A PROJECT REPORT ON

WHEEL ALIGNMENT

FOR

KALYAN MOTORS

BY

SOURABH CHECHANI

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF SUMMER TRAINING FOR THE

REWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

FROM
ARYA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING
TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT
(2014-2018)
 CONTENTS
 ACKNOWLEDMENT.
 WHAT IS WHEEL ALIGNMENT?
 NEED OF WHEEL ALIGNMENT.
 DO WE NEED WHEEL ALIGNMENT?
 WHAT’S INVOLVED IN A WHEEL
ALIGNMENT?
 BENIFITS OF WHEEL ALIGNMENT.
 WHEEL ALIGNMENT PROCEDURE.
 FRONT END ALIGNMENT.
 TOE.
 CASTER.
 CAMBER.
 KINGPIN INCLINATION.
 TURNING ANGLE.
 TURNING ANGLE OR RADIUS.
 ACKERMAN GEOMETRY.
 AXLE ALIGNMENT.
 TRAILER TRACKING.
 AXLE OFFSET.
 TECHNICAL ASPECTS.
 SYMPTOMS.
 SENSOR/COMPUTER ALIGNMENT.
 SUMMARY.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
 CONCLUSION.
 What is Wheel Alignment?

Wheel alignment, sometimes referred to as breaking or tracking, is part of standard

automobile maintenance that consists of adjusting the angles of the wheels so that they are set
to the car maker's specification. The purpose of these adjustments is to reduce tire wear, and
to ensure that vehicle travel is straight and true (without "pulling" to one side). Alignment
angles can also be altered beyond the maker's specifications to obtain a specific handling
characteristic. Motorsport and off-road applications may call for angles to be adjusted well
beyond "normal" for a variety of reasons.

All new vehicles leave the factory with their alignment checked and adjusted. Usually the
technician paints the heads of the adjustment hardware to show it has been set, also to show if
it has moved later on. It is advisable to do the alignment of the car after the first 5000 km,
since all the suspension get set. Failure to do this may result in the camber and toe
specifications drifting outside the manufacturer's limit. This may lead to vehicle pulling and
tire wear.

Initially consumers may not notice these defects but after usage of some days or running
some kilometres it can cause uneven tire wear and a pull/drifting to the left or right. Tire wear
leads to frequent replacement of tires thus adding to running cost for the consumer. Vehicle
pulling causes irritation and/or fatigue while driving the car.

Under normal driving conditions many vehicles can go 50 000 km+ before they need a new
set of tires, which is a good interval to have the alignment checked as well. Any severe
driving incidents, or changed suspension components would also warrant a check.

The typical alignment on an economy sedan takes about an hour under ideal circumstances. A
utility or performance vehicle may require additional labour. When fasteners and hardware
are rusted/seized, extra time may be required and/or parts may need to be replaced. A good
start is to consult your local licensed automotive technician.
In the same fashion that you will wear out your shoes if you walk only on the inside or
outside edge, so your tires may become worn if not within allowed specifications. Many
performance vehicles sacrifice tire life for driving performance.

As the tire will bounce, it is the first spring that your car rides on, affecting and potentially
shortening the life of all other components. Braking distance, ride quality, and even fuel
economy are all affected by the correct inflation and rotation of tires. A major improvement
in fuel savings would result if everyone correctly inflated their tires.

If your vehicle squeals while turning corners on dry pavement, it is probably time to have
your alignment checked.

Changing rims and tires will normally not affect the alignment but will affect secondary
angles. Consult your local licensed automotive technician.

The primary angles are the basic angle alignment of the wheels relative to each other and to
the car body. These adjustments are the camber, caster and toe. On some cars, not all of these
can be adjusted on every wheel.
 Need of Wheel Alignment

In a word: Potholes. Potholes are an enemy of your car or truck. They show up unexpectedly
and cause damage to tires, steering, and suspension parts, shocks and struts and not least of
which wheel alignments. If a pothole is large enough for the tire to drop into it you can
expect damage to occur. Your only defence against the damage caused by potholes is avoid
as many as possible and slow down for the ones you cannot avoid. If you do hit a pothole
with a jolt that jars your teeth it is best to have your vehicle looked at by your servicing
mechanic. Even though there may not be visible damage there is the potential for problems.

Do We Need A Wheel Alignment?

Road surface such as potholes, hitting a curb, and just plain old driving time affect your
wheel alignment and it is the alignment of the vehicle that maintains the tire’s proper contact
with the road surface. If you notice that your vehicle is pulling left or right, or that your tire’s
tread is wearing off on the inside or outside edge consult an alignment shop. However,
pulling problems are not always related to wheel alignment. Problems with tires (especially
unequal air pressure), brakes and power steering can also be responsible. It is up to a good
wheel alignment technician to determine the cause. You will find that a properly aligned
vehicle will save you money by increasing fuel economy by as much as 6% and providing
extended tire life. Even if you don’t live in a pothole filled area, like Maine, a wheel
alignment should still be performed annually as a preventative maintenance.
 What’s involved in a Wheel Alignment?

A proper wheel alignment should always start and end with a test drive. The front end and
steering linkage will be checked for wear before performing an alignment. The tires should
all be in good shape with even wear patterns from proper tire rotation, deep tread and
sufficient tire pressure. A technician will determine, through a series of test and
measurements how each tire needs to be balanced and aligned. However, if you find yourself
discussing the specifics of an alignment you are really talking about toe, caster and camber
measurements.

Toe measures the difference between the front of the tires and the back of the tires. This is
determined by checking if the front of the tires are closer together than the rear of the tires
your tires are toed in. This means your vehicle is going down road like a crab. If the toe
isn’t corrected you can expect the tires to wear quickly.

Camber is the measurement that looks at how much a tire is leaning in or out. A camber
problem will cause wear to the inside or outside edge of the tire.

Caster measures the relationship of the wheels to one another. Most vehicles today
require a four wheel alignment. To have your vehicle properly aligned you need to find a
shop that has the proper equipment and a qualified technician to perform the service.

Benefits of Wheel Alignment

Most of the customers shy away from getting rear wheels aligned because of the cost and / or
their lack of knowledge of the workshops offering such services. The following are some of
the benefits of a four wheel alignment the importance of which should be communicated to
the customer by the Workshop employees:

Reduced Tire Wear:

Improper alignment is a major cause of premature tire wear.

Over the years, a properly aligned vehicle can add thousands of miles to tire life.
Better Mileage:

Mileage increases as rolling resistance decreases. Total alignment sets all four wheel parallel
which, along with proper inflation, minimizes rolling resistance.

Improved Handling:

Most of the time the cars pull to one side and the steering wheel vibrates. The driver has to
constantly move the steering wheel to keep the car traveling straight ahead. Many handling
problems can be corrected by total 4 wheel alignment. With all the system components
aligned properly, road shock is more efficiently absorbed for a smoother ride.

Safer Driving:

A suspension system inspection should be made part of the alignment procedure. This allows
for spotting worn parts before they cause costly problems.

WHEEL ALIGMENT PROCEDURE

With the development of computerized alignment machines the wheel alignment process has
been very much simplified. However there are two types of wheel alignments that are widely
practiced:

Two Wheel Alignment:

The term Two Wheel Alignment is a process where both front wheels are aligned to
provide the best Toe in, Caster and Camber settings to provide the best all-around
handling and tire wear under normal driving conditions

Four Wheel Alignment:

The term Four Wheel Alignment is a process where both front and rear wheels are aligned. In
a typical Four Wheel Alignment, the rear wheels are checked for toe and tracking.

In a typical situation the Rear wheel "Toe" is adjusted by adding or removing small shims
between the rear wheel hub and the rear axle. Tracking is checked with the computerized
software and the rear axle is checked to make sure that it "tracks" properly behind the front
wheels. On a Four Wheel Alignment, the adjustments are first made to true up the rear
alignment, then the front is adjusted. Therefore a full Four Wheel Alignment will cost more
because there is a lot more work involved

How toe, camber, caster, axle inclination, turning radius, and axle
alignment affect tire wear, directional stability, and handling

Front-end Alignment

The toe, camber, caster, axle inclination, turning radius, and axle alignment all come under
front alignment

• A front end that is properly aligned will result in:

– Easier steering

– Longer tire life

– Directional stability

– Less wear on front-end components

– Better fuel economy

– Increased safety

• The primary alignment angles are:

1. Toe

2. Caster

3. Camber

4. Kingpin inclination

5. Turning angle
Toe

Toe is a measurement that determines how much the front and/or rear wheels are turned in or
out from a straight-ahead position. The amount of toe, whether it’s toe-in or toe-out, is
expressed as the difference between the track widths as they are measured at the leading and
trailing edges of the tires. Toe is expressed in degrees or fractions of an inch, and while your
wheels should be pointed directly ahead as you are travelling straight forward, there are some
benefits to toeing depending on the type of vehicle that you drive.

The purpose of toe is to ensure that all four wheels roll parallel to one another. Toe-in also
provides increased stability because it discourages turning. If your vehicle has the proper
amount of toe you should experience ideal straight line stability, corner entry, and very little
tire wear.
How Toe affect tire wear, directional stability, and handling

• The ideal toe angle when a vehicle is running loaded down a highway is zero.

• We set toe angles statically.

– The objective of setting toe at a specified angle when aligning the front end is
to have zero toe at highway speeds.

• Incorrect toe angles not only accelerate tire wear but also can have an adverse effect
on directional stability of the vehicle.

• Incorrect toe angles have the potential to cause more front tire wear than any other
incorrect alignment angle.
• Too much toe-in produces a scuffing, or a featheredge, along the inner edges of the
tires.

• Excessive toe-out produces a similar wear pattern along the outer edge of the tires.

• When a fully loaded vehicle is moving at highway speeds, there is a slight tendency of
steering tires to toe-out.

• Any looseness in the steering linkage and tie-rod assembly also will contribute to the
toe-out tendency.
Measuring Toe

• First check kingpin inclination, camber, and caster. Correct, if necessary.

• You should not make an adjustment to toe angle until the other factors of front-wheel
alignment are known to be within specifications.

• Adjustment of toe angle or dimension requires lengthening or shortening the tie-rod

dimension.

– This is achieved by loosening the tie-rod end clamp bolts and then rotating the
cross tube.
• Neutralize the suspension first.

– When measuring toe angle, the front suspension should be neutralized:

• To neutralize the suspension, roll the vehicle back and forth about a half vehicle
length. This relaxes the front suspension and steering linkages.

• Neutralizing the front suspension is important before making front-end adjustments,

especially if the vehicle has been jacked up on either side to scribe the tires.

• This operation causes the front wheels to angle as each is returned to the floor.
 • Make sure that the wheels are on the ground and fully supporting the vehicle weight.
Measure and record the measurements.

Camber

Camber is the angle of the wheel relative to the vertical of the vehicle, and depending on the
tilt, is either considered positive camber or negative camber. When the top of the tires tilt
away from the centre of the vehicle you have positive camber, and when the top of the tires
are tilted inward you have negative camber. One isn’t better than the other, but varying
camber angles have different effects on your vehicle.
• Positive Camber- When your wheels are tilted outward, the vehicle has improved
stability.

• Negative Camber- High performance vehicles that require better cornering tend to
use negative camber, because it gives the driver more control in this regard.

• Steering tires also are designed to use a positive camber angle setting.

• Camber is a measure of the angle a wheel leans away or toward the frame.

– Positive camber means that the tires lean away from the truck frame at the top.
– A positive camber setting is used to help compensate for that slight tendency
of steering tires to toe-out when the vehicle is moving.
 How camber affect tire wear, directional stability, and handling

• Excessive positive camber causes the tire to wear on its outside shoulder.
• Excessive negative camber causes the tire to wear on its inside shoulder.

• Unequal camber in the front wheels also can cause the steering to lead to the right or
left.

• The truck will lead to the side that has the most positive camber.

Caster

Caster is the angle that identifies the forward or backward slope of a line that is drawn
through the upper and lower steering pivot points. It does not affect tire wear, but caster does
have an influence on the directional control of the steering.
Caster angle settings allow manufacturers to balance steering effort, high speed stability, and
front end cornering effectiveness.

•
 • Positive Caster- - If the line slopes towards the rear of the vehicle, then you have
positive caster. The down side to positive caster is if the vehicle does not have power
steering. In this case steering effort will be increased. Positive caster is primarily
beneficial to the vehicle as it increases the lean of the tire when the vehicle is
cornering, while returning it to an upright position when driving straight ahead.
• Negative Caster- - If the line slopes towards the front of the vehicle then the caster is
negative. Negative caster will allow you to steer less around turns, but may cause you
to drift if you are driving straight forward.

Positive and negative caster mainly apply to race cars, and unless your vehicle is lifted or
customized in some way that calls for an adjustment, street cars usually run on factory
determined settings
• Caster is the forward or rearward tilt of the kingpin centerline when viewed from the
side of the vehicle.

• Zero caster occurs when the centerline of the kingpin is exactly vertical.

• Positive caster indicates the kingpin is tilted rearward.

• Negative caster indicates that the kingpin is tilted forward.

• Caster is a directional stability angle only. Incorrect caster by itself will not affect tire
wear.
• Most heavy-duty trucks are designed with some degree of positive caster.
• Positive caster creates a force in the front wheels, which tends to keep them tracking
straight ahead.

• Positive caster tends to make the steering axle wheels want to return to a straight
ahead position.

• Positive caster also means that when the front wheels of the truck are turned, one side
of the vehicle raises slightly and the other side is lowered.

• When the steering wheel is released, the weight of the vehicle forces the lifted side
downward, resulting in the wheels returning to a straight-ahead position.

• Caster settings generally affect steering performance in the following ways:

– Too little caster can cause wheel instability, wandering, and poor wheel
recovery.

– Too much caster can result in hard steering, darting, over-steer, and low speed
shimmy.
 Kingpin Inclination (KPI)

The kingpin inclination is the angle, measured in degrees, that forms the line passing
through the kingpin and the perpendicular to the ground, looking at the vehicle from
the front.
• The amount that the top of the kingpin inclines away from vertical as viewed from the
front of the truck

• In conjunction with camber angle, places the approximate center of the tire tread
footprint in contact with the road

• Reduces steering effort and improves the directional stability

• Cannot be adjusted in trucks

– Once set, KPI should not change unless the front axle has been bent.

• Corrections or changes accomplished by replacement of broken, bent, or worn parts

 Turning Angle or Radius

• Turning angle or radius is the degree of movement from straight-ahead to either an

extreme right or left position.

• Two factors limit the turning angle.

– Tire interference with the chassis and steering gear travel

• To avoid tire interference or bottoming of the steering gear, there are adjustable stop
screws on the steering knuckles

• Turning radius or angle should be checked using the radius gauge.

 Ackerman Geometry

• Ackerman geometry is the means used to steer a vehicle so that the tires track freely
during a turn.

• During a turn, the inboard wheel on a steer axle has to track a tighter circle than the
outer wheel.

• Ackerman geometry is also known as toe-out during turns. It allows the inner and
outer wheel to turn at different angles so that both wheels can negotiate the turn
without scrubbing.
• Toe-out on turns is accomplished by having the ends of lower steering arms (those
that connect to the tie-rods) closer together than the kingpins.

• Actual toe-out during a turn depends on the length and angle of the steering control
arms and the length of the cross tube.

• Even if the toe-in setting with the wheels in a straight-ahead position is correctly
adjusted, a bent steering arm can cause the toe-out on a turn to be incorrect, causing
tire scuffing.

Axle Alignment

Axle alignment is necessary to set the wheels and tires in the optimum position for
maximum tire performance.
• All of the axles should be perpendicular to the vehicle’s centerline.

• The thrust line thus created is parallel to the vehicle centerline.

• If they are not positioned perpendicular to the vehicle centerline, the rear wheels will
not track directly behind the front wheels, and the thrust line of the rear wheels
deviates from the centerline of the vehicle.
• The steering fights the vehicle thrust line, resulting in an un-centered steering wheel
and accelerated front tire wear.
• On a single-axle vehicle, the rear-axle thrustline can be off if the entire axle is offset
or if only one wheel has an improper toe angle.

• On a tandem axle, there are a number of different combinations that can cause
incorrect tracking.

• One method of checking a single axle for misalignment is to clamp a straightedge

across the frame so that it is square with the frame rails.
• Measure from the center of the hub to the straightedge.

• The distances on each side should be within 1/8 inch of each other. Trailer Tracking
• It is also possible for the trailer axles to be out of alignment and cause a tracking
problem.

• Depending on the severity of the trailer misalignment, it might be possible to see the
effects of the misalignment as the trailer travels down the road.
• Usually, the trailer will travel at an angle to the tractor.

• Misalignment also makes it very hard to back up the trailer.

• This is commonly called dog- tracking.

 Axle Offset

• Another problem is an axle that is not centered with the centerline of the vehicle.

• When an axle is offset and the vehicle is driven straight down a highway, the steering
wheel should be centered and the vehicle will not dog-track. However, as soon as it is
cornered, it will over-steer in one direction and understeer in the other.
 TECHNICAL ASPECTS

Process of Manufacture:

It is very essential that all the wheels of a vehicle completely balanced and aligned with each
other as far as possible. If these are not properly balanced, the dynamic forces are set in
motion. These forces increase the load on bearings, stress on various members of vehicles,
unpleasant and dangerous vibrations in members of vehicle. Besides, when the wheels of a
vehicle are not properly aligned, the free movement of wheels gets obstructed and tyres start
bubbling, which results into lesser life for tires. These machines display fault on screen
automatically and are equipped with automatic self-check, user friendly calibration and
protection in wheel clamping.

Working Process:

(i) For Wheel Balancing: the machine is fully automatic. The wheel is to be loaded on
turn table for balancing and sensor holders are attached to it. All front and rear wheel values
for the measured value printout are calculated in a single wheel alignment run. Cordless
remote control is provided with machine to enable the operator to operate the machine from
the steering wheel. In these machines, normally there is a castor like adjustment and
simultaneous display of castor, camber and toe readings on computer screen. The alignment
data are displayed in figures and also in graphic form on screen.

(ii) For Wheel Alignment: The measuring process in these machines is normally
automatic. After the wheel data is entered by potential meters and the machine started, the
measuring run is made automatically until the wheel comes to a stand-still at the point to be
balanced. The degree of precision for measurements is determined fine, medium or average.
The data of rim width, rim diameter, distance can be stored in the machine along with the
method of compensation (weight). The computer automatically runs the standard program for
the two wide balancing using hammer on weights. Special program for other type of
balancing is also possible in the machine. The size of the weight required and the attachment
point are calculated exactly and stored by the computer.

SYMPTOMS

The symptoms of a car that is out of alignment are, uneven or rapid tyre wear, pulling or
drifting away from a straight line. To find out if you need an alignment, first check each tyre
and look for uneven wear patterns. The problem with this method, however, is that if you can
see a wear pattern, it may be too late to save that tyre. This is why it is a good idea to have
your alignment checked periodically. Another indication of an out-of-alignment condition is
a car that continuously drifts or pulls to one side of the road when you let go of the wheel. A
car that is hard to keep in a straight line without constant steering corrections is also a
candidate.

A wheel alignment cannot be done on a car with loose or worn front-end parts. The mechanic
will first check for worn parts and inform you of any problems before beginning the
alignment. After the wheel alignment is completed, you should drive the car on a straight and
level road and check that the car goes straight and that the steering wheel is in the proper
position. If you notice a problem, take the car back and have the mechanic drive it and fine-
tune the alignment settings. It is imperative you check your alignment and balancing often
because you are going over bumps and hitting potholes will not make things any better
wheels and tyres may need balancing?
 SENSOR/COMPUTER ALIGNMENT

• This shows an initial analysis made by Aladin wheel aligner software as displayed by
a Windows driven PC.

• Wheel Aligner automatically calculates the correction for the technician.

• As the adjustment is made, the arrow moves across the bar graph target guiding the
technician.
• Sensors are mounted at each wheel for fast, precise alignment.

• Alignment readings, specifications, and step-by-step instructions are displayed on a

display monitor.

• Keyboard-entered specifications are automatically compared against the actual angles

of the vehicle, with the results displayed on the display screen.

• Specifications can be retained in computer memory for future use or on CD.

• As adjustments are made on the truck, these are automatically displayed on the
monitor, enabling a high degree of precision.
• When the adjustment is within spec, the bar graph changes from red to green.

• A typical system provides for:

– Four-wheel alignment with four sensors

– Two-wheel alignment with two sensors

• All wheels are aligned to a common centerline for precise alignment.

• By moving instruments, the system can also check both rear axles of a tandem drive
axle, as well as the front steering axle.

• Computerized alignment systems make truck alignments an exact science.

• They will also measure and display frame offset angles.

• This allows technicians to true truck and trailer chassis and suspensions.
 Summary

• Steering systems used in trucks must deliver precise directional control of the vehicle
and its load, in both loaded and unloaded conditions, and at highway and park/stall
speeds.

• Truck steering systems are either manual or power-assisted.

– Power-assist systems are required to default to manual operation in the event

of a loss in the power-assist circuit.

– Power-assist systems can use either hydraulic or air-assist circuits.

• Improper steering adjustments and front-end alignment can lead to suspension and tire
wear problems.

• A properly aligned front-end results in:

• Easier steering

• Increased tire life

• Directional stability

• Less wear and maintenance on front-end components

• Better fuel economy

• Increased safety

• Ackerman geometry provides toe-out on turns, permitting tires to roll freely during
turns when each travels through a different arc.

• Axle alignment measurements can be taken in a number of ways.

• The most accurate and easiest to use alignment systems in use today are computer-
controlled and feature in-memory specifications, step-by-step instructions, and user-
friendly displays. Keyboard-entered specifications are automatically correlated to the
actual angles measured on a vehicle, with the results displayed on the monitor screen.