L5. Earth Environment2
L5. Earth Environment2
Prepared by
Husam Al-Najar
1
Earth Living Skin:
• The complexity of the soil is driven by two components: Abiotic
soil architecture and biotic diversity.
Abiotic factors: in an environment include such items as
sunlight, temperature, wind patterns, and precipitation.
The biotic factors: in an environment include the organisms
themselves as well as such items as predation االفتراس, competition
for food resources, and symbiotic التكافليةrelationships
Beneath the soil layer is the subsurface that includes the
unsaturated or vadose zone, and the saturated zone including
aquifer.
The subsurface contains microorganisms, but microbial
communities are lower than in the surface soil.
2
Cross section of the subsurface
1. Soil
2. Vadose Zone
3. Saturated Zone (fringe water)
4. Saturated Zone (aqifer)
• Shallow Table aquifer
• Intermediate aquifer
• Deep aquifer
5. Saturated Zone (Wetlands)
3
Ground water flow system- Unconfined
Unsaturated zone
Bedrock
4
Saturated Zone- Aquifers
5
Soil Formation and Composition
The first thing we learn about hydrology is that water moves downhill.
Hydric soils are most often found in depressions, along drainage ways,
and on level or concave slopes
7
The effect of topography
8
Soil is frequently less than one meter thick, making it as thin
and fragile as an egg shell. 50% of it are pore spaces (which are
filled with either air or water), 45% minerals (Si, Fe, Al, Ca, K, Mg,
Na) and 5% organic matter.
9
Soil Architecture
Spaces between aggregates are
called inter-aggregate pores
10
Bacteria, and viruses size is larger than the fine pore canals in the soil
11
Soil Architecture: Usually, microbial gums, polysaccharides and other
secondary metabolites can bind soil particles together to form
aggregates,
12
Soil Texture: The relative proportions of sand, silt and clay particles
in a mass of soil (material less than 2 mm in size)
13
Soil profile
14
O horizons: are soil layers with a high percentage of organic matter
15
Various soil profiles
16
Importance of CEC
• Chemical behavior in soils
• Fertility
• Pesticides
• Contaminants 17
Principles of Ionic Exchange
19
Soil Organic Matter
20
Soil Organic matter encompasses all organic components of a soil
21
Decomposition
Organic Residue
humification
Humus
22
• Soil quality is the capacity of soils within landscapes to sustain biological
productivity, maintain environmental quality, and promote plant and
animal health.
• Protecting soil quality like protecting air quality and water quality
should be fundamental goal of our Nation’s Environmental Policy
23
Soil Atmosphere
Soil and atmosphere are in direct contact, therefore the soil atmosphere
has basic composition as air: nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Plant and microbial activity can affect the relative proportion of oxygen and
carbon dioxide in soils that are not well aerated.
24
Soil as A microbial Environment
25
Abiotic Stresses: Including the physical and chemical
characteristics of the environment.
Light: Phototrophic microorganisms are limited to the top few centimeters
of soil.
Soil Moisture: The availability of water is critical for microbial activity.
Fungi are most desiccation resistant followed by actinomycetes and
bacteria.
Soil Temperature:
• Heat stress: Denaturing of enzymes
• Cold stress
– Decrease in fluidity of cellular membranes
– Ice nucleation
26
27
28
Soil Structure and role of microorganisms:
30
Microorganisms in surface soils
Bacteria:
• Are the most abundant organisms in the surface soil in terms of number
• Cultural bacteria can be 107 to 108 cells per gram soil
• The total population including non-cultrable) can exceed 1010 cells per gram soil.
• Diversity is indicated by the number of Operational Taxonomy Units (OTUs)
• each OUT represents a different bacterial population in the community.
• Diversity ranging up to 6300 OTUs per gram soil.
Actinomycetes
• are procaryotic organisms that are classified as bacteria
• unique enough to be discussed as individual group.
• can tolerate high pH, high temperature, or water stress.
• Morphologically, resemble fungi because of their elongate cells that branch into
filaments or hyphae.
• They are able to utilize great variety of substrates found in the soil. 31
Dominant Culturable Soil bacteria
32
Fungi:
• Number of fungi usually range from 105 to 106 per gram soil
• Despite their lower number compared to bacteria, fungi contribute to higher
proportion of biomass in the soil.
• yeast are found at population up to 103 per gram of soil.
• Fungal population are greatest in the surface O and A horizon and numbers
decrease rabidly with increasing soil depth.
• Soil fungal are normally found associated with soil particles or within plant
rhizospheres.
• Fungi are important components of soil with respect to nutrient cycling and
decomposition of organic matter.
• Fungi is important in development of soil structure because they physically entrap
soil particles with fungal hyphae.
• Fungi can degrade a Varity of pollutant molecules, white-red fungus
phanerochaete chrysosporium is the best known example.
• Finally, mycorrhizal fungi are critical for establishing plant-fungal interactions that
acts as extension of the root system of almost all higher plants.
33
Algae:
• Algal cells predominantly in areas where sunlight penetrate, the very surface of soil.
• Algae can found to 1 m depth because some algae, can grow heterotrophically as well
as photoautrophically.
• Typical algal populations close to the soil surface can range from 5000 to 10,000 per
gram soil, but where a visible algal bloom has developed there can be millions of algal
cells per gram of soil.
• Algae is important in establishing soil formation process, especially in volcanic area,
desert soils and rock faces.
• Algal metabolism is critical to soil formation in two ways:
1. Algae provide a carbon input through photosynthesis, and as they metabolize, they
produce and release carbonic acid, which weathering the surrounding mineral
particles.
2. Algae produce large amounts of extracellular polysaccharides, which cause the
aggregation of soil particles.
• In soils the relative abundance of the major algal groups are green algae> diatoms>
cyanobacteria> yellow-green algae.
• In tropical soils the cyanobacteria predominate
34
Protozoa:
• Most of protozoa are heterotrophic and survive by consuming bacteria,
yeast, fungi and algae.
• Protozoa are found mainly in the top 15 to 20 cm of the soil.
• Protozoa are usually concentrated near root surfaces that have high
densities of bacteria
• Soil protozoa are flatter and move flexible than aquatic protozoa, which
makes it easier to move around in the thin films of water that surround soil
particle surface.
• Number of protozoa range from 30,000 per gram soil from a
nonagricultural soil to 350,000 per gram soil from maize field.
36
In surface soils, microbial distribution is also dependent on soil texture and
structure.
Although the factors that govern whether a given site is favorable for
colonization are not completely understood, several possible factors have
been identified that may play a role, including nutrient availability and
surface properties.
37
Pore space also controls water content to some extent.
Larger pores drain more quickly than smaller pores, and therefore the
interior of a small pore is generally wetter and more conducive to microbial
activity.
It has further been suggested that gram-negative bacteria prefer the interior
of microaggregate pore space because of the increased moisture, whereas
gram-positive bacteria, which are better adapted to withstand dry
conditions, tend to occupy the microaggregate exteriors
38
It must be emphasized that, although microbes are present in deep vadose zones,
rates of metabolic activity is much lower than rates in the surface soils.
In the figure, compares metabolic activity in a range of surface and subsurface
environment. Metabolic activity is expressed as the rate of CO2 production.
39
Samples taken from deep cores have
shown that:
• There are lower numbers and a
more limited diversity of
microorganisms in deep saturated
zones than in the surface soils.
• The types of organisms detected
included wide range of aerobic, and
facultative anaerobic
chemoheterotrophs, denitrifies,
methanogens, sulfate reducers,
sulfate oxidizers, nitrifies and
nitrogen fixing bacteria.
40