Vertical farming

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Lettuce grown in indoor vertical farming system.

Vertical farming is the practice of
producing food and medicine in vertically
stacked layers, vertically inclined surfaces
and/or integrated in other structures (such
as in a skyscraper, used warehouse, or
shipping container). The modern ideas of
vertical farming use indoor farming
techniques and controlled-environment
agriculture (CEA) technology,[1] where all
environmental factors can be controlled.
These facilities utilize artificial control of
light, environmental control (humidity,
temperature, gases...) and fertigation.
Some vertical farms use techniques
similar to greenhouses, where natural
sunlight can be augmented with artificial
lighting and metal reflectors.[2][3][4]

Hydroponic systems can be lit by LEDs

that mimic sunlight. Software can ensure
that all the plants get the same amount of
light, water and nutrients. Proper
managements means that no herbicides
or pesticides are required.[5]

Types
The term "vertical farming" was coined by
Gilbert Ellis Bailey in 1915 in his book
Vertical Farming. His use of the term
differs from the current meaning—he
wrote about farming with a special interest
in soil origin, its nutrient content and the
view of plant life as "vertical" life forms,
specifically relating to their underground
root structures.[6] Modern usage of the
term "vertical farming" usually refers to
growing plants in layers, whether in a
multistory skyscraper, used warehouse, or
shipping container.

Mixed-use skyscrapers

Mixed-use skyscrapers were proposed and

built by architect Ken Yeang. Yeang
proposes that instead of hermetically
sealed mass-produced agriculture, plant
life should be cultivated within open air,
mixed-use skyscrapers for climate control
and consumption. This version of vertical
farming is based upon personal or
community use rather than the wholesale
production and distribution that aspires to
feed an entire city. It thus requires less of
an initial investment than Despommier's
"vertical farm". However, neither
Despommier nor Yeang are the conceptual
originators, nor is Yeang the inventor of
vertical farming in skyscrapers.

Despommier's skyscrapers
Dickson Despommier shares his ideas about how
"vertical farming" can help reduce hunger by changing
the way we use land for agriculture. Photography by
Kris Krüg

Ecologist Dickson Despommier argues

that vertical farming is legitimate for
environmental reasons. He claims that the
cultivation of plant life within skyscrapers
will require less embodied energy and
produce less pollution than some methods
of producing plant life on natural
landscapes. He moreover claims that
natural landscapes are too toxic for
natural agricultural production, despite the
ecological and environmental costs of
extracting materials to build skyscrapers
for the simple purpose of agricultural
production.

Vertical farming according to Despommier

thus discounts the value of natural
landscape in exchange for the idea of
"skyscraper as spaceship." Plant life is
mass-produced within hermetically sealed,
artificial environments that have little to do
with the outside world. In this sense, they
could be built anywhere regardless of the
context. Although climate control, lighting,
and other costs of maintenance have been
posited as potentially stifling this concept,
advocates have countered that an
important feature of future vertical farms
is the integration of renewable energy
technology, be it solar panels, wind
turbines and/or water capture systems.
The vertical farm is designed to be
sustainable, and to enable nearby
inhabitants to work at the farm.

Despommier's concept of the vertical farm

emerged in 1999 at Columbia University. It
promotes the mass cultivation of plant life
for commercial purposes in skyscrapers.[7]
Stackable shipping containers

Several companies have developed

stacking recycled shipping containers in
urban settings. Brighterside Consulting
created a complete off-grid container
system. Freight Farms produces a "leafy
green machine" that is a complete farm-to-
table system outfitted with vertical
hydroponics, LED lighting and intuitive
climate controls built within a 12 m ×
2.4 m shipping container.[8] Podponics
built a vertical farm in Atlanta consisting
of over 100 stacked "growpods".[9] A
similar farm is under construction in
Oman.[10][11] TerraFarms offer a
proprietary[12] system of 40 foot shipping
containers, which include computer vision
integrated with an artificial neural network
to monitor the plants;[12] and are remotely
monitored from California. It is claimed
that the TerraFarm system "has achieved
cost parity with traditional, outdoor
farming"[13] with each unit producing the
equivalent of "three to five acres of
farmland", using 97% less water[14]
through water recapture and harvesting
the evaporated water through the air
conditioning.[15] As of December 2017 the
TerraFarm system was in commercial
operation. Plants can exploit light that
varies in intensity through the day.
Controlling light governs the growth cycle
of the plant. E.g., infrared LEDs can mimic
5 minutes of sunset, stimulating some
plants to begin flowering.[13]

Technology
Lighting can be natural or via LEDs. As of
2018 commercial LEDs were about 28 per
cent efficient, which is more efficient than
keeps the cost of produce high and
prevents vertical farms from competing in
regions where cheap vegetables are
abundant. However, lighting engineers at
Philips have demonstrated LEDs with 68
per cent efficiency.[5] Energy costs can be
reduced because full-spectrum white light
is not required. Instead, red and blue or
purple light can be generated with less
electricity.

History
In 1915, American geologist Gilbert Ellis
Bailey used the concept of tall multi-story
buildings for indoor cultivation[1]. One of
the earliest drawings of a tall building that
cultivates food was published in Life
Magazine in 1909.[16] The reproduced
drawings feature vertically stacked
homesteads set amidst a farming
landscape. This proposal can be seen in
Rem Koolhaas's Delirious New York.
Koolhaas wrote that this 1909 theorem is
'The Skyscraper as Utopian device for the
production of unlimited numbers of virgin
sites on a metropolitan location'.[17]

Hydroponicum

Early architectural proposals that

contributge to VF include Le Corbusier's
Immeubles-Villas (1922) and SITE's
Highrise of Homes (1972).[18] SITE's
Highrise of Homes is a near revival of the
1909 Life Magazine Theorem.[19] Built
examples of tower hydroponicums are
documented in The Glass House by John
Hix. Images of the vertical farms at the
School of Gardeners in Langenlois,
Austria, and the glass tower at the Vienna
International Horticulture Exhibition (1964)
show that vertical farms existed.[2] The
technological precedents that make
vertical farming possible can be traced
back to horticultural history through the
development of greenhouse and
hydroponic technology. Early
hydroponicums integrated hydroponic
technology into building systems. These
horticultural building systems evolved
from greenhouse technology. The British
Interplanetary Society developed a
hydroponicum for lunar conditions, while
other building prototypes were developed
during the early days of space exploration.
The first Tower Hydroponic Units were
developed in Armenia.[20]

The Armenian tower hydroponicums are

the first built examples of a vertical farm,
and are documented in Sholto Douglas'
Hydroponics: The Bengal System, first
published in 1951 with data from the then-
East Pakistan, today's Bangladesh, and the
Indian state of West Bengal.[21][22][23]

Later precursors that have been published,

or built, are Ken Yeang's Bioclimatic
Skyscraper (Menara Mesiniaga, built
1992); MVRDV's PigCity, 2000; MVRDV's
Meta City/ Datatown (1998–2000); Pich-
Aguilera's Garden Towers (2001).[18]

Ken Yeang is perhaps the most widely

known architect who has promoted the
idea of the 'mixed-use' Bioclimatic
Skyscraper which combines living units
and food production.

Vertical farm

Dickson Despommier is a professor of

environmental health sciences and
microbiology. He reopened the topic of VF
in 1999 with graduate students in a
medical ecology class. He speculated that
a 30-floor farm on one city block could
provide food for 50,000 people including
vegetables, fruit, eggs and meat,
explaining that hydroponic crops could be
grown on upper floors; while the lower
floors would be suited for chickens and
fish that eat plant waste.[1]

Although much of Despommier's

suggestions have been challenged from
an environmental science and engineering
point of view, Despommier successfully
popularized his assertion that food
production can be transformed. Critics
claimed that the additional energy needed
for artificial lighting, heating and other
operations would outweigh the benefit of
the building's close proximity to the areas
of consumption.[24][25]

Despommier originally challenged his

class to feed the entire population of
Manhattan (about 2,000,000 people) using
only 5 hectares (13 acres) of rooftop
gardens. The class calculated that rooftop
gardening methods could feed only 2
percent of the population. Unsatisfied with
the results, Despommier made an off-the-
cuff suggestion of growing plants indoors,
vertically. By 2001 the first outline of a
vertical farm was introduced. In an
interview Despommier described how
vertical farms would function:
“ Each floor will have its own watering ”
and nutrient monitoring systems.
There will be sensors for every
single plant that tracks how much
and what kinds of nutrients the plant
has absorbed. You'll even have
systems to monitor plant diseases
by employing DNA chip
technologies that detect the
presence of plant pathogens by
simply sampling the air and using
snippets from various viral and
bacterial infections. It's very easy to
do.
 Moreover, a gas chromatograph will
tell us when to pick the plant by
analyzing which flavenoids the
produce contains. These flavonoids
are what gives the food the flavors
you're so fond of, particularly for
more aromatic produce like
tomatoes and peppers. These are all
right-off-the-shelf technologies. The
ability to construct a vertical farm
exists now. We don't have to make
anything new.[26]

Architectural designs were independently

produced by designers Chris Jacobs,
Andrew Kranis and Gordon Graff.[27][28]
Mass media attention began with an
article written in New York magazine,
followed by others,[29][30][31][32] as well as
radio and television features.

In 2011 the Plant in Chicago was building

an anaerobic digester into the building.
This will allow the farm to operate off the
energy grid. Moreover, the anaerobic
digester will be recycling waste from
nearby businesses that would otherwise
go into landfills.[33]

In 2013 the Association for Vertical

Farming was founded in Munich, Germany
As of 2014, Vertical Fresh Farms was
operating in Buffalo, NY specializing in
salad greens, herbs and sprouts.[34] In
March the world’s then largest vertical
farm opened in Scranton, Pennsylvania,
built by Green Spirit Farms (GSF). The firm
is housed in a single story building
covering 3.25 hectares, with racks stacked
six high to house 17 million plants. The
farm was to grow 14 lettuce crops per
year, as well as spinach, kale, tomatoes,
peppers, basil and strawberries. Water is
scavenged from the farm's atmosphere
with a dehumidifier.[5]
A 2015 study utilized inexpensive metal
reflectors to supply sunlight to the plants,
reducing energy costs.[3]

Kyoto-based Nuvege (pronounced “new

veggie”) operates a windowless farm. Its
LED lighting is tuned to service two types
of chlorophyll, one preferring red light and
the other blue. Nuvege produces 6 million
lettuce heads a year.[5]

The US Defense Advanced Research

Projects Agency operates an 18-story
project that produces genetically modified
plants that make proteins useful in
vaccines.[5]
Problems
Economics

Opponents question the potential

profitability of vertical farming.[35] Its
economic and environmental benefits rest
partly on the concept of minimizing food
miles, the distance that food travels from
farm to consumer. However, a recent
analysis suggests that transportation is
only a minor contributor to the economic
and environmental costs of supplying food
to urban populations. The analysis
concluded that "food miles are, at best, a
marketing fad."[36] Thus the facility would
have to lower costs or charge higher
prices to justify remaining in a city.

Similarly, if power needs are met by fossil

fuels, the environmental effect may be a
net loss;[37] even building low-carbon
capacity to power the farms may not make
as much sense as simply leaving
traditional farms in place, while burning
less coal.

The initial building costs would exceed

$100 million, for a 60 hectare vertical
farm.[38] Office occupancy costs can be
high in major cities, with office space in
cities such as Tokyo, Moscow, Mumbai,
Dubai, Milan, Zurich, and Sao Paulo
ranging from $1850 to $880 per square
meter.[39]

The developers of the TerraFarm system

produced from second hand, 40 foot
shipping containers claimed that their
system "has achieved cost parity with
traditional, outdoor farming".[13]

Energy use

During the growing season, the sun shines

on a vertical surface at an extreme angle
such that much less light is available to
crops than when they are planted on flat
land. Therefore, supplemental light would
be required. Bruce Bugbee claimed that
the power demands of vertical farming
would be uncompetitive with traditional
farms using only natural light.[24][40]
Environmental writer George Monbiot
calculated that the cost of providing
enough supplementary light to grow the
grain for a single loaf would be about
$15.[41] An article in the Economist argued
that "even though crops growing in a glass
skyscraper will get some natural sunlight
during the day, it won't be enough" and "the
cost of powering artificial lights will make
indoor farming prohibitively expensive".[42]
As "The Vertical Farm" proposes a
controlled environment, heating and
cooling costs will resemble those of any
other tower. Plumbing and elevator
systems are necessary to distribute
nutrients and water. In the northern
continental United States, fossil fuel
heating cost can be over $200,000 per
hectare.[43]

Pollution

Depending on the method of electricity

generation used, greenhouse produce can
create more greenhouse gases than field
produce,[44] largely due to higher energy
use per kilogram. Vertical farms require
much greater energy per kilogram versus
regular greenhouses, mainly through
increased lighting. The amount of pollution
produced is dependent on how the energy
is generated.

Greenhouses commonly supplement CO2

levels to 3–4 times the atmospheric rate.
This increase in CO2 increases
photosynthesis rates by 50%, contributing
to higher yields.[45] Some greenhouses
burn fossil fuels purely for this purpose, as
other CO2 sources, such as those from
furnaces, contain pollutants such as
sulphur dioxide and ethylene which
significantly damage plants.[45] This
means a vertical farm requires a CO2
source, most likely from combustion. Also,
necessary ventilation may allow CO2 to
leak into the atmosphere.

Greenhouse growers commonly exploit

photoperiodism in plants to control
whether the plants are in a vegetative or
reproductive stage. As part of this control,
the lights stay on past sunset and before
sunrise or periodically throughout the
night. Single story greenhouses have
attracted criticism over light pollution.[46]
Hydroponic greenhouses regularly change
the water, producing water containing
fertilizers and pesticides that must be
disposed of. The most common method
of spreading the effluent over
neighbouring farmland or wetlands would
be more difficult for an urban vertical
farm.[47]

As of 2012, Vertical Harvest was raising

funds for an urban, small-scale vertical
farm in Jackson Hole, Wyoming.[48]

Advantages
Many of VF's potential benefits are
obtained from scaling up hydroponic or
aeroponic growing methods.[49]

A 2018 study estimated that the value of

four ecosystem services provided by
existing vegetation in urban areas was on
the order of $33 billion annually. The
study's quantitative framework projected
annual food production of 100–180 million
tonnes, energy savings ranging from 14 to
15 billion kilowatt hours, nitrogen
sequestration between 100,000 and
170,000 tonnes and stormwater runoff
reductions between 45 and 57 billion cubic
meters annually. Food production, nitrogen
fixation, energy savings, pollination,
climate regulation, soil formation and
biological pest control could be worth as
much as $80–160 billion annually.[50]

Preparation for the future

It is estimated that by the year 2050, the

world's population will increase by 3 billion
people and close to 80% will live in urban
areas.[51] Vertical farms have the potential
to reduce or eliminate the need to create
additional farmland.[51][52][53]

Increased crop production

Unlike traditional farming in non-tropical

areas, indoor farming can produce crops
year-round. All-season farming multiplies
the productivity of the farmed surface by a
factor of 4 to 6 depending on the crop.
With crops such as strawberries, the factor
may be as high as 30.[54][55]

Furthermore, as the crops would be

consumed where they are grown, long-
distance transport with its accompanying
time delays, should reduce spoilage,
infestation and energy needs. Globally
some 30% of harvested crops are wasted
due to spoilage and infestation, though
this number is much lower in developed
nations.[32]
Despommier suggests that dwarf versions
of crops (e.g. dwarf wheat which is
smaller in size but richer in nutrients[56]),
year-round crops and "stacker" plant
holders are accounted for, a 30-story
building with a base of a building block (2
hectares (5 acres)) would yield a yearly
crop analogous to that of 1,000 hectares
(2,400 acres) of traditional farming.[32]

Weather disruption

Crops grown in traditional outdoor farming

depend on supportive weather, and suffer
from undesirable temperatures rain,
monsoon, hailstorm, tornadoe, flooding,
wildfires and drought.[49] "Three recent
floods (in 1993, 2007 and 2008) cost the
United States billions of dollars in lost
crops, with even more devastating losses
in topsoil. Changes in rain patterns and
temperature could diminish India's
agricultural output by 30 percent by the
end of the century."[57]

VF productivity is mostly independent of

weather, although earthquakes and
tornadoes still pose threats.

Conservation
Up to 20 units of outdoor farmland per unit
of VF could return to its natural state,[58][59]
due to VR's increased productivity.

Vertical farming would thus reduce the

amount of farmland, thus saving many
natural resources.[32] Deforestation and
desertification caused by agricultural
encroachment on natural biomes could be
avoided. Producing food indoors reduces
or eliminates conventional plowing,
planting, and harvesting by farm
machinery, protecting soil and reducing
emissions.

Mass extinction
Withdrawing human activity from large
areas of the Earth's land surface may be
necessary to address anthropogenic mass
extinctions.

Traditional agriculture disrupts wild

populations and may be unethical given a
viable alternative. One study showed that
wood mouse populations dropped from 25
per hectare to 5 per hectare after harvest,
estimating 10 animals killed per hectare
each year with conventional farming.[60] In
comparison, vertical farming would cause
nominal harm to wildlife.[60][61]

Human health
Traditional farming is a hazardous
occupation that often affects the health of
farmers. Such risks include: exposure to
infectious diseases such as malaria and
schistosomes, exposure to toxic
pesticides and fungicides, confrontations
with wildlife such as venomous snakes,
and injuries that can occur when using
large industrial farming equipment. VF
reduces some of these risks.[49] The
modern industrial food system makes
unhealthy food cheap while fresh produce
is more expensive, encouraging poor
eating habits. These habits lead to health
problems such as obesity, heart disease
and diabetes.
Poverty and culture

Food security is one of the primary factors

leading to absolute poverty. Constructing
farms will allow continued growth of
culturally significant food items without
sacrificing sustainability or basic needs,
which can be significant to the recovery of
a society from poverty.[62]

Urban growth

Vertical farming, used in conjunction with

other technologies and socioeconomic
practices, could allow cities to expand
while remaining substantially self-
sufficient in food. This would allow large
urban centers to grow without food
constraints.[49]

Energy sustainability

Vertical farms could exploit methane

digesters to generate energy. Methane
digesters could be built on site to
transform the organic waste generated at
the farm into biogas that is generally
composed of 65% methane along with
other gases. This biogas could then be
burned to generate electricity for the
greenhouse.[63]
Technologies and devices
Vertical farming relies on the use of
various physical methods to become
effective. Combining these technologies
and devices in an integrated whole is
necessary to make Vertical Farming a
reality. Various methods are proposed and
under research. The most common
technologies suggested are:

Greenhouse
The Folkewall and other vertical growing
architectures[64]
Aeroponics
Agricultural robot
 Aquaponics
Composting
Controlled-environment agriculture
Flowerpot
Grow light
Hydroponics
Phytoremediation
Precision agriculture
Skyscraper
TerraFarm

Plans
Despommier argues that the technology to
construct vertical farms is available and
that the system can be profitable and
effective. Developers and local
governments in multiple cities have
expressed interest in establishing a
vertical farm: Incheon (South Korea), Abu
Dhabi (United Arab Emirates), Dongtan
(China),[65] New York City, Portland,
Oregon, Los Angeles, Las Vegas,[66]
Seattle, Surrey, B.C., Toronto, Paris,
Bangalore, Dubai, Shanghai and Beijing.[67]

In 2009, the world's first pilot production

system was installed at Paignton Zoo
Environmental Park in the United Kingdom.
The project showcased vertical farming
and provided a physical base to conduct
research into sustainable urban food
production. The produce is used to feed
the zoo's animals while the project enables
evaluation of the systems and provides an
educational resource to advocate for
change in unsustainable land use
practices that impact upon global
biodiversity and ecosystem services,[68]

In 2010 the Green Zionist Alliance

proposed a resolution at the 36th World
Zionist Congress calling on Keren
Kayemet L'Yisrael (Jewish National Fund in
Israel) to develop vertical farms in
Israel.[69]
In 2012 the world's first commercial
vertical farm was opened in Singapore,
developed by Sky Greens Farms, and is
three stories high.[70][71] They currently
have over 100 nine meter-tall towers.[72]

In 2013 the Association for Vertical

Farming (AVF) was founded in Munich
(Germany). By May 2015 the AVF had
expanded with regional chapters all over
Europe, Asia, USA, Canada and the United
Kingdom.[73] This organization unites
growers and inventors to improve food
security and sustainable development.
AVF focuses on advancing vertical farming
technologies, designs and businesses by
hosting international info-days, workshops
and summits.[74]

See also
Wikiversity has learning resources about
Domestic house food production system

Aeroponics
Agriculture
Aquaculture
Aquaponics
Arcology
Association for Vertical Farming
Development-supported agriculture
 Folkewall
Foodscaping
Green wall
Internet of farming (Internet of things)
Pot farming
Terrace (agriculture), Terrace
(gardening), and Terrace (building)
Urban horticulture

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