2.

Principles of classroom assessment

(a)

Classroom assessment is defined as a systematic collection of information about

students’ abilities, characteristics, skills, understanding and knowledge developed,

administered and scored by a teacher for the purposes of evaluation (Frey, 2014).

Additionally, classroom assessment include a variety of options, from recording anecdotal

notes while observing a student to administering tests. There are nine principles of classroom

assessment or test construction. However, every assessment instrument such as tests must

possess two important critical attributes or characteristics: validity and reliability (Okpala,

Onocha & Oyedeji, 1993).

Validity

The most important factor in classroom assessment or test construction is to ensure that

the assessment created allows the teacher to make appropriate inferences regarding a child’s

performance in a content area (Shillingbury, 2016). This requires that the teacher begins with

“a clear statement of the purposed interpretation and uses” (Kane, 2006, p.23). Validity refers

to the appropriateness, meaningfulness and usefulness of any inference made from a test

score (American Psychological Association, American Educational Research and National

Council on Measurement in Education, 1985). In other words, validity is the quality of a test

which measures what it is supposed to measure. It is the degree to which evidence, common

sense or theory supports any interpretation or conclusions about a student’s performance

based on his or her test performance. In the simplest terms a test can be judged valid if it

measures what it is intended to measure (Hathcoat, 2013).

It is important to understand that internal and external factors play a significant role on

the validity of an assessment. A student’s reading ability can have an impact on the validity
of an assessment. Vocabulary and sentence structures that do not match the level of the

students will result in the test measuring reading comprehension or intelligence rather than

what I intends to measure (Asaad, 2004). The testing environment is another factor that can

have an impact upon validity of assessment. If the testing environment is distracting or noisy

or test-taker is unhealthy, he or she will have a difficult time remaining consistent throughout

the testing process (Griswold, 1990). Even though actions ought to be taken to ensure that the

testing environment is comfortable, adequately lit with limited interruptions (Griswold,

1990). These factors are external to the test itself.

Reliability

In test construction, reliability refers to the confidence you have that the test score earned

is a good representation of a child’s actual knowledge of the content. Reliability is a measure

of how stable, dependable, trustworthy and consistent a test is in measuring the same thing

each time (Worthen, Borg & White, 1993). The length or number of items is a crucial factor

of test reliability. Carefully written tests with an adequate number of items usually produce

high reliability (Justin & John, 1996) since they usually provide a representative sample of

the behaviour being measured and the scores are apt to be less distorted by chance factors, for

example, familiarity with a given item or misunderstanding of what is expected from the item

(Linn & Gronlund, 1995). Additionally, asking only two questions on a test that covers

content for an entire term is not likely to produce reliable results (Guiding Principles for

Classroom Assessment, 2015).

(b)

A teacher- made end of term assessment for form 2 will be critiqued. It comprises two

sections: Section A, ten multiple choice questions, Section B one fill in the blanks question

and six open response questions. There are three factors that can affect the validity and
reliability of teacher-made tests: the test-taker, the environment and the test (Kinyua &

Okunya, 2014). However, no matter the characteristics of the test-taker and the environment,

the quality of the test itself has a significant effect on validity and reliability. As I reflect upon

this test I realize that it is relatively long when compared to a period, which is 40 minutes in

duration. Long tests do three to help maintain validity: firstly, they increase the amount of

content that the student must address ensuring a more accurate picture of student knowledge.

Secondly, long tests counteract the effects of faulty items by providing a greater number of

better items. Thirdly, long tests reduce the impact of student guessing.

This test was generally designed to measure knowledge and this is evident by the type of

questions (multiple choice, fill in the blanks and short answer) and the verbs used throughout

the questions (give and state). As a teacher who is aware of Bloom’s Taxonomy instead of

basic, lower levels of understanding (at remembering and understanding level) higher levels

of understanding (applying and analyzing) as evident by the verbs, apply and analyze should

have been incorporated in this test. Bloom’s Taxonomy in test item construction that address

various cognitive levels will affect the validity and reliability of a test.

In the multiple choice section of the test there should have been an altering pattern of

answers or keys in arranging test items to be of a good level of validity. Items should be

arranged in such a way that the students will not identify the pattern of answers. For instance,

in the multiple choice the answers given were 1 A, 2 B, and 3 C, students may identify this

pattern and use this to the last items. This leads to guessing which lowers the validity of the

test results. If the pattern is altered across the test length, only students who know the answers

to the items will attempt it and those who do not know it will fail the items. This is a

systematic way of improving validity of the test.

 Although the duration of the test was long, the length or number of items in the multiple

choice section was short, just ten questions. A test is supposed to appropriately represent the

subject matter content and behavioural objectives. If the test is short, there is a tendency of

not adequately covering the content and objectives thereby sacrificing the validity of the test

(content validity). When the test items are many that is, making the length of the test long,

there is the high possibility of capturing all important content and objectives. For instance,

this multiple choice test item for a form 2 class meant for certification of students after three

years (National Certification of Secondary Education) ought to have forty multiple choice

questions. Also, the length or number of items in the multiple choice section is a crucial

factor of test reliability. Carefully written tests with an adequate number of items usually

produce high reliability (Justin & John, 1996) since they usually provide a representative

sample of the objectives being measured and the scores are apt to be less distorted by chance

factors such as familiarity with a given item or misunderstanding of what is expected from an

item (Linn & Gronlund, 1995).

To improve the validity and reliability of this test I should have constructed a table of

specifications. A report by Newall (2002) asserts that teacher-made tests such as the one I

constructed usually measure only a limited part of the subject area, they do not cover a broad

range of abilities and they rely too heavily on memorized facts. To guard against any

fortuitous imbalances and disproportionate item distribution, a table of specification needs to

be constructed to target cognitive objectives as per Bloom’s Taxonomy before any items are

prepared. Such specifications should begin with an outline of both the instructional objectives

of the subject matter to be covered and cognitive skills measured. The time and effort

expended to develop a table of specifications can ensure that the test is valid and reliable.

Also, teachers require training in test construction to ensure that tests are valid and reliable.
As a teacher I am confident of my ability to produce a valid and reliable test, however, this

critique has proven otherwise.

Name: ___________________________________________ Class: __________

Valencia Secondary School

End of Term 3 Examination 2012
Social-Studies
Duration: 1 ½ hrs
Form 2

Instructions:
This paper consists of TWO sections:

Section A: Multiple Choice

 Answer ALL questions in this section

 Read each question carefully then circle the BEST choice (A,B,C, or D)

Section B: Structured Questions

 There are six (6) questions in this section. You are to answer ALL the questions

in this section

DO NOT TURN THIS PAGE UNTIL YOU ARE TOLD TO DO SO.

 SECTION A: MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. Which of the following is most likely to be self-employed

A. a hairdresser
B. a customer service representative
C. an oil drill operator
D. a secondary school principal

2. One advantage of self-employment is that a person can

A. receive a large salary
B. decide their own working hours
C. make a loss
D. get paid when they are sick

3. Which of the following is an example of a quaternary industry?

A. Banking
B. Manufacturing
C. Scientific research
D. Electricity supply

4. The photograph above shows an example of which sector of industry?

A. Primary
B. Secondary
C. Tertiary
D. Quaternary
5. Saving for a rainy day is an example of what kind of action?
A. Transactional
B. Speculative
C. Precautionary
D. Budgeting

6. Look at the photograph above. How might patriotic students BEST respond to this
scene in their environment?
A. Reporting it to the regional corporation
B. Organizing a community beach clean up
C. Writing to the newspaper
D. Keeping away from the beach

7. Through which Caribbean event can artists of all kinds showcase their talents?
A. CARICOM
B. CARIFTA
C. CARIFESTA
D. CSME

8. Which of the following is NOT a common national emblem in the Caribbean?

A. A flag
B. A coat of arms
C. A vegetable
D. A bird
 9. Christiana is a University graduate in Civil Engineering. She is employed as a
labourer with CEPEP”. Which term best describes her position?

A. Over employed
B. Unemployed
C. Employed
D. Underemployed

Question 10 is based on the pie chart below.

Family Budget
Transportation

Loan
Utility Bills

Savings Food

Education

10. The pie chart above represents a family budget. If mummy gets sick, which part of the
budget will she use money from to pay her medical bills?
A. Food
B. Education
C. Savings
D. Transportation

10 MARKS
 SECTION B
Match the terms below with their definitions by writing the corresponding letter for each definition.

a. Salary ____ an occupation that a person undertakes for a

substantial period of time.

b. Work ethics ____ a situation in the labour force where a person is

capable and willing to work but has not found a
job.

c. Underemployment ____ all the persons of a country who are able to work
viewed collectively.

d. Career ____ a person who has been hired for a position

without a pre-determined time limit.

e. Labour force ____a belief in the moral benefit and importance of

hard work.

f. Quaternary ____ work which requires no special training or

experience for performing the work adequately.

g. Unemployment ____ a fixed regular payment made by an employer to

an employee, typically paid on a monthly basis.

h. National identity ____ occurs when a person has a temporary job or works
part-time or accepts a job for which they are
overqualified.

i. Unskilled ____ the portion of the workforce comprised of highly

skilled individuals who are proficient in information
services or fields based on knowledge.

j. Permanent ____ this is one’s identity or sense of belonging to their

nation or country.

10 marks
 Earning a Living

1. The table below identifies various ways persons earn a living. For each classification of
careers identified in the table give two examples of each.

Managers Professionals Technicians Skilled

1. 1. 1. 1.

2. 2. 2. 2.

8 marks

2. (a) Differentiate between a primary and secondary labour force.

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________
4 marks

(b) Give TWO examples of each classification of the labour force identified below.

Primary ___________________, ___________________

Secondary ___________________, ___________________

Tertiary ___________________, ____________________

Quaternary ___________________, ___________________

8 marks
 Financial Responsibility

3. (a) State the difference between a need and a want.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4 marks

(b) Give THREE reasons for saving.

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________
6 marks

(c) What are TWO problems that may make it difficult for someone to save?

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________
4 marks
4. (a) Explain THREE importance of having a budget.

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________
6 marks

(b) State TWO ways in which individuals and their families can manage their income.

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________
2 marks

5. (a) Give TWO reasons why it is important to have a national identity.

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________
4 marks

(b) Maria wants to encourage her friends to show appreciation for their national and
Caribbean identity. What are two actions Maria can suggests they adopt?

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

4 marks
(c) Complete the table below by identifying THREE Caribbean personalities, the country
they are from and the field they contributed to.

Caribbean Personality Country Field

9 marks

(d) Choose ONE of the Caribbean personalities identified above and explain their
contribution to their respective field.

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________
4 marks

(e) State TWO ways the contributions of Caribbean personalities help to build a

Caribbean Identity.

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________
4 marks
 Groups in Society

6. (a) Explain TWO reasons why groups exist.

_______________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________
4 marks

(b) Differentiate between a primary and secondary group.

_______________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________
6 marks

(c) Complete the table below by identifying the THREE characteristics of a formal group
and THREE characteristics of an informal group.

Characteristics of a Formal Group Characteristic of an Informal Group

1. 1.

2. 2.

3. 3.

6 marks
(d) Give TWO examples of each type of group identified below.

PRIMARY ________________________, _________________________

SECONDARY ________________________, _________________________

FORMAL ________________________, _________________________

INFORMAL ________________________, _________________________

8 marks

End of Test