Wmo8 Ed2008 Parti Ch7 Up2010 Corr1 en

CHAPTER 7
measurement of radiation
7.1 General deviation of the population of values. Where

needed, specific uncertainty confidence intervals
The various fluxes of radiation to and from the are indicated and uncertainties are estimated using
Earth’s surface are among the most important the International Organization for Standardization
variables in the heat economy of the Earth as a method (ISO, 1995). For example, 95 per cent
whole and at any individual place at the Earth’s uncertainty implies that the stated uncertainty is
surface or in the atmosphere. Radiation measure- for a confidence interval of 95 per cent.
ments are used for the following purposes:
(a) To study the transformation of energy
7.1.1 Definitions
within the Earth-atmosphere system and its
variation in time and space; Annex 7.A contains the nomenclature of radio-
(b) To analyse the properties and distribution of metric and photometric quantities. It is based on
the atmosphere with regard to its constitu- definitions recommended by the International
ents, such as aerosols, water vapour, ozone, Radiation Commission of the International
and so on; Association of Meteorology and Atmospheric
(c) To study the distribution and variations of Sciences and by the International Commission
incoming, outgoing and net radiation; on Illumination (ICI). Annex 7.B gives the mete-
(d) To satisfy the needs of biological, medical, orological radiation quantities, symbols and
agricultural, architectural and industrial definitions.
activities with respect to radiation;
(e) To verify satellite radiation measurements Radiation quantities may be classified into two
and algorithms. groups according to their origin, namely solar
and terrestrial radiation. In the context of this
Such applications require a widely distributed chapter, “radiation” can imply a process or apply
regular series of records of solar and terrestrial to multiple quantities. For example, “solar radia-
surface radiation components and the derivation tion” could mean solar energy, solar exposure or
of representative measures of the net radiation. In solar irradiance (see Annex 7.B).
addition to the publication of serial values for
individual observing stations, an essential objec- Solar energy is the electromagnetic energy emit-
tive must be the production of comprehensive ted by the sun. The solar radiation incident on
radiation climatologies, whereby the daily and the top of the terrestrial atmosphere is called
seasonal variations of the various radiation constit- extraterrestrial solar radiation; 97 per cent of
uents of the general thermal budget may be more which is confined to the spectral range 290 to
precisely evaluated and their relationships with 3 000 nm is called solar (or sometimes short-
other meteorological elements better understood. wave) radiation. Part of the extra-terrestrial solar
radiation penetrates through the atmosphere to
A very useful account of the operation and the Earth’s surface, while part of it is scattered
design of networks of radiation stations is and/or absorbed by the gas molecules, aerosol
contained in WMO (1986a). Part III of this Guide particles, cloud droplets and cloud crystals in the
describes the scientific principles of the meas- atmosphere.
urements and gives advice on quality assurance,
which is most important for radiation measure- Terrestrial radiation is the long-wave electromag-
ments. The Baseline Surface Radiation Network netic energy emitted by the Earth’s surface and by
(BSRN) Operations Manual (WMO, 1998) gives an the gases, aerosols and clouds of the atmosphere;
overview of the latest state of radiation it is also partly absorbed within the atmosphere.
measurements. For a temperature of 300 K, 99.99 per cent of the
power of the terrestrial radiation has a wave-
Following normal practice in this field, errors and length longer than 3 000 nm and about 99 per
uncertainties are expressed in this chapter as a 66 cent longer than 5 000 nm. For lower tempera-
per cent confidence interval of the difference from tures, the spectrum is shifted to longer
the true quantity, which is similar to a standard wavelengths.
I.7–2 PART I. MEASUREMENT OF METEOROLOGICAL VARIABLES
Since the spectral distributions of solar and terres- absolute pyrheliometers of 10 different types, a WRR
trial radiation overlap very little, they can very has been defined. The old scales can be transferred
often be treated separately in measurements and into the WRR using the following factors:
computations. In meteorology, the sum of both
types is called total radiation. WRR
= 1.026
Ångström scale 1905
Light is the radiation visible to the human eye.
The spectral range of visible radiation is defined by
the spectral luminous efficiency for the standard WRR
= 0.977
observer. The lower limit is taken to be between Smithsonian scale 1913
360 and 400 nm, and the upper limit between
760 and 830 nm (ICI, 1987). The radiation of
wavelengths shorter than about 400 nm is called WRR
= 1.022
ultraviolet (UV), and longer than about 800 nm, IPS 1956
infrared radiation. The UV range is sometimes
divided into three sub-ranges (IEC, 1987): The WRR is accepted as representing the physical
units of total irradiance within 0.3 per cent (99 per
UV-A: 315–400 nm cent uncertainty of the measured value).
UV-B: 280–315 nm
UV-C: 100–280 nm
Realization of the World Radiometric Reference:
World Standard Group
7.1.2 Units and scales
In order to guarantee the long-term stability of the
new reference, a group of at least four absolute
7.1.2.1 Units
pyrheliometers of different design is used as the
The International System of Units (SI) is to be preferred WSG. At the time of incorporation into this group,
for meteorological radiation variables. A general list of the instruments are given a reduction factor to
the units is given in Annexes 7.A and 7.B. correct their readings to the WRR. To qualify for
membership of this group, a radiometer must fulfil
the following specifications:
7.1.2.2 Standardization
(a) Stability must be better than 0.2 per cent of
The responsibility for the calibration of radiometric the measured value over timescales of decades;
instruments rests with the World, Regional and (b) The 95 per cent uncertainty of the series of
National Radiation Centres, the specifications for measurements with the instrument must lie
which are given in Annex 7.C. Furthermore, the within the limits of the uncertainty of the WRR;
World Radiation Centre (WRC) at Davos is respon- (c) The instrument has to have a different design
sible for maintaining the basic reference, the World from the other WSG instruments.
Standard Group (WSG) of instruments, which is
used to establish the World Radiometric Reference To meet the stability criteria, the instruments of the
(WRR). During international comparisons, organ- WSG are the subjects of an inter-comparison at least
ized every five years, the standards of the regional once a year, and, for this reason, WSG is kept at the
centres are compared with the WSG, and their cali- WRC Davos.
bration factors are adjusted to the WRR. They, in
turn, are used to transmit the WRR periodically to
Computation of world radiometric reference values
the national centres, which calibrate their network
instruments using their own standards. In order to calibrate radiometric instruments, the
reading of a WSG instrument, or one that is directly
traceable to the WSG, should be used. During inter-
Definition of the World Radiometric Reference
national pyrheliometer comparisons (IPCs), the
In the past, several radiation references or scales WRR value is calculated from the mean of at least
have been used in meteorology, namely the three participating instruments of the WSG. To yield
Ångström scale of 1905, the Smithsonian scale of WRR values, the readings of the WSG instruments
1913, and the international pyrheliometric scale are always corrected with the individual reduction
of 1956 (IPS 1956). The developments in absolute factor, which is determined at the time of their
radiometry in recent years have very much reduced incorporation into the WSG. Since the calculation of
the uncertainty of radiation measurements. With the mean value of the WSG, serving as the reference,
the results of many comparisons of 15 individual may be jeopardized by the failure of one or more
Corr. 1 (September 2012)

CHAPTER 7. MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION I.7–3
radiometers belonging to the WSG, the Commission Statements of uncertainty for net radiation and
for Instruments and Methods of Observation radiant exposure are given in Part I, Chapter 1,
resolved1 that at each IPC an ad hoc group should be Annex 1.B. The required 95 per cent uncertainty for
established comprising the Rapporteur on radiant exposure for a day, stated by WMO for
Meteorological Radiation Instruments (or designate) international exchange, is 0.4 MJ m–2 for ≤ 8 MJ m–2
and at least five members, including the chairper- and 5 per cent for > 8 MJ m–2.
son. The director of the comparison must participate
in the group’s meetings as an expert. The group
7.1.3.3 Sampling and recording
should discuss the preliminary results of the compar-
ison, based on criteria defined by the WRC, evaluate The uncertainty requirements can best be satis-
the reference and recommend the updating of the fied by making observations at a sampling period
calibration factors. less than the 1/e time-constant of the instrument,
even when the data to be finally recorded are
integrated totals for periods of up to 1 h, or more.
7.1.3 Meteorological requirements
The data points may be integrated totals or an
average flux calculated from individual samples.
7.1.3.1 Data to be reported
Digital data systems are greatly to be preferred.
Irradiance and radiant exposure are the quantities Chart recorders and other types of integrators are
most commonly recorded and archived, with aver- much less convenient, and the resultant quanti-
ages and totals of over 1 h. There are also many ties are difficult to maintain at adequate levels of
requirements for data over shorter periods, down to uncertainty.
1 min or even tens of seconds (for some energy
applications). Daily totals of radiant exposure are
7.1.3.4 Times of observation
frequently used, but these are expressed as a mean
daily irradiance. Measurements of atmospheric In a worldwide network of radiation measurements,
extinction must be made with very short response it is important that the data be homogeneous not
times to reduce the uncertainties arising from varia- only for calibration, but also for the times of obser-
tions in air mass. vation. Therefore, all radiation measurements
should be referred to what is known in some coun-
For radiation measurements, it is particularly tries as local apparent time, and in others as true
important to record and make available informa- solar time. However, standard or universal time is
tion about the circumstances of the observations. attractive for automatic systems because it is easier
This includes the type and traceability of the instru- to use, but is acceptable only if a reduction of the
ment, its calibration history, and its location in data to true solar time does not introduce a signifi-
space and time, spatial exposure and maintenance cant loss of information (that is to say, if the
record. sampling and storage rates are high enough, as
indicated in section 7.1.3.3 above). See Annex 7.D
for useful formulae for the conversion from stand-
7.1.3.2 Uncertainty
ard to solar time.
There are no formally agreed statements of required
uncertainty for most radiation quantities, but
7.1.4 Measurement methods
uncertainty is discussed in the sections of this chap-
ter dealing with the various types of measurements, Meteorological radiation instruments are classified
and best practice uncertainties are stated for the using various criteria, namely the type of variable
Global Climate Observing System’s Baseline Surface to be measured, the field of view, the spectral
Radiation Network (see WMO, 1998). It may be said response, the main use, and the like. The most
generally that good quality measurements are diffi- important types of classifications are listed in
cult to achieve in practice, and for routine Table 7.1. The quality of the instruments is charac-
operations they can be achieved only with modern terized by items (a) to (h) below. The instruments
equipment and redundant measurements. Some and their operation are described in sections 7.2 to
systems still in use fall short of best practice, the 7.4 below. WMO (1986a) provides a detailed
lesser performance having been acceptable for account of instruments and the principles accord-
many applications. However, data of the highest ing to which they operate.
quality are increasingly in demand.
Absolute radiometers are self-calibrating,
1 Recommended by the Commission for Instruments and meaning that the irradiance falling on the sensor
Methods of Observation at its eleventh session (1994). is replaced by electrical power, which can be
I.7–4 Part I. Measurement of meteorological VARIABLES
accurately measured. The substitution, however, (d) Non-linearity of response, namely, changes
cannot be perfect; the deviation from the ideal in sensitivity associated with variations in
case determines the uncertainty of the radiation irradiance;
measurement. (e) Deviation of the spectral response from that
postulated, namely the blackness of the receiv-
Most radiation sensors, however, are not absolute ing surface, the effect of the aperture window,
and must be calibrated against an absolute instru- and so on;
ment. The uncertainty of the measured value, (f) Deviation of the directional response from
therefore, depends on the following factors, all of that postulated, namely cosine response and
which should be known for a well-characterized azimuth response;
instrument: (g) Time-constant of the instrument or the meas-
(a) Resolution, namely, the smallest change in uring system;
the radiation quantity which can be detected (h) Uncertainties in the auxiliary equipment.
by the instrument;
(b) Drifts of sensitivity (the ratio of electrical output Instruments should be selected according to their
signal to the irradiance applied) over time; end-use and the required uncertainty of the
(c) Changes in sensitivity owing to changes of derived quantity. Certain instruments perform
environmental variables, such as temperature, better for particular climates, irradiances and solar
humidity, pressure and wind; positions.
Table 7.1. Meteorological radiation instruments
Instrument Viewing angle (sr)

Parameter to be measured Main use
classification (see Figure 7.1)
Absolute Direct solar radiation Primary standard 5 x 10–3

pyrheliometer (approx. 2.5˚ half angle)
Pyrheliometer Direct solar radiation (a) Secondary standard 5 x 10–3

for calibrations to 2.5 x 10–2
(b) Network
Spectral Direct solar radiation in broad Network 5 x 10–3

pyrheliometer spectral bands (e.g. with to 2.5 x 10–2
OG 530, RG 630, etc. filters)
Sunphotometer Direct solar radiation in narrow (a) Standard 1 x 10–3

spectral bands (e.g. at 500 (b) Network to 1 x 10–2
±2.5 nm, 368±2.5 nm) (approx. 2.3˚ full angle)
Pyranometer (a) Global (solar) radiation (a) Working standard 2π

(b) Diffuse sky (solar) radiation (b) Network
(c) Reflected solar radiation
Spectral Global (solar) radiation in Network 2π

pyranometer broadband spectral ranges
(e.g. with OG 530, RG 630, etc.
filters)
Net pyranometer Net global (solar) radiation (a) Working standard 4π

(b) Network
Pyrgeometer (a) Upward long-wave Network 2π

radiation (downward-
looking)
(b) Downward long-wave
radiation (upward-looking)
Pyrradiometer Total radiation Working standard 2π
Net Net total radiation Network 4π

pyrradiometer
R order to enable climatological comparison of direct

solar radiation data during different seasons, it may
be necessary to reduce all data to a mean sun-Earth
distance:
Front aperture
2
E = E/R (7.1)
N
where EN is the solar radiation, normalized to the

mean sun-Earth distance, which is defined to be
d one astronomical unit (AU) (see Annex 7.D); E is
the measured direct solar radiation; and R is the
r sun-Earth distance in astronomical units.
7.2.1 Direct solar radiation

Receiving surface
Some of the characteristics of operational pyrhe-
liometers (other than primary standards) are
given in Table 7.2 (adapted from ISO, 1990a),
Figure 7.1. View-limiting geometry: The opening with indicative estimates of the uncertainties of
half-angle is arctan R/d; the slope angle is measurements made with them if they are used
arctan (R–r)/d with appropriate expertise and quality control.
Cheaper pyrheliometers are available (see ISO,
7.2 Measurement of direct solar 1990a), but without effort to characterize their
radiation response the resulting uncertainties reduce the
quality of the data, and, given that a sun tracker
Direct solar radiation is measured by means of is required, in most cases the incremental cost for
pyrheliometers, the receiving surfaces of which are a good pyrheliometer is minor. The estimated
arranged to be normal to the solar direction. By uncertainties are based on the following
means of apertures, only the radiation from the sun assumptions:
and a narrow annulus of sky is measured, the latter (a) Instruments are well-maintained, correctly
radiation component is sometimes referred to as aligned and clean;
circumsolar radiation or aureole radiation. In (b) 1 min and 1 h figures are for clear-sky irradi-
modern instruments, this extends out to a half- ances at solar noon;
angle of about 2.5° on some models, and to about (c) Daily exposure values are for clear days at
5° from the sun’s centre (corresponding, respec- mid-latitudes.
tively, to 6 · 10–3 and 2.4 · 10–2 sr). The pyrheliometer
mount must allow for the rapid and smooth adjust-
7.2.1.1 Primary standard pyrheliometers
ment of the azimuth and elevation angles. A
sighting device is usually included in which a small An absolute pyrheliometer can define the scale
spot of light or solar image falls upon a mark in the of total irradiance without resorting to reference
centre of the target when the receiving surface is sources or radiators. The limits of uncertainty of
exactly normal to the direct solar beam. For contin- the definition must be known; the quality of
uous recording, it is advisable to use automatic this knowledge determines the reliability of an
sun-following equipment (sun tracker). absolute pyrheliometer. Only specialized labora-
tories should operate and maintain primary
For all new designs of direct solar radiation instru- standards. Details of their construction and
ments, it is recommended that the opening operation are given in WMO (1986a). However,
half-angle be 2.5° (6 · 10–3 sr) and the slope angle for the sake of completeness, a brief account is
1°. For the definition of these angles refer to given here.
Figure 7.1.
All absolute pyrheliometers of modern design use
During the comparison of instruments with differ- cavities as receivers and electrically calibrated,
ent view-limiting geometries, the aureole radiation differential heat-flux meters as sensors. At present,
influences the readings more significantly for this combination has proved to yield the lowest
larger slope and aperture angles. The difference uncertainty possible for the radiation levels encoun-
can be as great as 2 per cent between the two aper- tered in solar radiation measurements (namely, up
tures mentioned above for an air mass of 1.0. In to 1.5 kW m–2).
Normally, the electrical calibration is performed by Table 7.2. Characteristics of

replacing the radiative power by electrical power, operational pyrheliometers
which is dissipated in a heater winding as close as
possible to where the absorption of solar radiation
takes place. Characteristic High Good
qualitya qualityb
The uncertainties of such an instrument’s measure-
Response time (95 per cent < 15 s < 30 s
ments are determined by a close examination of response)
the physical properties of the instrument and by
performing laboratory measurements and/or model Zero offset (response to 5 K h–1 2 W m–2 4 W m–2
calculations to determine the deviations from ideal change in ambient temperature)
behaviour, that is, how perfectly the electrical Resolution (smallest detectable 0.51 1
substitution can be achieved. This procedure is change in W m–2)
called characterization of the instrument.
Stability (percentage of full scale, 0.1 0.5
change/year)
The following specification should be met by an
absolute pyrheliometer (an individual instru- Temperature response (percentage 1 2
ment, not a type) to be designated and used as a maximum error due to change of
ambient temperature within an
primary standard: interval of 50 K)
(a) At least one instrument out of a series of
manufactured radiometers has to be fully Non-linearity (percentage deviation 0.2 0.5
characterized. The 95 per cent uncertainty from the responsivity at 500 W
m–2 due to the change of irradiance
of this characterization should be less than within 100 W m–2 to 1 100 W m–2)
2 W m–2 under the clear-sky conditions
suitable for calibration (see ISO, 1990a). The Spectral sensitivity (percentage 0.5 1.0
95 per cent uncertainty (for all components of deviation of the product of
spectral absorptance and spectral
the uncertainty) for a series of measurements transmittance from the
should not exceed 4 W m–2 for any measured corresponding mean within the
value; range 300 to 3 000 nm)
(b) Each individual instrument of the series must
Tilt response (percentage deviation 0.2 0.5
be compared with the one which has been from the responsivity at 0° tilt
characterized, and no individual instrument (horizontal) due to change in tilt
should deviate from this instrument by more from 0° to 90° at 1 000 W m–2)
than the characterization uncertainty as
Achievable uncertainty, 95 per
determined in (a) above; cent confidence level (see above)
(c) A detailed description of the results of such
1 min totals per cent 0.9 1.8
comparisons and of the characterization of
the instrument should be made available kJ m–2 0.56 1
upon request;
(d) Traceability to the WRR by comparison with 1 h totals per cent 0.7 1.5
the WSG or some carefully established refer-
ence with traceability to the WSG is needed kJ m–2 21 54
in order to prove that the design is within
the state of the art. The latter is fulfilled if the Daily totals per cent 0.5 1.0
95 per cent uncertainty for a series of meas-
urements traceable to the WRR is less than kJ m–2 200 400
1 W m–2.
Notes:
7.2.1.2 Secondary standard pyrheliometers a Near state of the art; suitable for use as a working standard;
An absolute pyrheliometer which does not meet maintainable only at stations with special facilities and staff.
the specification for a primary standard or which b Acceptable for network operations.
is not fully characterized can be used as a
secondary standard if it is calibrated by Other types of instruments with measurement
comparison with the WSG with a 95 per cent uncertainties similar or approaching those for
uncertainty for a series of measurements less than primary standards may be used as secondary
1 W m–2. standards.
The Ångström compensation pyrheliometer has Before and after each series of measurements, the
been, and still is, used as a convenient secondary zero of the system is adjusted electrically by using
standard instrument for the calibration of pyra- either of the foregoing methods, the zeros being
nometers and other pyrheliometers. It was called “cold” (shaded) or “hot” (exposed), as appro-
designed by K. Ångström as an absolute instru- priate. Normally, the first reading, say iR, is excluded
ment, and the Ångström scale of 1905 was based and only the following iL–iR pairs are used to calcu-
on it; now it is used as a secondary standard and late the irradiance. When comparing such a
must be calibrated against a standard pyrheliometer with other instruments, the irradi-
instrument. ance derived from the currents corresponds to the
geometric mean of the solar irradiances at the times
The sensor consists of two platinized manganin of the readings of iL and iR.
strips, each of which is about 18 mm long, 2 mm
wide and about 0.02 mm thick. They are black- The auxiliary instrumentation consists of a power
ened with a coating of candle soot or with an supply, a current-regulating device, a nullmeter and
optical matt black paint. A thermo-junction of a current monitor.
copper-constantan is attached to the back of each
strip so that the temperature difference between The sensitivity of the nullmeter should be about
the strips can be indicated by a sensitive galva- 0.05 · 10–6 A per scale division for a low-input
nometer or an electrical micro-voltmeter. The impedance (< 10 Ω), or about 0.5 µV with a high-
dimensions of the strip and front diaphragm yield input impedance (> 10 KΩ). Under these conditions,
opening half-angles and slope angles as listed in a temperature difference of about 0.05 K between
Table 7.3. the junction of the copper-constantan thermocou-
ple causes a deflection of one scale division, which
The measurement set consists of three or more indicates that one of the strips is receiving an excess
cycles, during which the left- or right-hand strip is heat supply amounting to about 0.3 per cent.
alternately shaded from or exposed to the direct
solar beam. The shaded strip is heated by an electric The uncertainty of the derived direct solar irradi-
current, which is adjusted in such a way that the ance is highly dependent on the qualities of the
thermal electromagnetic force of the thermocouple current-measuring device, whether a moving-coil
and, hence, the temperature difference between the milliammeter or a digital multi-meter which meas-
two strips approximate zero. Before and after a ures the voltage across a standard resistor, and on
measuring sequence, the zero is checked either by the operator’s skill. The fractional error in the
shading or by exposing both strips simultaneously. output value of irradiance is twice as large as the
Depending on which of these methods is used and fractional error in the reading of the electric current.
on the operating instructions of the manufacturer, The heating current is directed to either strip by
the irradiance calculation differs slightly. The means of a switch and is normally controlled by
method adopted for the IPCs uses the following separate rheostats in each circuit. The switch can
formula: also cut the current off so that the zero can be deter-
mined. The resolution of the rheostats should be
E = K·iL·iR (7.2) sufficient to allow the nullmeter to be adjusted to
within one half of a scale division.
where E is the irradiance in W m–2; K is the
calibration constant determined by comparison
7.2.1.3 Field and network pyrheliometers
with a primary standard (W m–2 A–2); and iL iR is the
current in amperes measured with the left- or right- These pyrheliometers generally make use of a
hand strip exposed to the direct solar beam, thermopile as the detector. They have similar
respectively. view-limiting geometry as standard pyrheliometers.
Older models tend to have larger fields of view and
slope angles. These design features were primarily
Table 7.3. View-limiting geometry of designed to reduce the need for accurate sun
Ångström pyrheliometers
tracking. However, the larger the slope (and
Angle Vertical Horizontal
opening) angle, the larger the amount of aureole
radiation sensed by the detector; this amount may
Opening half-angle 5° – 8° ~ 2° reach several per cent for high optical depths and
large limiting angles. With new designs of sun
Slope angle 0.7° – 1.0° 1.2° – 1.6°
trackers, including computer-assisted trackers in
both passive and active (sun-seeking) The quality of sun-source calibrations may depend
configurations, the need for larger slope angles is on the aureole influence if instruments with differ-
unnecessary. However, a slope angle of 1° is still ent view-limiting geometries are compared. Also,
required to ensure that the energy from the direct the quality of the results will depend on the varia-
solar beam is distributed evenly on the detector; bility of the solar irradiance, if the time-constants
and allows for minor sun tracker pointing errors of and zero irradiance signals of the pyrheliometers
the order of 0.1°. are significantly different. Lastly, environmental
conditions, such as temperature, pressure and net
The intended use of the pyrheliometer may dictate long-wave irradiance, can influence the results. If a
the selection of a particular type of instrument. very high quality of calibration is required, only
Some manually oriented models, such as the Linke data taken during very clear and stable days should
Fuessner Actinometer, are used mainly for spot be used.
measurements, while others such as the EKO,
Eppley, Kipp and Zonen, and Middleton types are The procedures for the calibration of field pyrheli-
designed specifically for the long-term monitoring ometers are given in an ISO standard (ISO, 1990b).
of direct irradiance. Before deploying an instru-
ment, the user must consider the significant From recent experience at IPCs, a period of five
differences found among operational pyrheliome- years between traceable calibrations to the WSG
ters as follows: should suffice for primary and secondary standards.
(a) The field of view of the instrument; Field pyrheliometers should be calibrated every one
(b) Whether the instrument measures both the to two years; the more prolonged the use and the
long-wave and short-wave portion of the spec- more rigorous the conditions, the more often they
trum (namely, whether the aperture is open or should be calibrated.
covered with a glass or quartz window);
(c) The temperature compensation or correction
7.2.2 Spectral direct solar irradiance
methods;
and measurement of optical depth
(d) The magnitude and variation of the zero irra-
diance signal; Spectral measurements of the direct solar irradiance
(e) If the instrument can be installed on an are used in meteorology mainly to determine opti-
automated tracking system for long-term cal depth (see Annex 7.B) in the atmosphere. They
monitoring; are used also for medical, biological, agricultural
(f) If, for the calibration of other operational and solar-energy applications.
pyrheliometers, differences (a) to (c) above are
the same, and if the pyrheliometer is of the The aerosol optical depth represents the total
quality required to calibrate other network extinction, namely, scattering and absorption by
instruments. aerosols in the size range 100 to 10 000 nm radius,
for the column of the atmosphere equivalent to
unit optical air mass. Particulate matter, however, is
7.2.1.4 Calibration of pyrheliometers
not the only influencing factor for optical depth.
All pyrheliometers, other than absolute pyrheliom- Other atmospheric constituents such as air mole-
eters, must be calibrated by comparison using the cules (Rayleigh scatterers), ozone, water vapour,
sun as the source with a pyrheliometer that has nitrogen dioxide and carbon dioxide also contrib-
traceability to the WSG and a likely uncertainty of ute to the total extinction of the beam. Most optical
calibration equal to or better than the pyrheliome- depth measurements are taken to understand better
ter being calibrated. the loading of the atmosphere by aerosols. However,
optical depth measurements of other constituents,
As all solar radiation data must be referred to the such as water vapour, ozone and nitrogen dioxide,
WRR, absolute pyrheliometers also use a factor can be obtained if appropriate wavebands are
determined by comparison with the WSG and not selected.
their individually determined one. After such a
comparison (for example, during the periodically The aerosol optical depth δ a(λ) at a specific wave-
organized IPCs) such a pyrheliometer can be used length λ is based on the Bouguer-Lambert law (or
as a standard to calibrate, again by comparison with Beer’s law for monochromatic radiation) and can be
the sun as a source, secondary standards and field determined by:
pyrheliometers. Secondary standards can also be
used to calibrate field instruments, but with
δ a (λ ) =
ln( E0 (λ ) / E (λ )) − Σ (δ i (λ ) ⋅ mi ) (7.3)
increased uncertainty. ma
where δ a (λ) is the aerosol optical depth at a Only instantaneous values can be used for the
waveband centred at wavelength λ; ma is the air determination of aerosol optical depth; instantane-
mass for aerosols (unity for the vertical beam);δi ous means that the measurement process takes less
is the optical depth for species i, other than than 1 s.
aerosols at a waveband centred at wavelength λ;
mi is the air mass for extinction species i, other
7.2.2.1 Broadband pyrheliometry
than aerosols; E0(λ) is the spectral solar irradiance
outside the atmosphere at wavelength λ; and E(λ) Broadband pyrheliometry makes use of a carefully
is the spectral solar irradiance at the surface at calibrated pyrheliometer with broadband glass
wavelength λ. filters in front of it to select the spectral bands of
interest. The specifications of the classical filters
Optical thickness is the total extinction along the used are summarized in Table 7.4.
path through the atmosphere, that is, the air
mass multiplied by the optical depth mδ. The cut-off wavelengths depend on temperature,
and some correction of the measured data may be
Turbidity τ is the same quantity as optical depth, needed. The filters must be properly cleaned before
but using base 10 rather than base e in Beer’s Law, use. In operational applications, they should be
as follows: checked daily and cleaned if necessary.
τ(λ)m = log (E0(λ)/E(λ)) (7.4) The derivation of aerosol optical depth from broad-
band data is very complex, and there is no standard
accordingly: procedure. Use may be made both of tables which
are calculated from typical filter data and of some
τ(λ) = 2.301δ(λ) (7.5) assumptions on the state of the atmosphere. The
reliability of the results depends on how well the
In meteorology, two types of measurements are filter used corresponds to the filter in the calcula-
performed, namely broadband pyrheliometry and tions and how good the atmospheric assumptions
narrowband sun radiometry (sometimes called sun are. Details of the evaluation and the correspond-
photometry). Since the aerosol optical depth is ing tables can be found in WMO (1978). A discussion
defined only for monochromatic radiation or for a of the techniques is given by Kuhn (1972) and Lal
very narrow wavelength range, it can be applied (1972).
directly to the evaluation of sun photometer data,
but not to broadband pyrheliometer data.
7.2.2.2 Sun radiometry (photometry) and
aerosol optical depth
Aerosol optical depth observations should be
made only when no visible clouds are within 10° A narrowband sun radiometer (or photometer)
of the sun. When sky conditions permit, as many usually consists of a narrowband interference filter
observations as possible should be made in a day and a photovoltaic detector, usually a silicon photo-
and a maximum range of air masses should be diode. The full field of view of the instrument is 2.5°
covered, preferably in intervals of Δm less than with a slope angle of 1° (see Figure 7.1). Although
0.2. the derivation of optical depth using these devices is
Table 7.4. Specification of idealized Schott glass filters
Approximate temperature
Schott type Typical 50% cut-off wavelength (nm) Mean transmission coefficient of short-wave
Short Long (3 mm thickness) cut-off (nm K–1)
OG 530 526 ± 2 2 900 0.92 0.12
RG 630 630 ± 2 2 900 0.92 0.17
RG 700 702 ± 2 2 900 0.92 0.18
The temperature coefficients for Schott filters are as given by the manufacturer. The short-wave cut-offs are adjusted
to the standard filters used for calibration. Checks on the short and long wavelength cut-offs are required for reducing
uncertainties in derived quantities.
conceptually simple, many early observations from the 500 nm spectral region, water vapour absorption
these devices have not produced useful results. The can be neglected for wavelengths less than 650 nm.
main problems have been the shifting of the instru- Further references on wavelength selection can be
ment response because of changing filter found in WMO (1986b).
transmissions and detector characteristics over short
periods, and poor operator training for manually A simple algorithm to calculate Rayleigh-
operated devices. Accurate results can be obtained scattering optical depths is a combination of the
with careful operating procedures and frequent procedure outlined by Fröhlich and Shaw (1980),
checks of instrument stability. The instrument and the Young (1981) correction. For more precise
should be calibrated frequently, preferably using in calculations the algorithm by Bodhaine and
situ methods or using reference devices maintained others (1999) is also available. Both ozone and
by a radiation centre with expertise in optical depth nitrogen dioxide follow Beer’s law of absorption.
determination. The WMO World Ozone Data Centre recom-
mends the ozone absorption coefficients of Bass
Detailed advice on narrowband sun radiometers and Paur (1985) in the UV region and Vigroux
and network operations is given in WMO (1993a). (1953) in the visible region. Nitrogen dioxide
absorption coefficients can be obtained from
To calculate aerosol optical depth from narrowband Schneider and others (1987). For the reduction of
sun radiometer data with small uncertainty, the wavelengths influenced by water vapour, the
station location, pressure, temperature, column work of Frouin, Deschamps and Lecomte (1990)
ozone amount, and an accurate time of measure- may be considered. Because of the complexity of
ment must be known (WMO, 2005). The most water vapour absorption, bands that are influ-
accurate calculation of the total and aerosol optical enced significantly should be avoided unless
depth from spectral data at wavelength λ (the centre deriving water vapour amount by spectral solar
wavelength of its filter) makes use of the radiometry.
following:
7.2.3 Exposure
( SS(0λ()λR)2 ) − PP δ R (λ )mR − δO (λ )mO ...

ln 3 3
For continuous recording and reduced uncertain-
δ a (λ ) = 0 (7.6) ties, an accurate sun tracker that is not influenced
ma by environmental conditions is essential. Sun track-
ing to within 0.2° is required, and the instruments
should be inspected at least once a day, and more
where S(λ) is the instrument reading (for example, frequently if weather conditions so demand (with
in volts or counts), S0(λ) is the hypothetical reading protection against adverse conditions).
corresponding to the top of the atmosphere spectral
solar irradiance at 1 AU (this can be established by The principal exposure requirement for
extrapolation to air-mass zero by various Langley monitoring direct solar radiation is freedom from
methods, or from the radiation centre which obstructions to the solar beam at all times and
calibrated the instrument); R is the sun-Earth seasons of the year. Furthermore, the site should
distance (in astronomical units; see Annex 7.D); P be chosen so that the incidence of fog, smoke and
is the atmospheric pressure; P0 is the standard airborne pollution is as typical as possible of the
atmospheric pressure, and the second, third and surrounding area.
subsequent terms in the top line are the
contributions of Rayleigh, ozone and other For continuous observations, typically a window
extinctions. This can be simplified for less accurate is used to protect the sensor and optical elements
work by assuming that the relative air masses for against, for example, rain and, snow. Care must
each of the components are equal. be taken to ensure that such a window is kept
clean and that condensation does not appear on
For all wavelengths, Rayleigh extinction must be the inside. For successful derivation of aerosol
considered. Ozone optical depth must be considered optical depth such attention is required, as a
at wavelengths of less than 340 nm and throughout 1 per cent change in transmission at unit air
the Chappius band. Nitrogen dioxide optical depths mass translates into a 0.010 change in optical
should be considered for all wavelengths less than depth. For example, for transmission measure-
650 nm, especially if measurements are taken in ments at 500 nm at clean sea-level sites, a 0.010
areas that have urban influences. Although there are change represents between 20 to 50 per cent of
weak water vapour absorption bands even within the mean winter aerosol optical depth.
7.3 Measurement of global and (c) Directional response of the instrument;

diffuse sky radiation (d) Inclination of the instrument;
(e) Irradiance level;
The solar radiation received from a solid angle of (f) Net long-wave irradiance for thermal offset
2π sr on a horizontal surface is referred to as global correction;
radiation. This includes radiation received directly (g) Spectral distribution of irradiance;
from the solid angle of the sun’s disc, as well as (h) Temperature;
diffuse sky radiation that has been scattered in (i) Temporal variation.
traversing the atmosphere.
The users of pyranometers must recognize that the
The instrument needed for measuring solar radi- uncertainty of observations will increase when the
ation from a solid angle of 2π sr into a plane sensor exposure conditions deviate from the
surface and a spectral range from 300 to 3 000 nm conditions in which the pyranometer was
is the pyranometer. The pyranometer is some- calibrated.
times used to measure solar radiation on surfaces
inclined in the horizontal and in the inverted Normally, it is necessary to specify the test environ-
position to measure reflected global radiation. mental conditions, which can be quite different for
When measuring the diffuse sky component of different applications. The method and conditions
solar radiation, the direct solar component is must also be given in some detail in the calibration
screened from the pyranometer by a shading certificate.
device (see section 7.3.3.3).
There are a variety of methods for calibrating pyra-
Pyranometers normally use thermo-electric, nometers using the sun or laboratory sources. These
photoelectric, pyro-electric or bimetallic elements include the following:
as sensors. Since pyranometers are exposed (a) By comparison with a standard pyrheliometer
continually in all weather conditions they must for the direct solar irradiance and a calibrated
be robust in design and resist the corrosive effects shaded pyranometer for the diffuse sky
of humid air (especially near the sea). The receiver irradiance;
should be hermetically sealed inside its casing, or (b) By comparison with a standard pyrheliometer
the casing must be easy to take off so that any using the sun as a source, with a removable
condensed moisture can be removed. Where the shading disc for the pyranometer;
receiver is not permanently sealed, a desiccator is (c) With a standard pyrheliometer using the
usually fitted in the base of the instrument. The sun as a source and two pyranometers to be
properties of pyranometers which are of concern calibrated alternately measuring global and
when evaluating the uncertainty and quality of diffuse irradiance;
radiation measurement are: sensitivity, stability, (d) By comparison with a standard pyranometer
response time, cosine response, azimuth response, using the sun as a source, under other natu-
linearity, temperature response, thermal offset, ral conditions of exposure (for example, a
zero irradiance signal and spectral response. uniform cloudy sky and direct solar irradiance
Further advice on the use of pyranometers is given not statistically different from zero);
in ISO (1990c) and WMO (1998). (e) In the laboratory, on an optical bench with
an artificial source, either normal incidence or
Table 7.5 (adapted from ISO, 1990a) describes the at some specified azimuth and elevation, by
characteristics of pyranometers of various levels of comparison with a similar pyranometer previ-
performance, with the uncertainties that may be ously calibrated outdoors;
achieved with appropriate facilities, well-trained (f) In the laboratory, with the aid of an integrat-
staff and good quality control under the sky condi- ing chamber simulating diffuse sky radiation,
tions outlined in section 7.2.1. by comparison with a similar type of pyra-
nometer previously calibrated outdoors.
7.3.1 Calibration of pyranometers
These are not the only methods; (a), (b) and (c) and
The calibration of a pyranometer consists of the (d) are commonly used. However, it is essential
determination of one or more calibration factors that, except for (b), either the zero irradiance signals
and the dependence of these on environmental for all instruments are known or pairs of identical
conditions, such as: model pyranometers in identical configurations are
(a) Angular distribution of irradiance; used. Ignoring these offsets and differences can bias
(b) Calibration methods; the results significantly.
Table 7.5. Characteristics of operational pyranometers

a b c
Characteristic High quality Good quality Moderate quality
Response time (95 per cent response) < 15 s < 30 s < 60 s
Zero offset:
(a) Response to 200 W m–2 net thermal radiation 7 W m–2 15 W m–2 30 W m–2
(ventilated)
(b) Response to 5 K h–1 change in ambient 2 W m–2 4 W m–2 8 W m–2
temperature
Resolution (smallest detectable change) 1 W m–2 5 W m–2 10 W m–2
Stability (change per year, percentage of full scale) 0.8 1.5 3.0
Directional response for beam radiation (the range of 10 W m–2 20 W m–2 30 W m–2
errors caused by assuming that the normal incidence
responsivity is valid for all directions when measuring,
from any direction, a beam radiation whose normal
incidence irradiance is 1 000 W m–2)
Temperature response (percentage maximum error due 2 4 8

to any change of ambient temperature within an interval
of 50 K)
Non-linearity (percentage deviation from the 0.5 1 3

responsivity at 500 W m–2 due to any change of
irradiance within the range 100 to 1 000 W m–2)
Spectral sensitivity (percentage deviation of the product 2 5 10

of spectral absorptance and spectral transmittance from
the corresponding mean within the range 300 to
3 000 nm)
Tilt response (percentage deviation from the responsivity 0.5 2 5

at 0˚ tilt (horizontal) due to change in tilt from 0˚ to 90˚
at 1 000 W m–2)
Achievable uncertainty (95 per cent confidence level):

Hourly totals 3% 8% 20%
Daily totals 2% 5% 10%
Notes:
a Near state of the art; suitable for use as a working standard; maintainable only at stations with special facilities and staff.
b Acceptable for network operations.
c Suitable for low-cost networks where moderate to low performance is acceptable.
Method (c) is considered to give very good results calibration work to occasions when the solar
without the need for a calibrated pyranometer. elevation exceeds 30°);
(b) The ambient temperature;
It is difficult to determine a specific number of (c) Imperfect levelling of the receiver surface;
measurements on which to base the calculation of (d) Non-linearity of instrument response;
the pyranometer calibration factor. However, the (e) The net long-wave irradiance between the
standard error of the mean can be calculated and detector and the sky.
should be less than the desired limit when sufficient
readings have been taken under the desired The pyranometer should be calibrated only in the
conditions. The principal variations (apart from position of use.
fluctuations due to atmospheric conditions and
observing limitations) in the derived calibration When using the sun as the source, the apparent
factor are due to the following: solar elevation should be measured or computed
(a) Departures from the cosine law response, (to the nearest 0.01°) for this period from solar time
particularly at solar elevations of less than (see Annex 7.D). The mean instrument or ambient
10° (for this reason it is better to restrict temperature should also be noted.
7.3.1.1 By reference to a standard calibration factor of the pyranometer to be cali-

pyrheliometer and a shaded brated (W m–2 µV–1); and ks is the calibration factor
reference pyranometer of the shaded reference pyranometer (W m–2 µV–1),
and all the signal measurements are taken
In this method, described in ISO (1993), the pyra- simultaneously.
nometer’s response to global irradiance is
calibrated against the sum of separate measure- The direct, diffuse and global components will
ments of the direct and diffuse components. change during the comparison, and care must be
Periods with clear skies and steady radiation (as taken with the appropriate sampling and averaging
judged from the record) should be selected. The to ensure that representative values are used.
vertical component of the direct solar irradiance
is determined from the pyrheliometer output,
7.3.1.2 By reference to a standard
and the diffuse sky irradiance is measured with a
pyrheliometer
second pyranometer that is continuously shaded
from the sun. The direct component is eliminated This method, described in ISO (1993a), is similar
from the diffuse sky pyranometer by shading the to the method of the preceding paragraph, except
whole outer dome of the instrument with a disc that the diffuse sky irradiance signal is measured
of sufficient size mounted on a slender rod and by the same pyranometer. The direct component
held some distance away. The diameter of the is eliminated temporarily from the pyranometer
disc and its distance from the receiver surface by shading the whole outer dome of the instru-
should be chosen in such a way that the screened ment as described in section 7.3.1.1. The period
angle approximately equals the aperture angles of required for occulting depends on the steadiness
the pyrheliometer. Rather than using the radius of the radiation flux and the response time of the
of the pyranometer sensor, the radius of the outer pyranometer, including the time interval needed
dome should be used to calculate the slope angle to bring the temperature and long-wave emission
of the shading disc and pyranometer combina- of the glass dome to equilibrium; 10 times the
tion. This shading arrangement occludes a close thermopile 1/e time-constant of the pyranometer
approximation of both the direct solar beam and should generally be sufficient.
the circumsolar sky irradiance as sensed by the
pyrheliometer. The difference between the representative shaded
and unshaded outputs from the pyranometer is due
On a clear day, the diffuse sky irradiance is less to the vertical component of direct solar irradiance
than 15 per cent of the global irradiance; hence, E measured by the pyrheliometer. Thus:
the calibration factor of the reference pyranometer
does not need to be known very accurately. E · sin h = (Vun – Vs) · k (7.9)
However, care must be taken to ensure that the
zero irradiance signals from both pyranometers or:
are accounted for, given that for some pyranome-
ters under clear sky conditions the zero irradiance k = (S · sin h)/ (Vun – Vs) (7.10)
signal can be as high as 15 per cent of the diffuse
sky irradiance. where E is the representative direct solar irradiance
at normal incidence measured by the pyrheliome-
The calibration factor is then calculated according ter (W m–2); Vun is the representative output signal
to: of the pyranometer (µV) when in unshaded (or
global) irradiance mode; Vs is the representative
E · sin h + Vsks = V · k (7.7) output signal of the pyranometer (µV) when in
shaded (or diffuse sky) irradiance mode; h is the
or: apparent solar elevation, and k is the calibration
factor (W m–2 µV–1), which is the inverse of the
k = (E sin h + Vsks)/V (7.8) sensitivity (µV W–1 m2).
where E is the direct solar irradiance measured with Both the direct and diffuse components will
the pyrheliometer (W m–2), V is the global irradi- change during the comparison, and care must be
ance output of the pyranometer to be calibrated taken with the appropriate sampling and averag-
(µV); Vs is the diffuse sky irradiance output of the ing to ensure that representative values of the
shaded reference pyranometer (µV), h is the appar- shaded and unshaded outputs are used for the
ent solar elevation at the time of reading; k is the calculation. To reduce uncertainties associated
with representative signals, a continuous series of identical information to method 7.3.1.1, but
shade and un-shade cycles should be performed without the need for a calibrated pyranometer.
and time-interpolated values used to reduce
temporal changes in global and diffuse sky irradi- As with method 7.3.1.1, to produce coefficients
ance. Since the same pyranometer is being used in with minimum uncertainty this alternate method
differential mode, and the difference in zero irra- requires that the irradiance signals from the pyra-
diance signals for global and diffuse sky irradiance nometers be adjusted to remove any estimated zero
is negligible, there is no need to account for zero irradiance offset. To reduce uncertainties due to
irradiances in equation 7.10. changing directional response it is recommended
to use a pair of pyranometers of the same model
and observation pairs when sin h (t0) ~ sin h (t1).
7.3.1.3 Alternate calibration using a
pyrheliometer
The method is ideally suited to automatic field
This method uses the same instrumental set-up as monitoring situations where three solar irradiance
the method described in section 7.3.1.1, but only components (direct, diffuse and global) are moni-
requires the pyrheliometer to provide calibrated tored continuously. Experience suggests that the
irradiance data (E), and the two pyranometers are data collection necessary for the application of this
assumed to be uncalibrated (Forgan, 1996). The method may be conducted during as little as one
method calibrates both pyranometers by solving a day with the exchange of instruments taking place
pair of simultaneous equations analogous to equa- around solar noon. However, at a field site, the
tion 7.7. Irradiance signal data are initially extended periods and days either side of the instru-
collected with the pyrheliometer and one pyra- ment change may be used for data selection,
nometer (pyranometer A) measures global provided that the pyrheliometer has a valid
irradiance signals (VgA) and the other pyranometer calibration.
(pyranometer B) measures diffuse irradiance
signals (VdB) over a range of solar zenith angles in
7.3.1.4 By comparison with a reference
clear sky conditions. After sufficient data have
pyranometer
been collected in the initial configuration, the
pyranometers are exchanged so that pyranometer As described in ISO (1992), this method entails
A, which initially measured the global irradiance the simultaneous operation of two pyranometers
signal, now measures the diffuse irradiance signal mounted horizontally, side by side, outdoors for a
(VdA), and vice versa with regard to pyranometer sufficiently long period to acquire representative
B. The assumption is made that for each pyranom- results. If the instruments are of the same model
eter the diffuse (kd) and global (k g) calibration and monitoring configuration, only one or two
coefficients are equal, and the calibration coeffi- days should be sufficient. The more pronounced
cient for pyranometer A is given by: the difference between the types of pyranometer
configurations, the longer the period of compari-
k A = kgA = kdA (7.11) son required. A long period, however, could be

replaced by several shorter periods covering typi-
with an identical assumption for pyranometer B cal conditions (clear, cloudy, overcast, rainfall,
coefficients. Then for a time t0 in the initial period snowfall, and so on). The derivation of the instru-
a modified version of equation 7.7 is: ment factor is straightforward, but, in the case of
different pyranometer models, the resultant
E (t 0 )sin(h(t 0 )) = k AVgA (t 0 ) − k BVdB (t 0 ). (7.12) uncertainty is more likely to be a reflection of the

difference in model, rather than the stability of
For time t1 in the alternate period when the pyra- the instrument being calibrated. Data selection
nometers are exchanged: should be carried out when irradiances are rela-
tively high and varying slowly. Each mean value
E (t1 )sin(h(t1 )) = k BVgB (t1 ) − k AVdA (t1 ) (7.13) of the ratio R of the response of the test instru-
ment to that of the reference instrument may be
As the only unknowns in equations 7.12 and 7.13 used to calculate k = R · kr, where kr is the calibra-
are kA and kB, these can be solved for any pair of tion factor of the reference, and k is the calibration
times (t 0, t 1). Pairs covering a range of solar factor being derived. During a sampling period,
elevations provide an indication of the directional provided that the time between measurements is
response. The resultant calibration information for less than the 1/e time-constant of the pyranome-
both pyranometers is representative of the global ters, data collection can occur during times of
calibration coefficients and produces almost fluctuating irradiance.
The mean temperature of the instruments or the station. Every opportunity to check the perform-
ambient temperature should be recorded during all ance of pyranometers in the field must be seized.
outdoor calibration work to allow for any tempera-
ture effects, for. At field stations where carefully preserved standards
(either pyrheliometers or pyranometers) are available,
the basic calibration procedures described above may
7.3.1.5 By comparison in the laboratory
be employed. Where standards are not available,
There are two methods which involve laboratory- other techniques can be used. If there is a simultane-
maintained artificial light sources providing either ous record of direct solar radiation, the two records
direct or diffuse irradiance. In both cases, the test can be examined for consistency by the method used
pyranometer and a reference standard pyranometer for direct standardization, as explained in section
are exposed under the same conditions. 7.3.1.2. This simple check should be applied
frequently.
In one method, the pyranometers are exposed to a
stabilized tungsten-filament lamp installed at the If there are simultaneous records of global and diffuse
end of an optical bench. A practical source for this sky radiation, the two records should be frequently
type of work is a 0.5 to 1.0 kW halogen lamp examined for consistency. In periods of total cloud the
mounted in a water-cooled housing with forced global and diffuse sky radiation should be identical,
ventilation and with its emission limited to the and these periods can be used when a shading disc is
solar spectrum by a quartz window. This kind of used for monitoring diffuse sky radiation. When using
lamp can be used if the standard and the instru- shading bands it is recommended that the band be
ment to be calibrated have the same spectral removed so that the diffuse sky pyranometer is measur-
response. For general calibrations, a high-pressure ing global radiation and its data can be compared to
xenon lamp with filters to give an approximate simultaneous data from the global pyranometer.
solar spectrum should be used. When calibrating
pyranometers in this way, reflection effects should The record may be verified with the aid of a travel-
be excluded from the instruments by using black ling working standard sent from the central station
screens. The usual procedure is to install the refer- of the network or from a nearby station. Lastly, if
ence instrument and measure the radiant flux. The calibrations are not performed at the site, the pyra-
reference is then removed and the measurement nometer can be exchanged for a similar one sent
repeated using the test instrument. The reference is from the calibration facility. Either of the last two
then replaced and another determination is made. methods should be used at least once a year.
Repeated alternation with the reference should Pyranometers used for measuring reflected solar
produce a set of measurement data of good preci- radiation should be moved into an upright position
sion (about 0.5 per cent). and checked using the methods described above.
In the other method, the calibration procedure uses

7.3.2 Performance of pyranometers
an integrating light system, such as a sphere or
hemisphere illuminated by tungsten lamps, with Considerable care and attention to details are
the inner surface coated with highly reflective required to attain the desirable standard of uncer-
diffuse-white paint. This offers the advantage of tainty. A number of properties of pyranometers and
simultaneous exposure of the reference pyranome- measurement systems should be evaluated so that
ter and the instrument to be calibrated. Since the the uncertainty of the resultant data can be esti-
sphere or hemisphere simulates a sky with an mated. For example, it has been demonstrated that,
approximately uniform radiance, the angle errors for a continuous record of global radiation without
of the instrument at 45° dominate. As the cosine ancillary measurements of diffuse sky and direct
error at these angles is normally low, the repeatabil- radiation, an uncertainty better than 5 per cent in
ity of integrating-sphere measurements is generally daily totals represents the result of good and careful
within 0.5 per cent. As for the source used to illumi- work. Similarly, when a protocol similar to that
nate the sphere, the same considerations apply as proposed by WMO (1998) is used, uncertainties for
for the first method. daily total can be of the order of 2 per cent.
7.3.1.6 Routine checks on calibration factors 7.3.2.1 Sensor levelling
There are several methods for checking the For accurate global radiation measurements with a
constancy of pyranometer calibration, depending pyranometer it is essential that the spirit level indi-
upon the equipment available at a particular cate when the plane of the thermopile is horizontal.
This can be tested in the laboratory on an optical 7.3.2.4 Variation of response with
levelling table using a collimated lamp beam at angle of incidence
about a 20° elevation. The levelling screws of the
instrument are adjusted until the response is as The dependence of the directional response of the
constant as possible during rotation of the sensor in sensor upon solar elevation and azimuth is usually
the azimuth. The spirit-level is then readjusted, if known as the Lambert cosine response and the
necessary, to indicate the horizontal plane. This is azimuth response, respectively. Ideally, the solar
called radiometric levelling and should be the same irradiance response of the receiver should be
as physical levelling of the thermopile. However, proportional to the cosine of the zenith angle of the
this may not be true if the quality of the thermopile solar beam, and constant for all azimuth angles. For
surface is not uniform. pyranometers, it is recommended that the cosine
error (or percentage difference from ideal cosine
response) be specified for at least two solar eleva-
7.3.2.2 Change of sensitivity due to ambient
tion angles, preferably 30° and 10°. A better way of
temperature variation
prescribing the directional response is given in
Thermopile instruments exhibit changes in sensi- Table 7.5, which specifies the permissible error for
tivity with variations in instrument temperature. all angles.
Some instruments are equipped with integrated
temperature compensation circuits in an effort to Only lamp sources should be used to determine the
maintain a constant response over a large range of variation of response with the angle of incidence,
temperatures. The temperature coefficient of sensi- because the spectral distribution of the sun changes
tivity may be measured in a temperature-controlled with the angle of elevation. Using the sun as a
chamber. The temperature in the chamber is varied source, an apparent variation of response with solar
over a suitable range in 10° steps and held steady at elevation angle could be observed which, in fact, is
each step until the response of the pyranometers a variation due to non-homogeneous spectral
has stabilized. The data are then fitted with a response.
smooth curve. If the maximum percentage differ-
ence due to temperature response over the
7.3.2.5 Uncertainties in hourly and
operational ambient range is 2 per cent or more, a
daily totals
correction should be applied on the basis of the fit
of the data. As most pyranometers in a network are used to
determine hourly or daily exposures (or exposures
If no temperature chamber is available, the stand- expressed as mean irradiances), it is evident that
ardization method with pyrheliometers (see section the uncertainties in these values are important.
7.3.1.l, 7.3.1.2 or 7.3.1.3) can be used at different
ambient temperatures. Attention should be paid to Table 7.5 lists the expected maximum deviation
the fact that not only the temperature, but also, for from the true value, excluding calibration errors.
example, the cosine response (namely, the effect of The types of pyranometers in the third column of
solar elevation) and non-linearity (namely, varia- Table 7.5 (namely, those of moderate quality) are
tions of solar irradiance) can change the not suitable for hourly or daily totals, although
sensitivity. they may be suitable for monthly and yearly
totals.
7.3.2.3 Variation of response with
orientation 7.3.3 Installation and maintenance of
pyranometers
The calibration factor of a pyranometer may very
well be different when the instrument is used in an The site selected to expose a pyranometer should be
orientation other than that in which it was cali- free from any obstruction above the plane of the
brated. Inclination testing of pyranometers can be sensing element and, at the same time, should be
conducted in the laboratory or with the standardi- readily accessible. If it is impracticable to obtain
zation method described in section 7.3.1.1 or such an exposure, the site must be as free as possi-
7.3.1.2. It is recommended that the pyranometer be ble of obstructions that may shadow it at any time
calibrated in the orientation in which it will be in the year. The pyranometer should not be close to
used. A correction for tilting is not recommended light-coloured walls or other objects likely to reflect
unless the instrument’s response has been charac- solar energy onto it; nor should it be exposed to
terized for a variety of conditions. artificial radiation sources.
In most places, a flat roof provides a good location plane of the sensor is kept horizontal and that
for mounting the radiometer stand. If such a site severe vibration is minimized. This usually
cannot be obtained, a stand placed some distance requires the pyranometer to be mounted on suit-
from buildings or other obstructions should be ably designed gimbals.
used. If practicable, the site should be chosen so
that no obstruction, in particular within the
7.3.3.1 Correction for obstructions to
azimuth range of sunrise and sunset over the year,
a free horizon
should have an elevation exceeding 5°. Other
obstructions should not reduce the total solar angle If the direct solar beam is obstructed (which is read-
by more than 0.5 sr. At stations where this is not ily detected on cloudless days), the record should
possible, complete details of the horizon and the be corrected wherever possible to reduce
solid angle subtended should be included in the uncertainty.
description of the station.
Only when there are separate records of global and
A site survey should be carried out before the diffuse sky radiation can the diffuse sky component
initial installation of a pyranometer whenever of the record be corrected for obstructions. The
its location is changed or if a significant change procedure requires first that the diffuse sky record
occurs with regard to any surrounding obstruc- be corrected, and the global record subsequently
tions. An excellent method of doing this is to adjusted. The fraction of the sky itself which is
use a survey camera that provides azimuthal and obscured should not be computed, but rather the
elevation grid lines on the negative. A series of fraction of the irradiance coming from that part of
exposures should be made to identify the angu- the sky which is obscured. Radiation incident at
lar elevation above the plane of the receiving angles of less than 5° makes only a very small
surface of the pyranometer and the angular contribution to the total. Since the diffuse sky radi-
range in azimuth of all obstructions throughout ation limited to an elevation of 5° contributes less
the full 360° around the pyranometer. If a survey than 1 per cent to the diffuse sky radiation, it can
camera is not available, the angular outline of normally be neglected. Attention should be concen-
obscuring objects may be mapped out by means trated on objects subtending angles of 10° or more,
of a theodolite or a compass and clinometer as well as those which might intercept the solar
combination. beam at any time. In addition, it must be borne in
mind that light-coloured objects can reflect solar
The description of the station should include the radiation onto the receiver.
altitude of the pyranometer above sea level (that
is, the altitude of the station plus the height of Strictly speaking, when determining corrections
pyranometer above the ground), together with its for the loss of diffuse sky radiation due to obsta-
geographical longitude and latitude. It is also cles, the variance in sky radiance over the
most useful to have a site plan, drawn to scale, hemisphere should be taken into account.
showing the position of the recorder, the pyra- However, the only practical procedure is to
nometer, and all connecting cables. assume that the radiance is isotropic, that is, the
same from all parts of the sky. In order to deter-
The accessibility of instrumentation for frequent mine the relative reduction in diffuse sky
inspection is probably the most important single irradiance for obscuring objects of finite size, the
consideration when choosing a site. It is most following expression may be used:
desirable that pyranometers and recorders be
inspected at least daily, and preferably more ΔEsky =π –1∫Φ ∫ Θ sin θ cos θd θd φ (7.14)
often.
where θ is the angle of elevation; φ is the azimuth
The foregoing remarks apply equally to the expo- angle, Θ is the extent in elevation of the object; and
sure of pyranometers on ships, towers and buoys. Φ is the extent in azimuth of the object.
The exposure of pyranometers on these platforms
is a very difficult and sometimes hazardous The expression is valid only for obstructions
undertaking. Seldom can an instrument be with a black surface facing the pyranometer. For
mounted where it is not affected by at least one other objects, the correction has to be multi-
significant obstruction (for example, a tower). plied by a reduction factor depending on the
Because of platform motion, pyranometers are reflectivity of the object. Snow glare from a low
subject to wave motion and vibration. Precautions sun may even lead to an opposite sign for the
should be taken, therefore, to ensure that the correction.
7.3.3.2 Installation of pyranometers for common ground. As with other types of thermo-
measuring global radiation electric devices, care must be exercised to obtain a
permanent copper-to-copper junction between all
A pyranometer should be securely attached to connections prior to soldering. All exposed junc-
whatever mounting stand is available, using the tions must be weatherproof and protected from
holes provided in the tripod legs or in the baseplate. physical damage. After identification of the circuit
Precautions should always be taken to avoid subject- polarity, the other extremity of the cable may be
ing the instrument to mechanical shocks or connected to the data-collection system in accord-
vibration during installation. This operation is best ance with the relevant instructions.
effected as follows. First, the pyranometer should
be oriented so that the emerging leads or the
7.3.3.3 Installation of pyranometers for
connector are located poleward of the receiving
measuring diffuse sky radiation
surface. This minimizes heating of the electrical
connections by the sun. Instruments with Moll- For measuring or recording separate diffuse sky
Gorcynski thermopiles should be oriented so that radiation, the direct solar radiation must be
the line of thermo-junctions (the long side of the screened from the sensor by a shading device.
rectangular thermopile) points east-west. This Where continuous records are required, the pyra-
constraint sometimes conflicts with the first, nometer is usually shaded either by a small metal
depending on the type of instrument, and should disc held in the sun’s beam by a sun tracker, or by a
have priority since the connector could be shaded, shadow band mounted on a polar axis.
if necessary. When towers are nearby, the instru-
ment should be situated on the side of the tower The first method entails the rotation of a slender
towards the Equator, and as far away from the tower arm synchronized with the sun’s apparent motion.
as practical. If tracking is based on sun synchronous motors or
solar almanacs, frequent inspection is essential to
Radiation reflected from the ground or the base ensure proper operation and adjustment, since
should not be allowed to irradiate the instrument spurious records are otherwise difficult to detect.
body from underneath. A cylindrical shading device Sun trackers with sun-seeking systems minimize
can be used, but care should be taken to ensure that the likelihood of such problems. The second
natural ventilation still occurs and is sufficient to method involves frequent personal attention at the
maintain the instrument body at ambient site and significant corrections to the record on
temperature. account of the appreciable screening of diffuse sky
radiation by the shading arrangement. Assumptions
The pyranometer should then be secured lightly about the sky radiance distribution and band
with screws or bolts and levelled with the aid of the dimensions are required to correct for the band and
levelling screws and spirit-level provided. After this, increase the uncertainty of the derived diffuse sky
the retaining screws should be tightened, taking radiation compared to that using a sun-seeking disc
care that the setting is not disturbed so that, when system. Annex 7.E provides details on the construc-
properly exposed, the receiving surface is horizon- tion of a shading ring and the necessary corrections
tal, as indicated by the spirit-level. to be applied.
The stand or platform should be sufficiently rigid so A significant error source for diffuse sky radiation
that the instrument is protected from severe shocks data is the zero irradiance signal. In clear sky condi-
and the horizontal position of the receiver surface tions the zero irradiance signal is the equivalent of
is not changed, especially during periods of high 5 to 10 W m–2 depending on the pyranometer
winds and strong solar energy. model, and could approach 15 per cent of the
diffuse sky irradiance. The Baseline Surface Radiation
The cable connecting the pyranometer to its Network (BSRN) Operations Manual (WMO, 1998)
recorder should have twin conductors and be water- provides methods to minimize the influence of the
proof. The cable should be firmly secured to the zero irradiance signal.
mounting stand to minimize rupture or intermit-
tent disconnection in windy weather. Wherever The installation of a diffuse sky pyranometer is simi-
possible, the cable should be properly buried and lar to that of a pyranometer which measures global
protected underground if the recorder is located at radiation. However, there is the complication of an
a distance. The use of shielded cable is recom- equatorial mount or shadow-band stand. The
mended; the pyranometer, cable and recorder being distance to a neighbouring pyranometer should be
connected by a very low resistance conductor to a sufficient to guarantee that the shading ring or disc
never shadows it. This may be more important at 7.3.3.6 Installation and maintenance of
high latitudes where the sun angle can be very low. pyranometers on special platforms
Since the diffuse sky radiation from a cloudless sky Very special care should be taken when installing
may be less than one tenth of the global radiation, equipment on such diverse platforms as ships,
careful attention should be given to the sensitivity buoys, towers and aircraft. Radiation sensors
of the recording system. mounted on ships should be provided with gimbals
because of the substantial motion of the platform.
7.3.3.4 Installation of pyranometers for
If a tower is employed exclusively for radiation
measuring reflected radiation
equipment, it may be capped by a rigid platform on
The height above the surface should be 1 to 2 m. In which the sensors can be mounted. Obstructions to
summer-time, the ground should be covered by the horizon should be kept to the side of the plat-
grass that is kept short. For regions with snow in form farthest from the Equator, and booms for
winter, a mechanism should be available to adjust holding albedometers should extend towards the
the height of the pyranometer in order to maintain Equator.
a constant separation between the snow and the
instrument. Although the mounting device is Radiation sensors should be mounted as high as is
within the field of view of the instrument, it should practicable above the water surface on ships, buoys
be designed to cause less than 2 per cent error in the and towers, in order to keep the effects of water
measurement. Access to the pyranometer for level- spray to a minimum.
ling should be possible without disturbing the
surface beneath, especially if it is snow. Radiation measurements have been taken success-
fully from aircraft for a number of years. Care must
be exercised, however, in selecting the correct pyra-
7.3.3.5 Maintenance of pyranometers
nometer and proper exposure.
Pyranometers in continuous operation should be
inspected at least once a day and perhaps more Particular attention must be paid during installa-
frequently, for example when meteorological obser- tion, especially for systems that are difficult to
vations are being made. During these inspections, access, to ensure the reliability of the observations.
the glass dome of the instrument should be wiped It may be desirable, therefore, to provide a certain
clean and dry (care should be taken not to disturb amount of redundancy by installing duplicate
routine measurements during the daytime). If measuring systems at certain critical sites.
frozen snow, glazed frost, hoar frost or rime is
present, an attempt should be made to remove the
deposit very gently (at least temporarily), with the
sparing use of a de-icing fluid, before wiping the 7.4 Measurement of total and
glass clean. A daily check should also ensure that long-wave radiation
the instrument is level, that there is no condensa-
tion inside the dome, and that the sensing surfaces The measurement of total radiation includes both
are still black. short wavelengths of solar origin (300 to 3 000 nm)
and longer wavelengths of terrestrial and atmos-
In some networks, the exposed dome of the pheric origin (3 000 to 100 000 nm). The
pyranometer is ventilated continuously by a blower instruments used for this purpose are pyrradiom-
to avoid or minimize deposits in cold weather and eters. They may be used for measuring either
to minimize the temperature difference between upward or downward radiation flux components,
the dome and the case. The temperature difference and a pair of them may be used to measure the
between the ventilating air and the ambient air differences between the two, which is the net radi-
should not be more than about 1 K. If local pollution ation. Single-sensor pyrradiometers, with an active
or sand forms a deposit on the dome, it should be surface on both sides, are also used for measuring
wiped very gently, preferably after blowing off most net radiation. Pyrradiometer sensors must have a
of the loose material or after wetting it a little, in constant sensitivity across the whole wavelength
order to prevent the surface from being scratched. range from 300 to 100 000 nm.
Such abrasive action can appreciably alter the
original transmission properties of the material. The measurement of long-wave radiation can be
Desiccators should be kept charged with active accomplished either directly, using pyrgeometers,
material (usually a colour-indicating silica gel). or indirectly, by subtracting the measured global
radiation from the total radiation measured. Most has greater imprecision than the modelling of the
pyrgeometers eliminate the short wavelengths by flux below 30° elevations. Both types of instru-
means of filters that have approximately constant ments are operated on the principle that the
transparency to long wavelengths while being measured output signal is the difference between
almost opaque to the shorter wavelengths (300 to the irradiance emitted from the source and the
3 000 nm). Some pyrgeometers – either without black-body radiative temperature of the instru-
filters or filters that do not eliminate radiation ment. In general, pyrgeometer-derived terrestrial
below 3 000 nm – can be used only during the radiation can be approximated by an addition to
night. equation 7.15:
The long-wave flux L¯ measured by a pyrgeometer L¯ = L* +σ Ts4 + kσ (Td4 - Ts4 ) (7.16)

or a pyrradiometer has two components, the black-
body flux from the surface temperature of the where k is the instrument dome sensitivity to infra-
sensing element and the radiative flux measured by red irradiance (µV/(W m–2)); and Td is the detector
the receiver: temperature (K).
L¯ = L* +σ σ Ts4 (7.15) Several recent comparisons have been made using

instruments of similar manufacture in a variety
σ is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant (5.670 4 · 10–8 of measurement configurations. These studies
W m–2 K–1); Ts is the underlying surface tempera- have indicated that, following careful calibration,
ture (K); L¯ is the irradiance measured either by a fluxes measured at night agree to within 2 per
reference pyrgeometer or calculated from the cent, but in periods of high solar energy the
temperature of the blackbody cavity capping the difference between instruments can be signifi-
upper receiver (W m–2); L* is the radiative flux at cant. The reason for the differences is that the
the receiver (W m–2). Measuring the short-wave silicon dome and the associated interference filter
component measured by a pyrradiometer follows may transmit solar radiation and this is not a
the description in 7.3. perfect reflector of solar energy. Thus, a solar
contribution may reach the sensor and solar heat-
ing of the dome occurs. By shading the instrument
7.4.1 Instruments for the measurement
similarly to that used for diffuse solar measure-
of long-wave radiation
ments, ventilating it as recommended by ISO
Over the last decade, significant advances have (1990a), and measuring the temperature of the
been made in the measurement of terrestrial dome and the instrument case, this discrepancy
radiation by pyrgeometers, particularly with the can be reduced. Based upon these and other
advent of the silicon domed pyrgeometer, and as comparisons, the following recommendations
a result, pyrgeometers provide the highest accu- should be followed for the measurement of long-
racy measurements of terrestrial radiation. wave radiation:
Nevertheless, the measurement of terrestrial (a) When using pyrgeometers that have a built-
radiation is still more difficult and less under- in battery circuit to emulate the black-body
stood than the measurement of solar irradiance, condition of the instrument, extreme care
Table 7.6 provides an analysis of the sources of must be taken to ensure that the battery is
errors. well maintained. Even a small change in the
battery voltage will significantly increase
Pyrgeometers have developed in two forms. In the measurement error. If at all possible, the
the first form, the thermopile receiving surface is battery should be removed from the instru-
covered with a hemispheric dome, inside which ment, and the case and dome temperatures of
an interference filter is deposited. In the second the instrument should be measured according
form, the thermopile is covered with a flat plate, to the manufacturer’s instructions;
on which the interference filter is deposited. In (b) Where possible, both the case and dome
both cases, the surface on which the interference temperatures of the instrument should be
filter is deposited is made of silicon. The first style measured and used in the determination of
of instrument provides a full hemispheric field of irradiance;
view, while for the second, a 150° field of view is (c) The instrument should be ventilated;
typical and the hemispheric flux is modelled (d) For best results, the instrument should be
using the manufacturer’s procedures. The argu- shaded from direct solar irradiance by a
ment used for the latter method is that the small sun-tracking disc such as that used for
deposition of filters on the inside of a hemisphere diffuse sky radiation measurement.
Table 7.6. Sources of error in pyrradiometric measurements
Elements Nature of influence on pyrradiometers

influencing the Effects on the precision Methods for determining
measurements of measurements these characteristics
with domes without domes
Screening Spectral None (a) Spectral variations (a) Determine spectrally

properties characteristics of in calibration the extinction in the
transmission coefficient screen
(b) The effect of (b) Measure the effect of
reduced incident diffuse sky radiation
radiation on the or measure the effect
detector due with a varying angle
to short-wave of incidence
diffusion in the (c) Spectral analysis:
domes (depends compare with a new
on thickness) dome; determine
(c) Ageing and other the extinction of the
variations in the dome
sensors
Convection effects Changes due to Changes due to Uncontrolled changes Study the dynamic
non-radiative energy non-radiative due to wind gusts are behaviour of the
exchanges: sensor- energy critical in computing instrument as a function
dome environment exchanges: the radiative flux of temperature and speed
(thermal resistance) sensor-air divergence in the in a wind tunnel
(variation in lowest layer of the
areal exchange atmosphere
coefficient)
Effects of Variation of Variation of the Changes due to Study the influence of

hydrometeors the spectral spectral character variations in the forced ventilation on the
(rain, snow, fog, transmission plus of the sensor and spectral characteristics effects
dew, frost) and the non-radiative of the dissipation of the sensor and to
dust heat exchange by of heat by non-radiative energy
conduction and evaporation transfers
change
Properties of the Depends on the spectral absorption of Changes in calibration (a) Spectrophotometric
sensor surface the blackening substance on the sensor coefficient analysis of the
(emissivity) (a) As a function of calibration of the
spectral response absorbing surfaces
(b) As a function (b) Measure the
of intensity sensor’s sensitivity
and azimuth of variability with the
incident radiation angle of incidence
(c) As a function
of temperature
effects
Temperature Non-linearity of the sensor as a function A temperature Study the influence of

effects of temperature coefficient is required forced ventilation on
these effects
Asymmetry effects (a) Differences between the thermal (a) Influence on the (a) Control the thermal
capacities and resistance of the time-constant of capacity of the two
upward- and downward-facing the instrument sensor surfaces
sensors (b) Error in the (b) Control the time-
(b) Differences in ventilation of the determination of constant over a
upward- and downward-facing the calibration narrow temperature
sensors factors for the two range
(c) Control and regulation of sensor sensors
levelling
These instruments should be calibrated at national (b) Determination of wind effects by the use of
or regional calibration centres by using reference electrical heating;
pyrgeometers or black-body radiators. (c) Stabilization of wind effects through artificial
ventilation;
(d) Elimination of wind effects by protecting the
7.4.2 Instruments for the measurement
sensor from the wind.
of total radiation
One problem with instruments for measuring The long-wave component of a pyrradiometer is
total radiation is that there are no absorbers described by equation 7.15.
which have a completely constant sensitivity
over the extended range of wavelengths Table 7.6 provides an analysis of the sources of error
concerned. Similarly, it is difficult to find suitable arising in pyrradiometric measurements and
filters that have constant transmission between proposes methods for determining these errors.
300 and 100 000 nm.
It is difficult to determine the precision likely to
The use of thermally sensitive sensors requires a be obtained in practice. In situ comparisons at
good knowledge of the heat budget of the sensor. different sites between different designs of pyrra-
Otherwise, it is necessary to reduce sensor convec- diometer yield results manifesting differences of
tive heat losses to near zero by protecting the sensor up to 5 to 10 per cent under the best conditions.
from the direct influence of the wind. The technical In order to improve such results, an exhaustive
difficulties linked with such heat losses are largely laboratory study should precede the in situ
responsible for the fact that net radiative fluxes are comparison in order to determine the different
determined less precisely than global radiation effects separately.
fluxes. In fact, different laboratories have developed
their own pyrradiometers on technical bases which Deriving total radiation by independently
they consider to be the most effective for reducing measuring the short-wave and long-wave
the convective heat transfer in the sensor. During components achieves the highest accuracies. Short-
the last few decades, pyrradiometers have been wave radiation can be measured using the methods
built which, although not perfect, em-body good outlined in sections 7.2 and 7.3, while long-wave
measurement principles. Thus, there is a great vari- radiation can be measured with pyrgeometers.
ety of pyrradiometers employing different methods
for eliminating, or allowing for, wind effects, as Table 7.7 lists the characteristics of pyrradiometers
follows: of various levels of performance, and the uncertain-
(a) No protection, in which case empirical formu- ties to be expected in the measurements obtained
lae are used to correct for wind effects; from them.
Table 7.7. Characteristics of operational pyrradiometers

a b c
Characteristic High quality Good quality Moderate quality
Resolution (W m–2) 1 5 10
Stability (annual change; per cent of full scale) 2% 5% 10%
Cosine response error at 10° elevation 3% 7% 15%

Azimuth error at 10° elevation (additional to
3% 5% 10%
cosine error) (deviation from mean)
Temperature dependence (–20 to 40°C)
1% 2% 5%
(deviation from mean)
Non-linearity (deviation from mean) 0.5% 2% 5%
Variation in spectral sensitivity integrated over
2% 5% 10%
200 nm intervals from 300 to 75 000 nm
Notes:
a Near state of the art; maintainable only at stations with special facilities and specialist staff.
b Acceptable for network operations.
c Suitable for low-cost networks where moderate to low performance is acceptable.
7.4.3 Calibration of pyrgeometers (b) Each sensor and its protection devices are
kept clean and free from dew, frost, snow
Pyrradiometers and net pyrradiometers can be cali- and rain;
brated for short-wave radiation using the same (c) The domes do not retain water (any internal
methods as those used for pyranometers (see condensation should be dried up);
section 7.3.1) using the sun and sky as the source. (d) The black receiver surfaces have emissivities
In the case of one-sensor net pyrradiometers, the very close to 1.
downward-looking side must be covered by a cavity
of known and steady temperature. Additionally, where polythene domes are used, it
is necessary to check from time to time that UV
Long-wave radiation calibration of reference radi- effects have not changed the transmission char-
ometers is best done in the laboratory with black acteristics. A half-yearly exchange of the upper
body cavities, but night-time comparison to refer- dome is recommended.
ence instruments is preferred for network
measurements. In the case of calibration of the Since it is not generally possible to directly measure
sensor, the downward flux L¯ is measured sepa- the reflected solar radiation and the upward long-
rately by using a pyrgeometer or provided by a wave radiation exactly at the surface level, it is
blackbody cavity. In which case, signal V from necessary to place the pyranometers and
the radiative flux received by the instrument (via pyrradiometers at a suitable distance from the
equation 7.15) amounts to: ground to measure these upward components.
Such measurements integrate the radiation
V = L* · K or K = V/L* (7.17) emitted by the surface beneath the sensor. For
pyranometers and pyrradiometers which have an
where V is the output of the instrument (µV); and K angle of view of 2π sr and are installed 2 m above
is sensitivity (µV/(W m–2)). the surface, 90 per cent of all the radiation
measured is emitted by a circular surface
The instrument sensitivities should be checked underneath having a diameter of 12 m (this figure
periodically in situ by careful selection of well- is 95 per cent for a diameter of 17.5 m and 99 per
described environmental conditions with slowly cent for one of 39.8 m), assuming that the sensor
varying fluxes. Pyrgeometers should also be checked uses a cosine detector.
periodically to ensure that the transmission of
short-wave radiation has not changed. This characteristic of integrating the input over a
relatively large circular surface is advantageous
The symmetry of net pyrradiometers requires when the terrain has large local variations in emit-
regular checking. This is done by inverting the tance, provided that the net pyrradiometer can be
instrument, or the pair of instruments, in situ installed far enough from the surface to achieve a
and noting any difference in output. Differences field of view which is representative of the local
of greater than 2 per cent of the likely full scale terrain. The output of a sensor located too close to
between the two directions demand instrument the surface will show large effects caused by its own
recalibration because either the ventilation rates shadow, in addition to the observation of an unrep-
or absorption factors have become significantly resentative portion of the terrain. On the other
different for the two sensors. Such tests should hand, the readings from a net pyrradiometer located
also be carried out during calibration or too far from the surface can be rendered unrepre-
installation. sentative of the fluxes near that surface because of
the existence of undetected radiative flux diver-
gences. Usually a height of 2 m above short
7.4.4 Installation of pyrradiometers and
homogeneous vegetation is adopted, while in the
pyrgeometers
case of tall vegetation, such as a forest, the height
Pyrradiometers and pyrgeometers are generally should be sufficient to eliminate local surface heter-
installed at a site which is free from obstructions, ogeneities adequately.
or at least has no obstruction with an angular size
greater than 5° in any direction, and which has a
7.4.5 Recording and data reduction
low sun angle at all times during the year.
In general, the text in section 7.1.3 applies to pyrra-
A daily check of the instruments should ensure that: diometers and pyrgeometers. Furthermore, the
(a) The instrument is level; following effects can specifically influence the
readings of these radiometers, and they should be a normalizing factor Km (683) describing the number
recorded: of lumens emitted per watt of electromagnetic radia-
(a) The effect of hydrometeors on non-protected tion from a monochromatic source of 555.19 nm
and non-ventilated instruments (rain, snow, (the freezing point of platinum), as follows:
dew, frost);
(b) The effect of wind and air temperature; Φv = Km ∫380
780
Φ(λ) V (λ)dλ (7.18)
(c) The drift of zero of the data system. This is
much more important for pyrradiometers, where Φv is the luminous flux (lm m–2 or lux); Φ(λ)
which can yield negative values, than for is the spectral radiant flux (W m–2 nm–1); V(λ) is the
pyranometers, where the zero irradiance sensitivity of the human eye; and Km is the normal-
signal is itself a property of the net irradiance izing constant relating luminous to radiation
at the sensor surface. quantities. Thus, 99 per cent of the visible radiation
lies between 400 and 730 nm.
Special attention should be paid to the position of
instruments if the derived long-wave radiation Quantities and units for luminous variables are
requires subtraction of the solar irradiance given in Annex 7.A.
component measured by a pyranometer; the
pyrradiometer and pyranometer should be
7.5.1.1 Instruments
positioned within 5 m of each other and in such a
way that they are essentially influenced in the same Illuminance meters comprise a photovoltaic
way by their environment. detector, one or more filters to yield sensitivity
according to the V(λ) curve, and often a
7.5 Measurement of special Table 7.8. Photopic spectral luminous efficiency

radiation quantities values (unity at wavelength of maximum efficacy)
Wavelength Photopic Wavelength Photopic

7.5.1 Measurement of daylight (nm) V(λ) (nm) V(λ)
Illuminance is the incident flux of radiant energy 380 0.000 04 590 0.757
that emanates from a source with wavelengths
390 0.000 12 600 0.631
between 380 and 780 nm and is weighted by the
response of the human eye to energy in this wave- 400 0.000 4 610 0.503
length region. The ICI has defined the response of 410 0.001 2 620 0.381
the human eye to photons with a peak responsiv- 420 0.004 0 630 0.265
ity at 555 nm. Figure 7.2 and Table 7.8 provide the
relative response of the human eye normalized to 430 0.011 6 640 0.175
this frequency. Luminous efficacy is defined as the 440 0.023 650 0.107
relationship between radiant emittance (W m–2) and 450 0.038 660 0.061
luminous emittance (lm). It is a function of the rela-
460 0.060 670 0.032
tive luminous sensitivity V(λ) of the human eye and
470 0.091 680 0.017
1.0
480 0.139 690 0.008 2
490 0.208 700 0.004 1
0.8
500 0.323 710 0.002 1
Relative response
0.6 510 0.503 720 0.001 05

520 0.710 730 0.000 52
0.4
530 0.862 740 0.000 25
0.2 540 0.954 750 0.000 12
0.0
550 0.995 760 0.000 06
400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750
Wavelength (nm)
560 0.995 770 0.000 03
570 0.952 780 0.000 015
Figure 7.2. Relative luminous sensitivity V(λ) of
580 0.870
the human eye for photopic vision
temperature control circuit to maintain signal stability and climatic stability. It is also
stability. The ICI has developed a detailed guide recommended that a field standard be used to
to the measurement of daylight (ICI, 1994) check calibrations at each measurement site
which describes expected practices in the between laboratory calibrations.
installation of equipment, instrument
characterization, data-acquisition procedures 7.5.1.3 Recording and data reduction
and initial quality control.
The ICI has recommended that the following clima-
The measurement of global illuminance parallels tological variables be recorded:
the measurement of global irradiance. However, (a) Global and diffuse sky daylight illuminance
the standard illuminance meter must be tempera- on horizontal and vertical surfaces;
ture controlled or corrected from at least –10 to (b) Illuminance of the direct solar beam;
40°C. Furthermore, it must be ventilated to (c) Sky luminance for 0.08 sr intervals (about
prevent condensation and/or frost from coating 10° · 10°) all over the hemisphere;
the outer surface of the sensing element. (d) Photopic albedo of characteristic surfaces
Illuminance meters should normally be able to such as grass, earth and snow.
measure fluxes over the range 1 to 20 000 lx.
Within this range, uncertainties should remain Hourly or daily integrated values are usually needed.
within the limits of Table 7.9. These values are The hourly values should be referenced to true solar
based upon ICI recommendations (ICI, 1987), but time. For the presentation of sky luminance data,
only for uncertainties associated with high-qual- stereographic maps depicting isolines of equal
ity illuminance meters specifically intended for luminance are most useful.
external daylight measurements.
Diffuse sky illuminance can be measured following

the same principles used for the measurement of 7.6 Measurement of UV radiation
diffuse sky irradiance. Direct illuminance measure-
ments should be taken with instruments having a Measurements of solar UV radiation are in demand
field of view whose open half-angle is no greater because of its effects on the environment and
than 2.85° and whose slope angle is less human health, and because of the enhancement of
than 1.76°. radiation at the Earth’s surface as a result of ozone
depletion (Kerr and McElroy, 1993). The UV spec-
trum is conventionally divided into three parts, as
7.5.1.2 Calibration
follows:
Calibrations should be traceable to a Standard (a) UV-A is the band with wavelengths of 315
Illuminant A following the procedures outlined in to 400 nm, namely, just outside the visible
ICI (1987). Such equipment is normally available spectrum. It is less biologically active and its
only at national standards laboratories. The intensity at the Earth’s surface does not vary
calibration and tests of specification should be with atmospheric ozone content;
performed yearly. These should also include tests (b) UV-B is defined as radiation in the 280 to
to determine ageing, zero setting drift, mechanical 315 nm band. It is biologically active and its
intensity at the Earth’s surface depends on
the atmospheric ozone column, to an extent
Table 7.9. Specification of illuminance meters depending on wavelength. A frequently
used expression of its biological activity
Specification Uncertainty is its erythemal effect, which is the extent
percentage
to which it causes the reddening of white
V(λ) match 2.5 human skin;
UV response 0.2 (c) UV-C, in wavelengths of 100 to 280 nm, is
IR response 0.2 completely absorbed in the atmosphere and
does not occur naturally at the Earth’s surface.
Cosine response 1.5
Fatigue at 10 klx 0.1 UV-B is the band on which most interest is centred for
Temperature coefficient 0.1 K–1 measurements of UV radiation. An alternative, but
Linearity 0.2 now non-standard, definition of the boundary
between UV-A and UV-B is 320 nm rather than
Settling time 0.1 s
315 nm.
1.0E+1
UV radiation measurements will ensure a valuable
UV radiation database. This is needed to derive a
1.0E+0
climatology of solar UV irradiance in space and
time for studies of the Earth’s climate. Requirements
1.0E-1
for measuring sites and instrument specifications
are also provided in these documents.
Irradiance (W m–2 nm–1)
1.0E-2
Recommendations for UV-B measurements were
put forward in the WMO GAW Programme (WMO,
1.0E-3
1993b; 2001) and are reproduced in Table 7.10.
1.0E-4
Extra-terrestrial irradiance The following instrument descriptions are
Surface irradiance
1.0E-5 (250 milliatmosphere centimetre ozone) provided for general information and for assist-
Surface irradiance ance in selecting appropriate instrumentation.
(300 milliatmosphere centimetre ozone)
1.0E-6
Surface irradiance
(350 milliatmosphere centimetre ozone) 7.6.1 Instruments
1.0E-7
280.00 290.00 300.00 310.00 320.00 330.00 Three general types of instruments are available
Wavelength (nm)
commercially for the measurement of UV radia-
tion. The first class of instruments use broadband
Figure 7.3. Model results illustrating the effect of filters. These instruments integrate over either
increasing ozone levels on the transmission of the UV-B or UV-A spectrum or the entire broad-
UV-B radiation through the atmosphere
band UV region responsible for affecting human
health. The second class of instruments use one
Measuring UV radiation is difficult because of the or more interference filters to integrate over
small amount of energy reaching the Earth’s surface, discrete portions of the UV-A and/or UV-B spec-
the variability due to changes in stratospheric trum. The third class of instruments are
ozone levels, and the rapid increase in the magni- spectroradiometers that measure across a pre-
tude of the flux with increasing wavelength. defined portion of the spectrum sequentially
Figure 7.3 illustrates changes in the spectral irradi- using a fixed passband.
ance between 290 and 325 nm at the top of the
atmosphere and at the surface in W m–2 nm–1.
Global UV irradiance is strongly affected by atmos- Table 7.10. Requirements for UV-B
pheric phenomena such as clouds, and to a lesser global spectral irradiance measurements
extent by atmospheric aerosols.
UV-B
The influence of surrounding surfaces is also signifi- 1. Wavelength resolution – 1.0 nm or better
cant because of multiple scattering. This is especially 2. Temporal resolution – 10 min or better
the case in snow-covered areas. 3. Directional (angular) – separation into direct and
diffuse components or better; radiances
Difficulties in the standardization of UV radiation 4. Meticulous calibration strategy
measurement stem from the variety of uses to
which the measurements are put. Unlike most Ancillary data
meteorological measurements, standards based
upon global needs have not yet been reached. In (a) Required
many countries, measurements of UV radiation are 1. Total column ozone (within 100 km)
not taken by Meteorological Services, but by health 2. Aerosol optical depth
or environmental protection authorities. This leads 3. Ground albedo
to further difficulties in the standardization of 4. Cloud cover
instruments and methods of observation.
(b) Highly recommended
Guidelines and standard procedures have been 1. Aerosol; profile using LIDAR
developed on how to characterize and calibrate UV 2. Vertical ozone distribution
spectroradiometers and UV filter radiometers used 3. Sky brightness
to measure solar UV irradiance (see WMO, 1996; 4. Global solar irradiance
1999a; 1999b; 2001). Application of the 5. Polarization of zenith radiance
recommended procedures for data quality assurance 6. Column water amount
performed at sites operating instruments for solar
7.6.1.1 Broadband sensors More recently, instruments have been developed to

measure erythemally weighted UV irradiance using
Most, but not all, broadband sensors are designed thin film metal interference filter technology and
to measure a UV spectrum that is weighted by the specially developed silicon photodiodes. These
erythemal function proposed by McKinlay and overcome many problems associated with phos-
Diffey (1987) and reproduced in Figure 7.4. Another phor technology, but must contend with very low
action spectrum found in some instruments is that photodiode signal levels and filter stability.
of Parrish, Jaenicke and Anderson (1982). Two
methods (and their variations) are used to accom- Other broadband instruments use one or the
plish this hardware weighting. other measurement technology to measure the
complete spectra by using either a combination
One of the means of obtaining erythemal of glass filters or interference filters. The bandpass
weighting is to first filter out nearly all visible is as narrow as 20 nm full-width half-maximum
wavelength light using UV-transmitting, black- (FWHM) to as wide as 80 nm FWHM for instru-
glass blocking filters. The remaining radiation ments measuring a combination of UV-A and
then strikes a UV-sensitive phosphor. In turn, UV-B radiation. Some manufacturers of these
the green light emitted by the phosphor is instruments provide simple algorithms to approx-
filtered again by using coloured glass to remove imate erythemal dosage from the unweighted
any non-green visible light before impinging on measurements.
a gallium arsenic or a gallium arsenic phospho-
rus photodiode. The quality of the instrument is The maintenance of these instruments consists of
dependent on such items as the quality of the ensuring that the domes are cleaned, the instru-
outside protective quartz dome, the cosine ment is level, the desiccant (if provided) is active,
response of the instrument, the temperature and the heating/cooling system is working
stability, and the ability of the manufacturer to correctly, if so equipped. Otherwise, the care they
match the erythemal curve with a combination require is similar to that of a pyranometer.
of glass and diode characteristics. Instrument
temperature stability is crucial, both with respect
7.6.1.2 Narrowband sensors
to the electronics and the response of the phos-
phor to incident UV radiation. Phosphor The definition of narrowband for this classification
efficiency decreases by approximately 0.5 per of instrument is vague. The widest bandwidth for
cent K –1 and its wavelength response curve is instruments in this category is 10 nm FWHM. The
shifted by approximately 1 nm longer every narrowest bandwidth at present for commercial
10 K. This latter effect is particularly important instruments is of the order of 2 nm FWHM.
because of the steepness of the radiation curve
at these wavelengths. These sensors use one or more interference filters
to obtain information about a portion of the UV
spectra. The simplest instruments consist of a
1.00E+0
single filter, usually at a wavelength that can be
measured by a good-quality, UV enhanced
1.00E-1
photodiode. Wavelengths near 305 nm are typical
McKinlay and Diffey (1987)
for such instruments. The out-of-band rejection
Parrish, Jaenicke and
Anderson (1982) of such filters should be equal to, or greater than,
Erythemal action spectra
normalized to 1 at 250 nm
1.00E-2 10 –6 throughout the sensitive region of the
detector. Higher quality instruments of this type
either use Peltier cooling to maintain a constant
1.00E-3
temperature near 20°C or heaters to increase the
instrument filter and diode temperatures to above
1.00E-4 normal ambient temperatures, usually 40°C.
However, the latter alternative markedly reduces
1.00E-5 the life of interference filters. A modification of
250.00 300.00 350.00 400.00
this type of instrument uses a photomultiplier
Wavelength (nm)
tube instead of the photodiode. This allows the
Figure 7.4. Erythemal curves as presented by accurate measurement of energy from shorter
Parrish, Jaenicke and Anderson (1982) and wavelengths and lower intensities at all measured
McKinlay and Diffey (1987) wavelengths.
Manufacturers of instruments that use more than a instrument are functioning properly include test-
single filter often provide a means of reconstructing ing the instrument by using internal mercury
the complete UV spectrum through modelled lamps and standard quartz halogen lamps. While
relationships developed around the measured these do not give absolute calibration data, they
wavelengths. Single wavelength instruments are provide the operator with information on the
used similarly to supplement the temporal and stability of the instrument both with respect to
spatial resolution of more sophisticated spectral alignment and intensity.
spectrometer networks or for long-term accurate
monitoring of specific bands to detect trends in the Commercially available instruments are
radiation environment. constructed to provide measurement capabilities
from approximately 290 nm to the mid-visible
The construction of the instruments must wavelengths, depending upon the type of
be such that the radiation passes through the filter construction and configuration. The bandwidth
close to normal incidence so that wavelength of the measurements is usually between 0.5 and
shifting to shorter wavelengths is avoided. For 2.0 nm. The time required to complete a full scan
example, a 10° departure from normal incidence across the grating depends upon both the wave-
may cause a wavelength shift of 1.5 nm, depending length resolution and the total spectrum to be
on the refractive index of the filter. The effect of measured. Scan times to perform a spectral scan
temperature can also be significant in altering the across the UV region and part of the visible region
central wavelength by about 0.012 nm K–1 on very (290 to 450 nm) with small wavelength steps
narrow filters (< 1 nm). range from less than 1 min per scan with modern
fast scanning spectroradiometers to about 10 min
Maintenance for simple one-filter instruments is for some types of conventional high-quality
similar to that of the broadband instruments. For spectroradiometers.
instruments that have multiple filters in a moving
wheel assembly, maintenance will include For routine monitoring of UV radiation it is recom-
determining whether or not the filter wheel is mended that the instrument either be
properly aligned. Regular testing of the high- environmentally protected or developed in such a
voltage power supply for photomultiplier- manner that the energy incident on a receiver is
equipped instruments and checking the quality transmitted to a spectrometer housed in a control-
of the filters are also recommended. led climate. In both cases, care must be taken in the
development of optics so that uniform responsivity
is maintained down to low solar elevations.
7.6.1.3 Spectroradiometers
The most sophisticated commercial instruments The maintenance of spectroradiometers designed

are those that use either ruled or holographic for monitoring UV-B radiation requires well-trained
gratings to disperse the incident energy into a on-site operators who will care for the instruments.
spectrum. The low energy of the UV radiation It is crucial to follow the manufacturer’s mainte-
compared with that in the visible spectrum neces- nance instructions because of the complexity of
sitates a strong out-of-band rejection. This is this instrument.
achieved by using a double monochromator or
by blocking filters, which transmit only UV radia-
7.6.2 Calibration
tion, in conjunction with a single monochromator.
A photomultiplier tube is most commonly used The calibration of all sensors in the UV-B is both
to measure the output from the monochromator. very important and difficult. Guidelines on the cali-
Some less expensive instruments use photodiode bration of UV spectroradiometers and UV filter
or charge-coupled detector arrays. These instru- radiometers have been given in WMO (1996; 1999a;
ments are unable to measure energy in the 1999b; 2001) and in the relevant scientific litera-
shortest wavelengths of the UV-B radiation and ture. Unlike pyranometers, which can be traced
generally have more problems associated with back to a standard set of instruments maintained at
stray light. the WRR, these sensors must be either calibrated
against light sources or against trap detectors. The
Monitoring instruments are now available with latter, while promising in the long-term calibration
several self-checking features. Electronic tests of narrowband filter instruments, are still not read-
include checking the operation of the photomul- ily available. Therefore, the use of standard lamps
tiplier and the analogue to digital conversion. that are traceable to national standards laboratories
Tests to determine whether the optics of the remains the most common means of calibrating
sensors measuring in the UV-B. Many countries do While broadband instruments are the least expen-
not have laboratories capable of characterizing sive to purchase, they are the most difficult to
lamps in the UV. In these countries, lamps are characterize. The problems associated with these
usually traceable to the National Institute of instruments stem from: (a) the complex set of
Standards and Technology in the United States or filters used to integrate the incoming radiation
to the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt in into the erythemal signal; and (b) the fact that the
Germany. spectral nature of the atmosphere changes with air
mass and ozone amount. Even if the characteriza-
It is estimated that a 5 per cent uncertainty in spot tion of the instrument by using calibrated lamp
measurements at 300 nm can be achieved only sources is perfect, the difference between the
under the most rigorous conditions at the present measured solar spectrum and the lamp spectrum
time. The uncertainty of measurements of daily affects the uncertainty of the final measurements.
totals is about the same, using best practice. Fast The use of high-output deuterium lamps, a double
changes in cloud cover and/or cloud optical depths monochromator and careful filter selection will
at the measuring site require fast spectral scans and help in the characterization of these instruments,
small sampling time steps between subsequent but the number of laboratories capable of calibrat-
spectral scans, in order to obtain representative ing these devices is extremely limited.
daily totals of spectral UV irradiance. Measurements
of erythemal irradiance would have uncertainties Narrowband sensors are easier to characterize than
typically in the range 5 to 20 per cent, depending broadband sensors because of the smaller varia-
on a number of factors, including the quality of the tion in calibrating source intensities over the
procedures and the equipment. The sources of error smaller wavelength pass-band. Trap detectors
are discussed in the following paragraphs and could potentially be used effectively for narrow-
include: band sensors, but have been used only in research
(a) Uncertainties associated with standard lamps; projects to date. In recalibrating these instru-
(b) The stability of instruments, including the ments, whether they have a single filter or multiple
stability of the spectral filter and, in older filters, care must be taken to ensure that the spec-
instruments, temperature coefficients; tral characteristics of the filters have not shifted
(c) Cosine error effects; over time.
(d) The fact that the calibration of an instrument
varies with wavelength, and that: Spectrometer calibration is straightforward,
(i) The spectrum of a standard lamp is not assuming that the instrument has been maintained
the same as the spectrum being measured; between calibrations. Once again, it must be
(ii) The spectrum of the UV-B irradiance emphasized that the transfer from the standard
being measured varies greatly with the lamp is difficult because of the care that must be
solar zenith angle. taken in setting up the calibration (see above). The
instrument should be calibrated in the same
The use of standard lamps as calibration sources position as that in which the measurements are to
leads to large uncertainties at the shortest wave- be taken, as many spectroradiometers are adversely
lengths, even if the transfer of the calibration is affected by changes in orientation. The calibration
perfect. For example, at 350 nm the uncertainty of a spectrometer should also include testing the
associated with the standard irradiance is of the accuracy of the wavelength positioning of the
order of 1.3 per cent, when transferred to a stand- monochromator, checking for any changes in
ard lamp, another 0.7 per cent uncertainty is added. internal optical alignment and cleanliness, and an
Uncertainties in calibration decrease with increas- overall test of the electronics. Periodic testing of
ing wavelength. Consideration must also be given the out-of-band rejection, possibly by scanning a
to the set-up and handling of standard lamps. Even helium cadmium laser (λ = 325 nm), is also
variations as small as 1 per cent in the current, for advisable.
example, can lead to errors in the UV flux of 10 per
cent or more at the shortest wavelengths. Inaccurate Most filter instrument manufacturers indicate a
distance measurements between the lamp and the calibration frequency of once a year.
instrument being calibrated can also lead to errors Spectroradiometers should be calibrated at least
in the order of 1 per cent as the inverse square law twice a year and more frequently if they do not
applies to the calibration. Webb and others (1994) have the ability to perform self-checks on the
discuss various aspects of uncertainty as related to photomultiplier output or the wavelength
the use of standard lamps in the calibration of UV selection. In all cases, absolute calibrations of the
or visible spectroradiometers. instruments should be performed by qualified
technicians at the sites on a regular time schedule. based on expertise and documentation available at
The sources used for calibration must guarantee the site and on the guidelines and procedures such
that the calibration can be traced back to absolute as those published in WMO (1996; 1999a; 1999b;
radiation standards kept at certified national 2001). In addition to absolute calibrations of
metrological institutes. If the results of quality instruments, inter-comparisons between the
assurance routines applied at the sites indicate a sources used for calibration, for example, calibration
significant change in an instrument’s performance lamps, and the measuring instruments are useful
or changes of its calibration level over time, an to detect and remove inconsistencies or systematic
additional calibration may be needed in between differences between station instruments at different
two regular calibrations. All calibrations should be sites.
Annex 7.A
Nomenclature of radiometric and photometric quantities
(1) Radiometric quantities
Name Symbol Unit Relation Remarks
Radiant energy Q, (W) J=W s – –
dQ
Radiant flux Φ, (P) W Φ= Power
dt
dΦ d2Q Radiant flux of any origin crossing an

Radiant flux density (M), (E) W m–2 =
dA dA ⋅ dt area element
dΦ Radiant flux of any origin emerging

Radiant exitance M W m–2 M=
dA from an area element
dΦ Radiant flux of any origin incident

Irradiance E W m–2 E =
dA onto an area element
d 2Φ The radiance is a conservative

Radiance L W m–2 sr–1 L=
d Ω ⋅ dA ⋅ cosθ quantity in an optical system
dQ t2
Radiant exposure H J m–2 H = = ∫ E dt May be used for daily sums of global
dA t1 radiation, etc.
dΦ May be used only for radiation

Radiant intensity I W sr–1 I=
d outgoing from “point sources”
(2) Photometric quantities
Name Symbol Unit
Quantity of light Qv lm·s
Luminous flux Φv lm
Luminous exitance Mv lm m–2
Illuminance Ev lm m–2 = lx
Light exposure Hv lm m–2 s = lx·s
Luminous intensity Iv lm sr–1 = cd
Luminance Lv lm m–2 s r–1 = cdm–2
Luminous flux density (Mv ; Ev) lm m–2

(3) Optical characteristics
Characteristic Symbol Definition Remarks
Mε
Emissivity ε ε= ε = 1 for a black body
M ε =1
Φa
α= Φa and Φi are the absorbed and incident
Absorptance α Φi
radiant flux, respectively
Φr
ρ=
Reflectance ρ Φi Φr is the reflected radiant flux
Φt Φt is the radiant flux transmitted through a

Transmittance τ τ=
Φi layer or a surface
In the atmosphere, δ is defined in the

Optical depth δ τ = e−δ vertical. Optical thickness equals δ /cosΘθ,
where θ is the apparent zenith angle
Annex 7.B
meteorological radiation quantities, symbols and definitions
Quantity Symbol Relation Definitions and remarks Units
Downward radiation Φ↓ a Φ↓ = Φg↓ + Φl↓ Downward radiant flux W

Q↓ Q↓ = Qg↓ + Ql↓ “ radiant energy J (W s)
M↓ M↓ = Mg↓ + Ml↓ “ radiant exitanceb W m–2
E↓ E↓ = Eg↓ + El↓ “ irradiance W m–2
L↓ L↓ = Lg↓ + Ll↓ “ radiance W m–2 sr–1
H↓ H↓ = Hg↓ + Hl↓ “ radiant exposure for a J m–2 per
(g = global) specified time interval time interval
(l = long wave)
Upward radiation Φ↑ a Φ↑ = Φr↑ +Φl↑ Upward radiant flux W

Q↑ Q↑ = Qr↑↑ + Ql↑↑ “ radiant energy J (W s)
M↑ M↑ = Mr↑↑ + Ml↑ ↑ “ radiant exitance W m–2
E↑ E↑↑ = Er↑↑ + El↑ “ irradiance W m–2
L↑ L↑↑ = Lr↑ ↑ + Ll↑↑ “ radiance W m–2 sr–1
H↑ H↑ = Hr↑↑ + Hl↑ ↑ “ radiant energy per unit area J m–2 per
for a specified time interval time interval
Global radiation Eg↓ Eg↓ = Hemispherical irradiance on a W m–2

Ecosθ ⋅ + Ed↓ horizontal surface (θ ⋅ = apparent
solar zenith angle)c
Sky radiation: Φd↓↓ Subscript d = diffuse As for

downward diffuse Qd↓ ↓ downward
solar radiation Md↓↓ radiation
Ed↓↓
Ld↓↓
Hd↓↓
Upward/downward Φl↑, Φl↓ Subscript l = long wave. If only As for

long-wave radiation Ql↑,↑Ql↓↓ atmospheric radiation is downward
Ml↑↑, Ml↓↓ considered, the subscript a may be radiation
El↑↑, El↓↓ added, e.g. Φl,a↑ss
Hl↑↑, Hl↓↓
Reflected solar Φr↑ Subscript r = reflected As for

radiation Qr↑ (the subscript s (specular) and d downward
(diffuse) may be used, if a distinction radiation
Mr↑
Er↑ is to be made between these two
Lr↑ components)
Hr↑
Net radiation Φ* Φ* =8 Φ↓ – Φ↑ The subscript g or l is to be As for
Q* Q* =8 Q↓ – Q↑ added to each of the symbols if downward
M↑ =8 M↓ – M↑ only short-wave or long-wave net radiation
M*
E* E↑ =8 E↓ – E↑ radiation quantities are considered
L* L↑ =8 L↓ – L↑
H* H↑ =8 H↓ – H↑
Quantity Symbol Relation Definitions and remarks Units
Direct solar radiation E E = E0τ τ = atmospheric transmittance W m–2

τ v e–δ/cosθ ⋅ δ = optical depth (vertical)
Solar irradiance, normalized to

Solar constant E0 W m–2
mean sun-Earth distance
a The symbols – or + could be used instead of ↓↓ οor↑ ↑ (e.g. Φ+ ≡ Φ↑).

b Exitance is radiant flux emerging from the unit area; irradiance is radiant flux received per unit area. For flux density in general, the
symbol M or E can be used. Although not specifically recommended, the symbol F, defined as Φ/area, may also be introduced.
c In the case of inclined surfaces, θ ⋅ is the angle between the normal to the surface and the direction to the sun.
Annex 7.C
Specifications for world, regional and national radiation centres
World Radiation Centres (b) The staff of the centre should provide for
continuity and include qualified scientists
The World Radiation Centres were designated by with wide experience in radiation;
the Executive Committee at its thirtieth session (c) It shall take all steps necessary to ensure,
in 1978 through Resolution 11 (EC-XXX) to at all times, the highest possible quality of,
serve as centres for the international calibration and access to, its database;
of meteorological radiation standards within the (d) It shall be assessed by an international
global network and to maintain the standard agency or by CIMO experts, at least every five
instruments for this purpose. years.
A World Radiation Centre shall fulfil the follow-

Regional Radiation Centres
ing requirements. It shall either:
1. (a) Possess and maintain a group of at least A Regional Radiation Centre is a centre designated
three stable absolute pyrheliometers, with a by a regional association to serve as a centre for
traceable 95 per cent uncertainty of less than intraregional comparisons of radiation instru-
1 W m–2 to the World Radiometric Reference, ments within the Region and to maintain the
and in stable, clear sun conditions with direct standard instrument necessary for this purpose.
irradiances above 700 Wm–2, 95 per cent of
any single measurements of direct solar irradi- A Regional Radiation Centre shall satisfy the follow-
ance will be expected to be within 4 W m–2 ing conditions before it is designated as such and
of the irradiance. The World Radiation Centre shall continue to fulfil them after being designated:
Davos is requested to maintain the World (a) It shall possess and maintain a standard group
Standard Group for realization of the World of at least three stable pyrheliometers, with
Radiometric Reference; a traceable 95 per cent uncertainty of less
(b) It shall undertake to train specialists in than 1 W m–2 to the World Standard Group,
radiation; and in stable, clear sun conditions with
(c) The staff of the centre should provide for direct irradiances above 700 W m–2, 95 per
continuity and include qualified scientists cent of any single measurements of direct
with wide experience in radiation; solar irradiance will be expected to be within
(d) It shall take all steps necessary to ensure, 6 W m–2 of the irradiance;
at all times, the highest possible quality of its (b) One of the radiometers shall be compared
standards and testing equipment; through a WMO/CIMO sanctioned compar-
(e) It shall serve as a centre for the transfer ison, or calibrated, at least once every five
of the World Radiometric Reference to the years against the World Standard Group;
regional centres; (c) The standard radiometers shall be
(f) It shall have the necessary laboratory intercompared at least once a year to
and outdoor facilities for the simultaneous check the stability of the individual
comparison of large numbers of instruments instruments. If the mean ratio, based on at
and for data reduction; least 100 measurements, and with a 95 per
(g) It shall follow closely or initiate develop- cent, uncertainty less than 0.1 per cent,
ments leading to improved standards and/or has changed by more than 0.2 per cent,
methods in meteorological radiometry; and if the erroneous instrument cannot
(h) It shall be assessed by an international be identified, a recalibration at one of the
agency or by CIMO experts, at least every five World Radiation Centres must be performed
years, to verify traceability of the direct solar prior to further use as a standard;
radiation measurements; or (d) It shall have, or have access to, the neces-
2. (a) Provide and maintain an archive for solar sary facilities and laboratory equipment for
radiation data from all the Member States of checking and maintaining the accuracy of
WMO; the auxiliary measuring equipment;
(e) It shall provide the necessary outdoor facili- National Radiation Centres shall be responsible for
ties for simultaneous comparison of national preparing and keeping up to date all necessary
standard radiometers from the Region; technical information for the operation and main-
(f) The staff of the centre should provide for tenance of the national network of radiation
continuity and include a qualified scientist stations.
with wide experience in radiation;
(g) It shall be assessed by a national or interna- Arrangements should be made for the collection
tional agency or by CIMO experts, at least of the results of all radiation measurements taken
every five years, to verify traceability of the in the national network of radiation stations, and
direct solar radiation measurements. for the regular scrutiny of these results with a
view to ensuring their accuracy and reliability. If
this work is done by some other body, the
National Radiation Centres
National Radiation Centre shall maintain close
A National Radiation Centre is a centre desig- liaison with the body in question.
nated at the national level to serve as a centre
for the calibration, standardization and checking
List of World and Regional Radiation Centres
of the instruments used in the national network
of radiation stations and for maintaining the World Radiation Centres
national standard instrument necessary for this
Davos (Switzerland)
purpose.
St Petersburg2 (Russian Federation)
A National Radiation Centre shall satisfy the
Regional Radiation Centres
following requirements:
(a) It shall possess and maintain at least two Region I (Africa):
pyrheliometers for use as a national reference Cairo (Egypt)
for the calibration of radiation instruments in Khartoum (Sudan)
the national network of radiation stations with Kinshasa (Democratic Republic
a traceable 95 per cent uncertainty of less than of the Congo)
4 W m–2 to the regional representation of the Lagos (Nigeria)
World Radiometric Reference, and in stable, clear Tamanrasset (Algeria)
sun conditions with direct irradiances above 700 Tunis (Tunisia)
W m–2, 95 per cent of any single measurements Region II (Asia):
of direct solar irradiance will be expected to be Pune (India)
within 20 W m–2 of the irradiance; Tokyo (Japan)
(b) One of the national standard radiometers Region III (South America):
shall be compared with a regional standard at Buenos Aires (Argentina)
least once every five years; Santiago (Chile)
(c) The national standard radiometers shall Huayao (Peru)
be intercompared at least once a year to Region IV (North America, Central America and
check the stability of the individual instru- the Caribbean):
ments. If the mean ratio, based on at least Toronto (Canada)
100 measurements, and with a 95 per cent Boulder (United States)
Mexico City/Colima (Mexico)
uncertainty less than 0.2 per cent, has
Region V (South-West Pacific):
changed by more than 0.6 per cent and if
Melbourne (Australia)
the erroneous instrument cannot be identi-
Region VI (Europe):
fied, a recalibration at one of the Regional
Budapest (Hungary)
Radiation Centres must be performed prior Davos (Switzerland)
to further use as a standard; St Petersburg (Russian Federation)
(d) It shall have or, have access to, the necessary Norrköping (Sweden)
facilities and equipment for checking the Trappes/Carpentras (France)
performance of the instruments used in the Uccle (Belgium)
national network; Lindenberg (Germany)
(e) The staff of the centre should provide for
continuity and include a qualified scientist 2 Mainly operated as a World Radiation Data Centre under the
with experience in radiation. Global Atmosphere Watch Strategic Plan.
Annex 7.D
Useful formulae
General (e) ep (obliquity of the ecliptic) = 23.439

–0.000 000 4 · n (degrees).
All astronomical data can be derived from tables
in the nautical almanacs or ephemeris tables. It should be noted that the specifications indicate
However, approximate formulae are presented that all multiples of 360° should be added or
for practical use. Michalsky (1988a, b) compared subtracted until the final value falls within the
several sets of approximate formulae and found specified range.
that the best are the equations presented as
convenient approximations in the Astronomical From the above equations, the celestial coordinates
Almanac (United States Naval Observatory, 1993). can be calculated – the right ascension (ra) and the
They are reproduced here for convenience. declination (dec) – by:
tan (ra) = cos (ep) · sin (l)/cos (l)

The position of the sun
To determine the actual location of the sun, the sin (dec) = sin (ep) · sin (l)
following input values are required:
(a) Year; To convert from celestial coordinates to local coor-
(b) Day of year (for example, 1 February is dinates, that is, right ascension and declination to
day 32); azimuth (A) and altitude (a), it is convenient to use
(c) Fractional hour in universal time (UT) (for the local hour angle (h). This is calculated by first
example, hours + minute/60 + number of determining the Greenwich mean sidereal time
hours from Greenwich); (GMST, in hours) and the local mean sidereal time
(d) Latitude in degrees (north positive); (LMST, in hours):
(e) Longitude in degrees (east positive).
GMST = 6.697 375 + 0.065 709 824 2 · n + hour (UT)
To determine the Julian date (JD), the Astronomical
Almanac determines the present JD from a prime where: 0 ≤ GMST < 24h
JD set at noon 1 January 2000 UT. This JD is
2 451 545.0. The JD to be determined can be found
from: LMST = GMST + (east longitude)/(15° h–1)
JD = 2 432 916.5 + delta · 365 + leap + day + hour/24 From the LMST, the hour angle (ha) is calculated as
(ha and ra are in degrees):
where: delta = year – 1949
leap = integer portion of (delta/4) ha = LMST – 15 · ra (–12 ≤ ha < 12h)
The constant 2 432 916.5 is the JD for 0000 1 Janu- Before the sun reaches the meridian, the hour angle
ary 1949 and is simply used for convenience. is negative. Caution should be observed when using
this term, because it is opposite to what some solar
Using the above time, the ecliptic coordinates can researchers use.
be calculated according to the following steps (L, g
and l are in degrees): The calculations of the solar elevation (el) and the
(a) n = JD – 2 451 545; solar azimuth (az) follow (az and el are in degrees):
(b) L (mean longitude) = 280.460 + 0.985 647 4 ·
n (0 ≤ L < 360°); sin (el) = sin (dec) · sin (lat) + cos (dec) · cos (lat) · cos (ha)
(c) g (mean anomaly) = 357.528 + 0.985 600 3 · n
(0 ≤ g < 360°); and:
(d) l (ecliptic longitude) = L + 1.915 · sin (g) +
0.020 · sin (2g) (0 ≤ l < 360°); sin (az) = –cos (dec) · sin (ha)/cos (el)
cos(az) = (sin(dec) – sin(el) · sin(lat))/ Air mass

(cos(el) · cos(lat))
In calculations of extinction, the path length
where the azimuth is from 0° north, positive through the atmosphere, which is called the
through east. absolute optical air mass, must be known. The
relative air mass for an arbitrary atmospheric
To take into account atmospheric refraction, and constituent, m, is the ratio of the air mass along
derive the apparent solar elevation (h) or the appar- the slant path to the air mass in the vertical direc-
ent solar zenith angle, the Astronomical Almanac tion; hence, it is a normalizing factor. In a plane
proposes the following equations: parallel, non-refracting atmosphere m is equal to
1/sin h0 or 1/cos z0.
(a) A simple expression for refraction R for zenith
angles less than 75°:
Local apparent time
r = 0°.004 52 P tan z/(273 + T) The mean solar time, on which our civil time is
based, is derived from the motion of an imaginary
where z is the zenith distance in degrees; P is the body called the mean sun, which is considered as
pressure in hectopascals; and T is the tempera- moving at uniform speed in the celestial equa-
ture in °C. tor at a rate equal to the average rate of move-
ment of the true sun. The difference between this
(b) For zenith angles greater than 75° and alti- fixed time reference and the variable local appar-
tudes below 15°, the following approximate ent time is called the equation of time, Eq, which
formula is recommended: may be positive or negative depending on the
relative position of the true mean sun. Thus:
P(0.159 4 + 0.019 6 a + 0.000 02 a 2 )
r= LAT = LMT + Eq = CT + LC + Eq
[( 273 + T )(1 + 0.505a + 0.084 5a 2 )]
where LAT is the local apparent time (also known
where a is the elevation (90° – z) where h = el + r and as TST, true solar time), LMT is the local mean time;
the apparent solar zenith angle z0 = z + r. CT is the civil time (referred to a standard merid-
ian, thus also called standard time); and LC is the
longitude correction (4 min for every degree). LC is
Sun-Earth distance
positive if the local meridian is east of the standard
The present-day eccentricity of the orbit of the and vice versa.
Earth around the sun is small but significant to the
extent that the square of the sun-Earth distance R For the computation of Eq, in minutes, the follow-
and, therefore, the solar irradiance at the Earth, ing approximation may be used:
varies by 3.3 per cent from the mean. In astronomi-
cal units (AU), to an uncertainty of 10–4: Eq = 0.017 2 + 0.428 1 cos Θ0 – 7.351 5 sin Θ0 –
3.349 5 cos 2Θ0 – 9.361 9 sin 2Θ0
R = 1.000 14 – 0.016 71 · cos (g) – 0.000 14 · cos (2g)
where Θ0 = 2 πdn/365 in radians or Θ0 = 360 dn/365
where g is the mean anomaly and is defined above. in degrees, and where dn is the day number rang-
The solar eccentricity is defined as the mean ing from 0 on 1 January to 364 on 31 December
sun-Earth distance (1 AU, R ) divided by the actual for a normal year or to 365 for a leap year. The
0
sun-Earth distance squared: maximum error of this approximation is 35 s
(which is excessive for some purposes, such as air-
E0 = (R0/R)2 mass determination).
Annex 7.E
Diffuse sky radiation – correction for a shading ring
The shading ring is mounted on two rails oriented D being the unobscured sky radiation. In the figure
parallel to the Earth’s axis, in such a way that the below, an example of this correction factor is given
centre of the ring coincides with the pyranometer for both a clear and an overcast sky, compared with
during the equinox. The diameter of the ring ranges the corresponding empirical curves. It is evident
from 0.5 to 1.5 m and the ratio of the width to the that the deviations from the theoretical curves
radius b/r ranges from 0.09 to 0.35. The adjustment depend on climatological factors of the station and
of the ring to the solar declination is made by slid- should be determined experimentally by compar-
ing the ring along the rails. The length of the shading the instrument equipped with a shading ring
ing band and the height of the mounting of the with an instrument shaded by a continuously
rails relative to the pyranometer are determined traced disc. If no experimental data are available for
from the solar position during the summer solstice; the station, data computed for the overcast case
the higher the latitude, the longer the shadow band with the corresponding b/r should be used. Thus:
and the lower the rails.
Dv b
= cos3 δ (tset − trise )
Several authors, for example, Drummond (1956), D overcast r
Dehne (1980) and Le Baron, Peterson and Dirmhirn
(1980), have proposed formulae for operational ⋅ sinΦ ⋅ sin δ + cos Φ ⋅ cos δ ⋅ (sin tset − sin trise )
corrections to the sky radiation accounting for the
part not measured due to the shadow band. For a where δ is the declination of the sun; Φ is the
ring with b/r < 0.2, the radiation Dv lost during a geographic latitude; and trise and tset are the solar
day can be expressed as: hour angle for set and rise, respectively (for details,
see above).
t
set
b
Dv ≈ cos3 δ ∫ L(t ) . sin h ⋅ (t ) dt 1.15
r t rise F clear
Correction factor
where δ is the declination of the sun; t is the hour 1.10

f clear
angle of the sun; t and t are the hour angle at f overcast
rise set
sunrise and sunset, respectively, for a mathematical
horizon (Φ being the geographic latitude, t = – t 1.05
rise set
and cos t = – tan Φ . tan δ); L(t) is the sky radiance
rise
during the day; and h ⋅ is the solar elevation. F overcast
1.00
With this expression and some assumptions on the –23.5° –20° –10° 0° 10° 20° 23.5°
sky radiance, a correction factor f can be Declination
determined:
Comparison of calculated and empirically determined
1 correction factors for a shading ring, with
f =
D b/r = 0.169; f indicates calculated curves and F
1− v indicates empirical ones (after Dehne, 1980).
D
References and further reading
Bass, A.M. and R.J Paur, 1985: The ultraviolet cross- International Organization for Standardization,
sections of ozone: I. The Measurements. 1992: Solar Energy – Calibration of field pyranom-
Atmospheric Ozone (C.S. Zerefos and A. Ghazi, eters by comparison to a reference pyranometer.
eds.), Reidel, Dordrecht, pp. 606–610. ISO 9847.
Bodhaine, B.A., N.B. Wood, E.G. Dutton and International Organization for Standardization,
J.R. Slusser, 1999: On Rayleigh optical depth 1993: Solar Energy – Calibration of a pyranometer
calculations. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic using a pyrheliometer. ISO 9846.
Technology, 16, pp. 1854–1861. International Organization for Standardization,
Dehne, K., 1980: Vorschlag zur standardisierten 1995: Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in
Reduktion der Daten verschiedener nationaler Measurement, Geneva.
Himmelsstrahlungs-Messnetze. Annalen der Kerr, J.B. and T.C. McElroy, 1993: Evidence for large
Meteorologie (Neue Folge), 16, pp. 57–59. upward trends of ultraviolet-B radiation linked
Drummond, A.J., 1956: On the measurement of sky to ozone depletion. Science, 262,
radiation. Archiv für Meteorologie, Geophysik und pp. 1032–1034.
Bioklimatologie, Serie B, 7, pp. 413–436. Kuhn, M., 1972: Die spektrale Transparenz der antark-
Forgan, B.W., 1996: A new method for calibrating tischen Atmosphäre. Teil I: Meßinstrumente und
reference and field pyranometers. Journal of Rechenmethoden. Archiv für Meteorologie, Geophysik
Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology, 13, und Bioklimatologie, Serie B, 20, pp. 207–248.
pp. 638–645. Lal, M., 1972: On the evaluation of atmospheric
Fröhlich, C. and G.E. Shaw, 1980: New determina- turbidity parameters from actinometric data.
tion of Rayleigh scattering in the terrestrial Geofísica Internacional, Volume 12, Number 2,
atmosphere. Applied Optics, Volume 19, pp. 1–11.
Issue 11, pp. 1773–1775. Le Baron, B.A., W.A. Peterson and I. Dirmhirn, 1980:
Frouin, R., P.-Y. Deschamps, and P. Lecomte, 1990: Corrections for diffuse irradiance measured with
Determination from space of atmospheric total shadowbands. Solar Energy, 25, pp. 1–13.
water vapour amounts by differential absorp- Michalsky, J.J., 1988a: The astronomical almanac’s
tion near 940 nm: Theory and airborne algorithm for approximate solar position (1950–
verification. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 29, 2050). Solar Energy, Volume 40, Number 3,
pp. 448–460. pp. 227–235.
International Commission on Illumination, 1987: Michalsky, J.J., 1988b: Errata. The astronomical alma-
Methods of Characterizing Illuminance Meters and nac’s algorithm for approximate solar position
Luminance Meters. ICI-No. 69–1987. (1950–2050). Solar Energy, Volume 41, Number 1.
International Commission on Illumination, 1994: McKinlay A.F. and B.L. Diffey, 1987: A reference
Guide to Recommended Practice of Daylight action spectrum for ultraviolet induced
Measurement. ICI No. 108-1994. erythema in human skin. In: W.F. Passchier,
International Electrotechnical Commission, 1987: and B.F.M. Bosnjakovic (eds), Human Exposure
International Electrotechnical Vocabulary. to Ultraviolet Radiation: Risks and Regulations,
Chapter 845: Lighting, IEC 60050-845. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 83–87.
International Organization for Standardization, Parrish, J.A., K.F Jaenicke and R.R. Anderson, 1982:
1990a: Solar Energy – Specification and Erythema and melanogenesis action spectra of
Classification of Instruments for Measuring normal human skin. Photochemistry and
Hemispherical Solar and Direct Solar Radiation. Photobiology, 36, pp. 187–191.
ISO 9060. Rüedi, I., 2001: International Pyrheliometer Comparison
International Organization for Standardization, IPC-IX, Results and Symposium. MeteoSwiss
1990b: Solar Energy – Calibration of Field Working Report No. 197, Davos and Zurich.
Pyrheliometers by Comparison to a Reference Schneider, W., G.K. Moortgat, G.S. Tyndall and
Pyrheliometer. ISO 9059. J.P. Burrows, 1987: Absorption cross-sections of
International Organization for Standardization, NO2 in the UV and visible region (200–700 nm)
1990c: Solar Energy – Field Pyranometers – at 298 K. Journal of Photochemistry and
Recommended Practice for Use. ISO/TR 9901. Photobiology, A: Chemistry, 40, pp. 195–217.
United States Naval Observatory, 1993: The (Geneva, 10–12 March, 1993). WMO Global
Astronomical Almanac, Nautical Almanac Office, Ozone Research and Monitoring Project
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CHAPTER 7

7.1 General deviation of the population of values. Where

Corr. 1 (September 2012)

Table 7.1. Meteorological radiation instruments

Instrument Viewing angle (sr)

Absolute Direct solar radiation Primary standard 5 x 10–3

Pyrheliometer Direct solar radiation (a) Secondary standard 5 x 10–3

Spectral Direct solar radiation in broad Network 5 x 10–3

Sunphotometer Direct solar radiation in narrow (a) Standard 1 x 10–3

Pyranometer (a) Global (solar) radiation (a) Working standard 2π

Spectral Global (solar) radiation in Network 2π

Net pyranometer Net global (solar) radiation (a) Working standard 4π

Pyrgeometer (a) Upward long-wave Network 2π

Pyrradiometer Total radiation Working standard 2π

Net Net total radiation Network 4π

R order to enable climatological comparison of direct

where EN is the solar radiation, normalized to the

7.2.1 Direct solar radiation

Normally, the electrical calibration is performed by Table 7.2. Characteristics of

Table 7.4. Specification of idealized Schott glass filters

OG 530 526 ± 2 2 900 0.92 0.12

RG 630 630 ± 2 2 900 0.92 0.17

RG 700 702 ± 2 2 900 0.92 0.18

( SS(0λ()λR)2 ) − PP δ R (λ )mR − δO (λ )mO ...

7.3 Measurement of global and (c) Directional response of the instrument;

Table 7.5. Characteristics of operational pyranometers

Response time (95 per cent response) < 15 s < 30 s < 60 s

Resolution (smallest detectable change) 1 W m–2 5 W m–2 10 W m–2

Temperature response (percentage maximum error due 2 4 8

Non-linearity (percentage deviation from the 0.5 1 3

Spectral sensitivity (percentage deviation of the product 2 5 10

Tilt response (percentage deviation from the responsivity 0.5 2 5

Achievable uncertainty (95 per cent confidence level):

7.3.1.1 By reference to a standard calibration factor of the pyranometer to be cali-

In the other method, the calibration procedure uses

7.3.1.6 Routine checks on calibration factors 7.3.2.1 Sensor levelling

The long-wave flux L¯ measured by a pyrgeometer L¯ = L* +σ Ts4 + kσ (Td4 - Ts4 ) (7.16)

L¯ = L* +σ σ Ts4 (7.15) Several recent comparisons have been made using

Table 7.6. Sources of error in pyrradiometric measurements

Elements Nature of influence on pyrradiometers

Screening Spectral None (a) Spectral variations (a) Determine spectrally

Effects of Variation of Variation of the Changes due to Study the influence of

Temperature Non-linearity of the sensor as a function A temperature Study the influence of

Table 7.7. Characteristics of operational pyrradiometers

Stability (annual change; per cent of full scale) 2% 5% 10%

Cosine response error at 10° elevation 3% 7% 15%

7.5 Measurement of special Table 7.8. Photopic spectral luminous efficiency

Wavelength Photopic Wavelength Photopic

0.6 510 0.503 720 0.001 05

Diffuse sky illuminance can be measured following

7.6.1.1 Broadband sensors More recently, instruments have been developed to

The most sophisticated commercial instruments The maintenance of spectroradiometers designed

(1) Radiometric quantities

Name Symbol Unit Relation Remarks

Radiant energy Q, (W) J=W s – –

dΦ d2Q Radiant flux of any origin crossing an

dΦ Radiant flux of any origin emerging

dΦ Radiant flux of any origin incident

Luminous flux density (Mv ; Ev) lm m–2