’= 0.1 in
the interval x = 0 to 1 is shown in Figure 6. The x integration of the generator function also shows periodic
nature on n. The amplitude of oscillation decreases on increasing the value of n and the function finally attained
value 1 as demanded by the property of Dirac delta function.
Figure 6. Integration in the interval x = 0 to 1 of the generator of Dirac delta function as a function of n for x’=
0.1. The function un(x) is given by equation 3.

Innovation:
Students are suggested to calculate integration of the generator with respect to x in the range a) which contains
x’ and b) which excludes x’. Students may need larger value of n to get proper conclusion.

RESULTS:

DISCUSSIONS:

REFERENCES:
Cohen-Tannoudji, C, Duui. B. &Laloe, F. – Quantum Mechanics, Vol. I & II, John Wiley
(1977).