PERCEPTION

Different people often see the same phenomenon differently. When people
exchange their roles, they begin to see things differently. In order to
understand the significance of this phenomenon one needs to look at the
several processes involved in perception.

Perception can be defined as the process of receiving, selecting,

organizing, interpreting, checking, and reacting to sensory stimuli or
data.

Process of Perception

Stage The Process of The first process of perception is the reception

1 Receiving Stimuli of stimuli or data from various sources. Most
data is received through the five sense Organs.
One sees things, hears them, smells or tastes
things, or touches them, and so learns about
the various aspects of things. Eg. A supervisor
may become aware of some trouble from
smelling something strange.

Stage The Process of After receiving the stimuli or data, only some
2 Selecting Stimuli are selected for our attention. It is not possible
to pay attention to all the stimuli received.
Two sets of factors govern the selection of
stimuli

External :

a) Intensity- stimuli which are higher in

intensity are perceived more readily eg.
during a strike, workers attract the
attention of managers shouting slogans.
 b) Size- larger objects attract more
attention eg. many companies use this
factor by packaging their products to
make them look larger.
c) Contrast- things which differ from familiar
attract attention eg. a worker who is
different from others stands out.
d) Movement- things in motion attract
attention eg. advertisements.
e) Repetition- things which are repetitive
attract attention eg. advertisements are
repeated many times.
f) Familiarity -Things which are familiar
attract attention eg. in a foreign country
attention is caught by a familiar face
from one’s own country.
g) Novelty -things which are new also
attract attention eg. when a worker
notices a new sound in a machine he
immediately understands something may
be wrong with it.

Internal: internal factors are as important as

the external, these relate to one’s self

a) Psychological need- Sometimes even things

which do not exist are ‘seen’ because of a
psychological need. For example a person
who has a high need for establishing good
relationships with others may identify
those who are friendly and may be
attracted to such people.
b) Background- people from a particular
background look for people from a similar
background.
c) Experience- a person looks for people,
objects and phenomena similar to his prior
 experience eg. if a person has bad
experience working with certain type of
people he will try to avoid them in
future.
d) Personality- Various factors in the
personality, like general attitudes and
beliefs, influence selection in perception.
also influence perception eg. an introvert
may be attracted to people either similar
to or quite dissimilar to him or her.
Things which conform to our individual
beliefs and attitudes attract attention.
e) Self Acceptance- studies have shown that
those who have high self acceptance
perceive things more accurately then those
with low self acceptance.

Stage3 The Organizing After the data or stimuli have been received,
Process these are organised in some form to make sense.
There are three main dimensions to the
organization of stimuli:

Grouping: stimuli received are grouped together

according to certain factors some of which are:

a) Similarity- similar stimuli are grouped

together for eg. all workers are perceived
in the same category by managers.
b) Proximity- objects which are closed to
each other are grouped together.
c) Closure- There is a tendency in all of us
to complete incomplete things. This
tendency is reflected in our perception of
things which do not exist but are created
in order to complete a particular
phenomenon which otherwise seems
incomplete.
 Figure-Ground: according to this principle we
have a tendency to keep certain stimuli or
phenomena in focus and others in the
background. The perception will change if certain
stimuli are changed from figure to ground. Those
stimuli which are ground do not hold our
immediate attention.

Perceptual Constancy: There is a tendency to

stabilize perceptions so that contextual changes
do not affect them. In the organizational
context, perceptual constancy helps a manager
perceive similar problems from the same
perspective, even if the context changes.
Constancy helps in accuracy of perception in this
case.

Stage The Process Of Once the data is received and organised by the
4 Interpreting perceiver he interprets it in many ways. Various
factors contribute to this interpretation:

The Perceptual Set: previously held beliefs

pertinent to the perception can influence
individual perception. These general opinions or
attitudes a person has constitute the perceptual
set eg. a manager may have a perceptual set
that workers are lazy and want to get all
advantage from the organization without giving
their best. In such a case his subsequent
perceptions will e influenced by this set.

Stereotyping: when people form opinions about a

particular class of objects or persons and act
according to such opinions, it is called
stereotyping. These can lead to prejudices.

The Halo Effect: in the halo effect the person

develops an opinion or attitude towards a single
person or object. I someone has a favourable
attitude towards a person; his subsequent
perceptions of the same person are influenced by
this attitude.

Perceptual Defence: used by the perceiver to

deal with conflicting messages. If the data a
person receives threatens beliefs already held,
the recipient uses perceptual defence to either
deny the information or data received, modify
the data to suit beliefs or justify for holding his
own beliefs.

Contextual Factors: Several contextual

dimensions influence the interpretation of
stimuli or perceptual data. The following factors
are worth considering:

a) The interpersonal context- The

relationship between the perceiver and
others present in a given situation
influences interpretation of the cues
received. Studies have shown that when
an interpersonal relationship is congenial,
people perceive others as being similar to
them and thus the grouping of their
perceptions will be more conducive to the
objectives of the organization.
b) The other person’s background- Familiar
people and strangers have different
influences on an individual’s perceptions.
Information given by strangers has higher
credibility. People tended to perceive such
information more favourably.
c) The organizational context- the climate of
an organization or a department has great
significance for the perception of various
phenomena by people working there. If
the climate is congenial, the perceptions
 are likely to be more favourable.

Stage The Process of After data has been received and interpreted
5 Checking the perceiver takes steps to check whether his
or her interpretations are right or wrong. Data
or impressions may be checked by the perceiver
himself or by asking other people about their
perceptions for example, a manager who has
perceived a certain characteristic in a
subordinate on a few occasions may check with
other managers who worked with that
subordinate previously to find out whether this
perception is endorsed by others as well. By
encouraging such feedback from the source of
the communication itself, the perceiver may
slowly increase the accuracy of his or her
perceptions.

Stage The Process of The cycle of perception is not complete unless it

6 Reacting leads to some action. The action may be covert
or overt. Covert action implies the formation of
opinions or attitudes, and overt action is a
definite action in response to the perception.
One important phenomenon which is a result of
covert action is ‘impression formation’.
Impression formation refers to the way a
perceiver forms an impression about an object or
a person on the basis of characteristics he or
she perceives or data he or she receives from
various sources.

limitations in the formation of accurate

impressions are:

a) Surroundings- An impression is likely to be

affected by the type of situation or
surroundings in which the impression is
made, rather than by the person who
 makes the impression. For example, if
someone is seen in an undesirable
surrounding, the impression formed about
that person is likely to be low.
b) Generalizations- Although impressions may
be based on limited cues or data, sweeping
generalizations may be made from the
same. This usually happens when a person
already has some stereotypes and mental
sets.
c) Situational Limitations- a situation may
not provide adequate opportunity for a
person to show the behaviours critical to
the formation of a certain impression. For
example in an interview the interviewee
may not be able to show how much
commitment he or she is capable of having
towards goals.
d) Preconceived Notions- An impression may
be determined by the prejudices or
individual reactions of the perceiver. The
mental set, stereotypes and halo effect in
particular may influence a person’s
perception.
 . MOTIVATION
Motivation can be defined the processes that account for an
individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward
attaining a goal.

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic needs A simple way to classify 'needs' is to

put them in two categories: internal and external. The Intrinsic needs
are derived from internal source within an individual or task (These have
also been called an individual's interests or the nature of the job).
Extrinsic needs or motives are external, tangible, and satisfied by others
(money or a regular salary).

Hierarchy of needs theory

The best-known theory of motivation is Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs, which hypothesizes that within
every human being there is a hierarchy
of five needs these are:

1. Physiological- Includes hunger,

thirst, shelter, sex, and other
bodily needs.
2. Safety- security- Security and protection from physical and
emotional harm.
 3. Social-belongingness- Affection, belongingness, acceptance, and
friendship.
4. Esteem- Internal factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and
achievement, and external factors such as status, recognition, and
attention.
5. Self-actualization- Drive to become what we are capable of
becoming; includes growth, achieving our potential, and self-
fulfillment.

According to Maslow, as each need becomes substantially satisfied, the

next one becomes dominant. So if you want to motivate someone, you
need to understand what level of the hierarchy that person is currently
on and focus on satisfying needs at or above that level.

Two-Factor theory/ Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Herzberg proposed the two-factor theory. He classified the various needs he
found into terms of what he called hygiene factors (factors which may
prevent dissatisfaction) and motivators (factors which may provide
satisfaction). According to Herzberg, preventing or reducing dissatisfaction in
the work situation is not the same as providing positive satisfaction. These
two are qualitatively different aspects of work motivation. According to him,
motivation can be provided only if motivators are used in the work situation
in addition to hygiene factors.

Hygiene Factors Motivation Factors

Salary, Working condition, Company Advancement, Development,
Condition, Supervision, Work Group. Responsibility, Recognition,
Achievement, Work itself

McClelland’s Theory of Needs

This theory developed by David McClelland and his associates states that
achievement, power, and affiliation are three important needs that help
explain motivation. These needs are more like motivating factors than strict
needs for survival.
  Need for achievement (nAch) is the drive to excel, to achieve in
relationship to a set of standards.

 Need for power (nPow) is the need to make others behave in a way
they would not have otherwise.

 Need for affiliation (nAff ) is the desire for friendly and close
interpersonal relationships.

As per McClelland research high achievers perform best when they perceive
their probability of success as 0.5—that is, a 50–50 chance. They dislike
gambling with high odds because they get no achievement satisfaction from
success that comes by pure chance. Similarly, they dislike low odds (high
probability of success) because then there is no challenge to their skills. They
like to set goals that require stretching themselves a little. Needs for
affiliation and power tend to be closely related to managerial success. The
best managers may be high in their need for power and low in their need for
affiliation.

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

The theory says that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way
depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a
given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.
The theory, therefore, focuses on three relationships:

1. Effort–performance relationship. The probability perceived by the

individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to
performance.

2. Performance–reward relationship. The degree to which the individual

believes performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of
a desired outcome.

3. Rewards–personal goals relationship. The degree to which organizational

rewards satisfy an individual’s personal goals or needs and the
attractiveness of those potential rewards for the individual.

Equity Theory/Organizational Justice

A theory that says that individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes
with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities. Based on
equity theory, employees who perceive inequity will make one of six choices:

1. Change inputs (exert less effort if underpaid or more if overpaid).

2. Change outcomes (individuals paid on a piece-rate basis can increase

their pay by producing a higher quantity of units of lower quality).

3. Distort perceptions of self (“I used to think I worked at a moderate

pace, but now I realize I work a lot harder than everyone else”).

4. Distort perceptions of others (“Mike’s job isn’t as desirable as I

thought”).

5. Choose a different referent (“I may not make as much as my brother-

in-law, but I’m doing a lot better than my Dad did when he was my
age”).

6. Leave the field (quit the job).

Goal Setting Theory

A theory that says that specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to
higher performance. Three personal factors influence the goals–performance
relationship:

1. Goal Commitment the theory assumes an individual is committed to the

goal and determined not to lower or abandon it. The individual (1)
believes he or she can achieve the goal and (2) wants to achieve it.
Goal commitment is most likely to occur when goals are self-set rather
than assigned, and when they are based at least partially on individual
ability.

2. Task Characteristics goals seem to affect performance more strongly

when tasks are simple rather than complex, well learned rather than
novel, independent rather than interdependent, and on the high end of
achievable.

3. National Culture setting specific, difficult, individual goals may have

different effects in different cultures. In collectivistic and high-power-
distance cultures, achievable moderate goals can be more motivating
 than difficult ones. Assigned goals appear to generate greater goal
commitment in high than in low power-distance cultures.

Self-Efficacy Theory
Self-efficacy theory, also known as social cognitive theory or social learning
theory refers to an individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing
a task. The higher your self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your
ability to succeed. So, in difficult situations, people with low self-efficacy are
more likely to lessen their effort or give up altogether, while those with high
self-efficacy will try harder to master the challenge

Reinforcement Theory
Theory that says that behaviour is a function of its consequences. what
controls behaviour are reinforcers—any consequences that, when they
immediately follow responses, increase the probability that the behaviour will
be repeated. Reinforcement theory ignores the inner state of the individual
and concentrates solely on what happens when he or she takes some action.
Because it does not concern itself with what initiates behaviour, it is not,
strictly speaking, a theory of motivation.

Self Determination Theory

Proposes that people prefer to feel they have control over their actions, so
anything that makes a previously enjoyed task feel more like an obligation
than a freely chosen activity will undermine motivation.

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

A version of self-determination theory that holds that allocating extrinsic
rewards for behaviour that had been previously intrinsically rewarding tends to
decrease the overall level of motivation if the rewards are seen as controlling.

Motives in Organizational Behaviour

From the motivation point of view, there are six main needs or motives
relevant for understanding the dynamics of people's behaviour in organizations.
These are:
1. The achievement motive: This is characterized by a concern for
excellence, a tendency to compete with standards of excellence set by
others or by the self, the setting of challenging goals for oneself.

2. The affiliation motive: This is characterized by a concern for establishing

and maintaining close personal relationships, considerable value for
friendship, and a tendency to express one's emotions.

3. The influence motive: This is characterized by a concern for making an

impact on others, a desire to make people do what one thinks is right.

4. The control motive: This is characterized by a concern for orderliness

and an urge to monitor a situation and take corrective action if
needed.

5. The extension motive: This is characterized by a concern for others, a

need to be relevant and useful to larger groups, including society as a
whole.

6. The dependency motive: This is characterized by a concern for self-

development with others' help, checking ideas or proposed actions with
significant others (those more knowledgeable or having higher status).