Two-dimensional

materials

2D Materials, sometimes referred to as

single layer materials, are crystalline
materials consisting of a single layer of
atoms. Since the isolation of graphene, a
single layer of graphite, in 2004, a large
amount of research has been directed at
isolating other 2D materials due to their
unusual characteristics and for use in
applications such as photovoltaics,
semiconductors, electrodes and water
purification.

2D materials can generally be

categorised as either 2D allotropes of
various elements or compounds
(consisting of two or more covalently
bonding elements).[1] The elemental 2D
materials generally carry the -ene suffix
in their names while the compounds
have -ane or -ide suffixes. Layered
combinations of different 2D materials
are generally called van der Waals
heterostructures. However, the efficient
integration of 2D functional layers with
three-dimensional (3D) systems remains
a significant challenge, limiting device
performance and circuit design.[2]

While the first 2D material to be

discovered was graphene, in 2004, about
700 2D materials have been predicted to
be stable and many remain to be
synthesized.[3][4] The global market for
2D materials is expected to reach
US$390 million by 2025, mostly for
graphene in the semiconductor,
electronics, battery energy, and
composites markets.[5][6]

2D allotropes
Graphene
Graphene is an atomic-scale honeycomb lattice of
carbon atoms.

Graphene is a crystalline allotrope of

carbon in the form of a nearly
transparent (to visible light) one atom
thick sheet. It is hundreds of times
stronger than most steels by weight.[7] It
has the highest known thermal and
electrical conductivity, displaying current
densities 1,000,000 times that of
copper.[8] It was first produced in 2004.[9]
Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov
won the 2010 Nobel Prize in Physics "for
groundbreaking experiments regarding
the two-dimensional material graphene".
They first produced it by lifting graphene
flakes from bulk graphite with adhesive
tape and then transferring them onto a
silicon wafer.[10]

Graphyne

Graphyne is another 2-dimensional

carbon allotrope whose structure is
similar to graphene's. It can be seen as a
lattice of benzene rings connected by
acetylene bonds. Depending on the
content of the acetylene groups,
graphyne can be considered a mixed
hybridization, spn, where 1 < n < 2,[11][12]
and versus graphene's (pure sp2) and
diamond (pure sp3).

First-principle calculations using phonon

dispersion curves and ab-initio finite
temperature, quantum mechanical
molecular dynamics simulations showed
graphyne and its boron nitride analogues
to be stable.[13]

The existence of graphyne was

conjectured before 1960.[14] It has not yet
been synthesized. However, graphdiyne
(graphyne with diacetylene groups) was
synthesized on copper substrates.[15]
Recently it has been claimed to be a
competitor for graphene, due to the
potential of direction-dependent Dirac
cones.[16][17]

Borophene

B36° borophene, front and side view

Borophene is a proposed crystalline

allotrope of boron. One unit consists of
36 atoms arranged in a 2-dimensional
sheet with a hexagonal hole in the
middle.[18][19] Borophene has also been
synthesized, but with a different crystal
structure.[20]

Germanene

Germanene is a two-dimensional
allotrope of germanium, with a buckled
honeycomb structure.[21] Experimentally
synthesized germanene exhibits a
honeycomb structure. This honeycomb
structure consists of two hexagonal sub-
lattices that are vertically displaced by
0.2 A from each other.[22]

Silicene
Structure of a typical silicene cluster showing ripples

across the surface.

Silicene is a two-dimensional allotrope of

silicon, with a hexagonal honeycomb
structure similar to that of graphene.

Si2BN

In 2016 researchers predicted a 2d

hexagonal, metallic allotrope of Si2BN
with only sp2 bonds.[23]

Stanene

Stanene is a predicted topological

insulator that may display dissipationless
currents at its edges near room
temperature. It is composed of tin atoms
arranged in a single layer, in a manner
similar to graphene.[24] Its buckled
structure leads to high reactivity against
common air pollutions such as NOx and
COx and is able to trap and dissociate
them at low temperature.[25]

Phosphorene

Phosphorene is a 2-dimensional,
crystalline allotrope of phosphorus. Its
mono-atomic hexagonal structure makes
it conceptually similar to graphene.
However, phosphorene has substantially
different electronic properties; in
particular it possesses a nonzero band
gap while displaying high electron
mobility.[26] This property potentially
makes it a better semiconductor than
graphene.[27] The synthesis of
phosphorene mainly consists of
micromechanical cleavage or liquid
phase exfoliation methods. The former
has a low yield while the latter produce
free standing nanosheets in solvent and
not on the solid support. The bottom up
approaches like chemical vapor
deposition are still blank because of its
high reactivity. Therefore, in the current
scenario, the most effective method for
large area fabrication of thin films of
phosphorene consists of wet assembly
techniques like Langmuir-Blodgett
involving the assembly followed by
deposition of nanosheets on solid
supports.[28][29]

Bismuthene

Bismuthene, the two-dimensional

allotrope of bismuth, was synthesized on
silicon carbide in 2016[30] and is
predicted to be a topological insulator. At
first glance the system is similar to
graphene, as the Bi atoms arrange in a
honeycomb lattice. However the
bandgap is as large as 800mV due to the
large spin-orbit-coupling of the Bi atoms
and their interaction with the substrate.
Thus, room-temperature applications of
the quantum spin Hall effect come into
reach.

Molybdenite

Metals

Single atom layers of palladium with the

thickness down to 2.6 Å,[31] and rhodium
with the thickness of less than 4 Å [32]
have also been synthesized and
characterized with atomic force
microscopy and transmission electron
microscopy.

2D alloys
Two-dimensional alloys is single atomic
layer of alloy that is incommensurate
with underlying substrate. The 2D
ordered alloy of Pb and Sn has been
synthesized and characterized with
scanning tunneling microscopy and low-
energy electron diffraction in 2003.[33]
Moreover, the 2D all proportional solid
solution alloy of Pb and Bi has been
synthesized in 2011.[34]

2D supracrystals

The supracrystals of 2D materials have

been proposed and theoretically
simulated.[35][36] These monolayer
crystals are built of supra atomic periodic
structures where atoms in the nodes of
the lattice are replaced by symmetric
complexes. For example, in the
hexagonal structure of graphene patterns
of 4 or 6 carbon atoms would be
arranged hexagonally instead of single
atoms, as the repeating node in the unit
cell.

3D-topological structures
(foams, aerogel substances
and materials)
Aerographite

Aerogel
Nanogel

Carbon nanofoam

Compounds
Graphane

Graphane

Graphane is a polymer of carbon and

hydrogen with the formula unit (CH)n
where n is large. Graphane is a form of
fully hydrogenated (on both sides)
graphene.[37] Partial hydrogenation is
then hydrogenated graphene.[38]

Graphane's carbon bonds are in sp3

configuration, as opposed to graphene's
sp2 bond configuration. Thus graphane is
a two-dimensional analog of cubic
diamond.

The first theoretical description of

graphane was reported in 2003[39] and its
preparation was reported in 2009.

Graphane can be formed by electrolytic

hydrogenation of graphene, few-layer
graphene or high-oriented pyrolytic
graphite. In the last case mechanical
exfoliation of hydrogenated top layers
can be used.[40]

p-doped graphane is postulated to be a

high-temperature BCS theory
superconductor with a Tc above 90 K.[41]

Hexagonal boron nitride

Two alternately stacked layers of hexagonal boron

nitride

Properties

Structural
Schematic of zig-zag and armchair edge structures
of 2D boron nitride.

2D boron nitride is an sp2 conjugated

compound that forms a honeycomb
structure of alternating boron and
nitrogen atoms with a lattice spacing of
1.45Å.[42][43] It adopts the hexagonal (h-
BN) allotrope of the three possible
crystalline forms of boron nitride
because it is the most ubiquitous and
stable structure.[43] Boron nitride
nanosheets contain two different edges.
In the armchair edge structure, the edge
consists of either boron or nitrogen
atoms.[43] In the zig-zag edge structure,
the edge consists of alternating boron
and nitrogen atoms.[43] These 2D
structures can stack on top of each other
and are held by Van der Waal forces to
form what is called few-layer boron
nitride nanosheets.[43][44] In these
structures, the boron atoms of one sheet
are positioned on top or below the
nitrogen atoms due to electron deficient
nature of boron and electron rich nature
of nitrogen, respectively.[43][44] Due to
several similar structural similarities with
graphene, boron nitride nanosheets are
considered graphene analogs, often
called “white graphene".[44][45]

Boron nanosheets (BNNS) defined as

single or few layers of boron
nitride[43][45][46] whose aspect ratio is
small.[43] However, there are a couple
variations of 2D boron nitride
structure.[43] Boron nitride nanoribbons
(BNNR) are boron nitride nanosheets
with significant edge effects[44] and have
widths that are smaller than 50
nanometers.[43][47] Boron nitride
nanomeshes (BNNM) are boron nitride
nanosheets that are placed upon specific
metal substrates.[44]

Electrical
Boron nitride nanosheets have a wide
bandgap that ranges from 5 to 6
eV[43][44][45] and can be changed by the
presence of Stone-Wales defects within
the structure,[44] by doping[44] or
functionalization,[44] or by changing the
number of layers.[42][44] Due to this large
bandgap and tunability as well as its
surface flatness,[42] boron nitride
nanosheets are considered to be an
excellent electric insulators and are often
used as dielectrics in electrical
devices.[44][45][46][47]

Thermal
2D boron nitride structures are excellent
thermal conductors,[43][44][45] with a
thermal conductivity range of 100-270
W/mK.[42][43] It has been suggested that
single layer boron nitride nanosheets
have a greater thermal conductivity[42][44]
than other forms of boron nitride
nanosheets due to decreased phonon
scattering[44] from subsequent layers.

The thermal stability of boron nitride

nanosheets is very high due to the high
thermal stability properties of hexagonal
boron nitride.[42][43][45][48] As single layer
and few-layer boron nitride nanosheets
begin to oxidize and lose their electrical
properties at 800 °C, they are excelle
Synthesis

CVD

Chemical vapor deposition is a popular

synthesis method to produce boron
nitride because it is a highly controllable
process that produces high quality and
defect free monolayer and few-layer
boron nitride nanosheets.[44][45][46][47][49]
In the majority of CVD methods, boron
and nitride precursors react with a metal
substrate at high temperature.[44][45] This
allows for nanosheets of a large area as
the layers grow uniformly on the
substrate.[44][45][48] There is a wide range
of boron and nitride precursors such as
borazine and selection of these
precursors depend on factors such as
toxicity,[44] stability,[43][44] reactivity,[44]
and the nature of the CVD
method.[43][44][45][47] However, despite the
high quality of the nanosheets
synthesized by chemical vapor
deposition, it is not a good method for
the large scale production of boron
nitride nanosheets for applications.[49]

Mechanical cleavage

While there are several mechanical

cleaving methods to produce boron
nitride nanosheets, they employ the
same principle: using shear forces to
break the Van der Waals interactions
between the layers of boron nitride.[43]
The advantage of mechanical cleavage is
that the nanosheets isolated from these
techniques have few defects and retain
the lateral size of the original
substrate.[43][44]

Inspired by its use in the isolation of

graphene, micromechanical cleavage,
also known as the Scotch-tape method,
has been used to consistently isolate
few-layer and monolayer boron nitride
nanosheets by subsequent exfoliation of
the beginning material with adhesive
tape.[43][44][46][49] However, the
disadvantage of this technique is that it
is not scalable for large scale
production.[43][44]

Ball milling is another technique used to

mechanically exfoliate boron nitride
sheets from the parent
substrate.[42][43][44][45][46][47][50][49] In this
process, shear forces are applied on the
face of bulk boron nitride by rolling balls,
which break the Van der Waal
interactions between each
layer.[43][44][47][49] While the ball milling
technique may allow for large quantities
of boron nitride nanosheets, it does not
allow for control the size or the number
of layers of the resulting
nanosheets.[43][44] Furthermore, these
nanosheets have more defects due to the
aggressive nature of this technique.[42][49]
However, improvements such as the
addition of a milling agent such as benzyl
benzoate[43][49] or the use of smaller
balls[43] has allowed for a greater yield of
higher quality nanosheets.[43][49]

Boron nitride nanosheets have also been

isolated by using a vortex fluidic device,
which uses centripetal force to shear off
layers of boron nitride.[49]

Unzipping of boron nitride

nanotubes

Boron nitride nanosheets may also be

synthesized by the unzipping of boron
nitride nanotubes (BNNT).[43][44][49] These
nanotubes can be made into sheets by
breaking the bonds connecting the N and
B atoms by potassium
intercalation[43][44][49] or by etching by
plasma or an inert gas.[43][44][49] The
unzipping of boron nitride nanotubes by
plasma can be used to control the size of
the nanosheets, but it produces
semiconducting boron nitride
nanosheets.[49] The potassium
intercalation method produces a low
yield of nanosheets as boron nitride is
resistive to the effects of intercalants.[44]

Solvent exfoliation and sonication

Solvent exfoliation is often used in
tandem with sonication to break the
weak Van der Waals interactions present
in bulk boron nitride to isolate large
quantities of boron nitride
nanosheets.[43][44][49] Polar solvents such
as isopropyl alcohol[44] and DMF[51] have
been found to be more effective in
exfoliating boron nitride layers than
nonpolar solvents because these
solvents possess a similar surface
energy to the surface energy of boron
nitride nanosheets.[43] Combinations of
different solvents also exfoliate boron
nitride better than when the solvents
were used individually.[43] However, many
solvents that can be used to exfoliate
boron nitride are fairly toxic and
expensive.[49] Common solvents such as
water and isopropyl alcohol have been
determined to be comparable to these
toxic polar solvents in exfoliating boron
nitride sheets.[43][51]

Chemical functionalization and

sonication

Chemical functionalization of boron

nitride involves attaching molecules onto
the outer and inner layers of bulk boron
nitride.[44] There are three types of
functionalization that can be done to
boron nitride: covalent functionalization,
ionic functionalization, or non covalent
functionalization.[43] Layers are then
exfoliated by placing the functionalized
boron nitride into a solvent and allow the
solvation force between the attached
groups and the solvent to overcome the
Van der Waal forces present in each
layer.[49] This method is slightly different
than solvent exfoliation as solvent
exfoliation relies on the similarities
between the surface energies of the
solvent and boron nitride layers to
overcome the Van der Waals
interactions.

Solid State Reactions

The reaction of a mixture of boron and

nitrogen precursors at high temperature
can produce boron nitride
nanosheets.[43][49] In one method, boric
acid and urea were reacted together at
900˚C.[47][49] The numbers of layers of
these nanosheets were controlled by the
urea content as well as the
temperature[49]

Borocarbonitrides

See also: graphene, boron nitride

Properties

Structural
A schematic of borocarbonitride (BCN)

Borocarbonitrides are two-dimensional

compounds that are synthesized such
that they contain boron, nitrogen, and
carbon atoms in a ratio BxCyNz.[52][53]
Borocarbonitrides are distinct from B,N
co-doped graphene in that the former
contains separate boron nitride

and graphene domains as well as rings

with B-C, B-N, C-N, and C-C bonds.[54]
These compounds generally have a high
surface area, but borocarbonitrides
synthesized from a high surface area
carbon material, urea, and boric acid tend
to have the highest surface
areas.[52][55][47] This high surface area
coupled with the presence of Stone-
Wales defects in the structure of
borocarbonitrides also allows for high
absorption of CO2 and CH4, which may
make borocarbonitride compounds a
useful material in sequestering these
gases.[52][55]

Electrical

The band gap of borocarbonitrides range

from 1.0-3.9eV[52] and is dependent on
the content of the carbon and boron
nitride domains as they have different
electrical properties.[52]
Borocarbonitrides with a high carbon
content have lower bandgaps[53] whereas
those with higher content of boron nitride
domains have higher band gaps.[52]
Borocarbonitrides synthesized in gas or
solid reactions also tend to have large
bandgaps and are more insulating in
character.[52] The wide range of
composition of boronitrides allows for
the tuning of the bandgap, which when
coupled with its high surface area and
Stone-Wales defects may make
boronitrides a promising material in
electrical devices.[53][16]
Synthesis

Solid state reaction

A high surface area carbon material such

as activated charcoal, boric acid, and
urea are mixed together and then heated
at high temperatures to synthesize
borocarbonitride.[53] The composition of
the resulting compounds may be
changed by varying the concentration of
the reagents as well as the
temperature.[52]

Gas phase synthesis

In chemical vapor deposition, boron,
nitrogen, and carbon precursors react at
high heat and are deposited onto a metal
substrate.[52] Varying the concentration
of precursors and the selection of certain
precursors will give different ratios of
boron, nitrogen, and carbon in the
resulting borocarbonitride compound.[53]

Borocarbonitride composites

Borocarbonitride can also be synthesized

by random stacking of boronitride and
graphene domains through covalent
interactions[53] or through liquid
interactions.[52] In the first method,
graphene and boron nitride sheets are
functionalized and then are reacted to
form layers of borocarbonitride.[53] In the
second method, boron nitride and
graphite powder are dissolved in
isopropanol and dimethylformamide,
respectively, and then sonicated.[53] This
is then exfoliated to isolate
borocarbonitride layers.

Germanane

Germanane is a single-layer crystal

composed of germanium with one
hydrogen bonded in the z-direction for
each atom.[56] Germanane’s structure is
similar to graphane,[57] Bulk germanium
does not adopt this structure.
Germanane is produced in a two-step
route starting with calcium germanide.
From this material, the calcium (Ca) is
removed by de-intercalation with HCl to
give a layered solid with the empirical
formula GeH.[58] The Ca sites in Zintyl-
phase CaGe2 interchange with the
hydrogen atoms in the HCl solution,
producing GeH and CaCl2.

Transition metal Di-

chalcogenides (TMDCs)

Molybdenum disulfide
Layered structure of MoS2, with Mo in blue and S in
yellow

Properties

Structural

Molybdenum
disulfide
monolayers
consist of a
unit of one
layer of molybdenum atoms covalently
bonded to two layers of sulfur atoms[59]
While bulk molybdenum sulfide exists as
1T, 2H, or 3R polymorphs, molybdenum
disulfide monolayers are found only in
the 1T or 2H form.[54] The 2H form
adopts a trigonal prismatic geometry[60]
while the 1T form adopts an octahedral
or trigonal antiprismatic geometry.[54]
Molybdenum monolayers can also can
be stacked due to Van der Waals
interactions between each layer.

Electrical

The electrical properties of molybdenum

sulfide in electrical devices depends on
factors such as the number of layers,[59]
the synthesis method,[54] the nature of
the substrate on which the monolayers
are placed on,[61] and mechanical
strain.[62]

As the number of layers decrease, the

band gap begins to increase from 1.2eV
in the bulk material up to a value of 1.9eV
for a monolayer.[47] Odd number of
molybdenum sulfide layers also produce
different electrical properties than even
numbers of molybednum sulfide layers
due to cyclic stretching and releasing
present in the odd number of layers.[63]
Molybdenum sulfide is a p-type material,
but it shows ambipolar behavior when
molybdenum sulfide monolayers that
were 15 nm thick were used in
transistors.[47] However, most electrical
devices containing molybdenum sulfide
monolayers tend to show n-type
behavior.[60][22]

The band gap of molybdenum disulfide

monolayers can also be adjusted by
applying mechanical strain[62] or an
electrical field.[47] Increasing mechanical
strain shifts the phonon modes of the
molybdenum sulfide layers.[62] This
results in a decrease of the band gap and
metal-to-insulator transition.[54] Applying
an electric field of 2-3Vnm−1 also
decreases the indirect bandgap of
molybdenum sulfide bilayers to zero.[54]

Solution phase lithium intercalation and

exfolation of bulk molybdenum sulfide
produces molybdenum sulfide layers
with metallic and semiconducting
character due to the distribution of 1T
and 2H geometries within the
material.[47][54] This is due to the two
forms of molybdenum sulfide
monolayers having different electrical
properties. The 1T polymorph of
molybednum sulfide is metallic in
character while the 2H form is more
semiconducting.[60] However,
molybdenum disulfide layers produced
by electrochemical lithium intercalation
are predominantly 1T and thus metallic in
character as there is no conversion to the
2H form from the 1T form.[54]
Thermal

The thermal conductivity of molybdenum

disulfide monolayers at room
temperature is 34.5W/mK[64] while the
thermal conductivity of few-layer
molybdenum disulfide is 52W/mK.[64]
The thermal conductivity of graphene, on
the other hand, is 5300W/mK.[64] Due to
the rather low thermal conductivity of
molybdenum disulfide nanomaterials, it
is not as promising material for high
thermal applications as some other 2D
materials.

Synthesis

Exfoliation
Exfoliation techniques for the isolating of
molybdenum disulfide monolayers
include mechanical exfoliation,[54]
solvent assisted exfoliation,[60] and
chemical exfolation.[47]

Solvent assisted exfoliation is done by

sonicating bulk molybdenum disulfide in
an organic solvent such as isopropanol
and N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, which
disperses the bulk material into
nanosheets as the Van der Waals
interactions between the layers in the
bulk materaial are broken.[54] The amount
of nanosheets produced is controlled by
the sonication time,[60] the solvent-
molybdenum disulfide interactions,[54]
and the centrifuge speed.[54] Compared
to other exfoliation techniques, solvent
assisted exfoliation is the simplest
method for large scale production of
molybdenum disulfide nanosheets.[65]

The micromechanical exfoliation of

molybdenum disulfide was inspired by
the same technique used in the isolation
of graphene nanosheets.[65]
Micromechanical exfoliation allows for
low defect molybdenum disulfide
nanosheets but is not suitable for large
scale production due to low yield.[60]

Chemical exfoliation involves

functionalizing molybdenum difsulfide
and then sonicating to disperse the
nanosheets.[65] The most notable
chemical exfoliation technique is lithium
intercalation in which lithium is
intercalated into bulk molybdenum
disulfide and then dispersed into
nanosheets by the addition of water.[47]

Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)

Chemical vapor deposition of

molybdenum disulfide nanosheets
involves reacting molybdenum and sulfur
precursors on a substrate at high
temperatures.[65] This technique is often
used in the preparing electrical devices
with molybdenum disulfide components
because the nanosheets are applied
directly on the substrate; unfavorable
interactions between the substrate and
the nanosheets that would have occurred
had they been separately synthesized are
decreased.[60] In addition, since the
thickness and area of the molybdenum
disulfide nanosheets can be controlled
by the selection of specific precursors,
the electrical properties of the
nanosheets can be tuned.[60]

Laser ablation

Pulsed laser deposition involves the

thinning of bulk molybdenum disulfide by
laser to produce single or multi-layer
molybdenum disulfide nanosheets.[54]
This allows for synthesis of molybdenum
disulfide nanosheets with a defined
shape and size.[47] The quality of the
nanosheets are determined by the energy
of the laser and the irradation angle.[65]

Lasers can also be used to form

molybdenum disulfide nanosheets from
molybdenum disulfide fullerene-like
molecules.[29]

Tungsten diselenide

Tungsten diselenide is an inorganic

compound with the formula WSe2. The
compound adopts a hexagonal
crystalline structure similar to
molybdenum disulfide. Every tungsten
atom is covalently bonded to six
selenium ligands in a trigonal prismatic
coordination sphere, while each selenium
is bonded to three tungsten atoms in a
pyramidal geometry. The tungsten –
selenium bond has a bond distance of
2.526 Å and the distance between
selenium atoms is 3.34 Å.[66] Layers
stack together via van der Waals
interactions. WSe2 is a stable
semiconductor in the group-VI transition
metal dichalcogenides.

Hafnium Disulphide
Hafnium Disulphide is a group IVB TMD
with formula HfS2. Like other TMDs, it
possess a layered structure with strong
covalent bonding between the Hf and S
atoms in a layer and weak Van der Wall
forces between layers. The compound
has CdI2 type structure and is an indirect
band gap semiconducting material. The
interlayer spacing between the layers is
0.56 nm, which is small compared to
group VIB TMDs like MoS2, making it
difficult to cleave its atomic layers.
However, recently its crystals with large
interlayer spacing has grown using a
chemical vapor transport route.[67] These
crystals exfoliate in solvents like N-
Cyclohexyl-2-pyrrolidone (CHP) in a time
of just some minutes resulting in a high-
yield production of its few-layers
resulting in increase of its indirect
bandgap from 0.9 eV to 1.3 eV. As an
application in electronics, its field-effect
transistors has been realised using its
few layers as a conducting channel
material offering a high current
modulation ratio larger than 10000 at
room temperature. Therefore, group IVB
TMDs also holds potential applications in
the field of opto-electronics.

MXenes

MXenes are layered transition metal

carbides and carbonitrides with general
formula of Mn+1XnTx, where M stands for
early transition metal, X stands for
carbon and/or nitrogen and Tx stands for
surface terminations (mostly =O, -OH or -
F). MXenes have high electric
conductivity (1500 Scm−1) combined
with hydrophilic surfaces. This materials
show promise in energy storage
applications and composites.

Organic
Ni3(HITP)2 is an organic, crystalline,
structurally tunable electrical conductor
with a high surface area. HITP is an
organic chemical (2,3,6,7,10,11-
hexaaminotriphenylene). It shares
graphene's hexagonal honeycomb
structure. Multiple layers naturally form
perfectly aligned stacks, with identical 2-
nm openings at the centers of the
hexagons. Room temperature electrical
conductivity is ~40 S cm−1, comparable
to that of bulk graphite and among the
highest for any conducting metal-organic
frameworks (MOFs). The temperature
dependence of its conductivity is linear
at temperatures between 100 K and
500 K, suggesting an unusual charge
transport mechanism that has not been
previously observed in organic
semiconductors.[68]
The material was claimed to be the first
of a group formed by switching metals
and/or organic compounds. The material
can be isolated as a powder or a film
with conductivity values of 2 and
40 S cm−1, respectively.[69]

Combinations
A 2015 study stacked two different TMD
layers onto graphene. This composite
displayed negative differential resistance
– applying more voltage to the device
reduced the current flowing through it.[26]
A recent study combined graphene and
hexagonal boron nitride to form a planar
two-dimensional material.[70] This
combination displayed variety of
structural formations that potentially
varies the electrical, thermal and optical
properties.

Characterization of 2D
materials
Microscopy techniques such as
transmission electron
microscopy,[71][72][73] scanning probe
microscopy,[47] scanning tunneling
microscopy,[71] and atomic force
microscopy[71][73][47] are used to
characterize the thickness and size of
the 2D materials. Electrical properties
and structural properties such as
composition and defects are
characterized by raman
spectroscopy,[71][73][47] x-ray
diffraction,[71][73] and x-ray photoelectron
spectroscopy.[54]

Applications
As of 2014, none of these materials has
been used for large scale commercial
applications (with the possible exception
of graphene). Despite this, many are
under close consideration for a number
of industries, in areas including
electronics and optoelectronics, sensors,
biological engineering, filtration,
lightweight/strong composite materials,
photovoltaics, medicine, quantum dots,
thermal management, ethanol distillation
and energy storage,[74] cryptography[75]
and have enormous potential.

Graphene has been the most studied. In

small quantities it is available as a
powder and as a dispersion in a polymer
matrix, or adhesive, elastomer, oil and
aqueous and non-aqueous solutions. The
dispersion is claimed to be suitable for
advanced composites, paints and
coatings, lubricants, oils and functional
fluids, capacitors and batteries, thermal
management applications, display
materials and packaging, inks and 3D-
printers’ materials, and barriers and
films.[76]

Biological applications

Research on 2D nanomaterials is still in

its infancy, with the majority of research
focusing on elucidating the unique
material characteristics and few reports
focusing on biomedical applications of
2D nanomaterials.[77] Nevertheless,
recent rapid advances in 2D
nanomaterials have raised important yet
exciting questions about their
interactions with biological moieties. 2D
nanoparticles such as carbon-based 2D
materials, silicate clays, transition metal
dichalcogenides (TMDs), and transition
metal oxides (TMOs) provide enhanced
physical, chemical, and biological
functionality owing to their uniform
shapes, high surface-to-volume ratios,
and surface charge.

Two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials are

ultrathin nanomaterials with a high
degree of anisotropy and chemical
functionality.[78] 2D nanomaterials are
highly diverse in terms of their
mechanical, chemical, and optical
properties, as well as in size, shape,
biocompatibility, and degradability.[79][80]
These diverse properties make 2D
nanomaterials suitable for a wide range
of applications, including drug delivery,
imaging, tissue engineering, and
biosensors, among others.[81] However,
their low-dimension nanostructure gives
them some common characteristics. For
example, 2D nanomaterials are the
thinnest materials known, which means
that they also possess the highest
specific surface areas of all known
materials. This characteristic makes
these materials invaluable for
applications requiring high levels of
surface interactions on a small scale. As
a result, 2D nanomaterials are being
explored for use in drug delivery systems,
where they can adsorb large numbers of
drug molecules and enable superior
control over release kinetics.[82]
Additionally, their exceptional surface
area to volume ratios and typically high
modulus values make them useful for
improving the mechanical properties of
biomedical nanocomposites and
nanocomposite hydrogels, even at low
concentrations. Their extreme thinness
has been instrumental for breakthroughs
in biosensing and gene sequencing.
Moreover, the thinness of these
molecules allows them to respond
rapidly to external signals such as light,
which has led to utility in optical
therapies of all kinds, including imaging
applications, photothermal therapy (PTT),
and photodynamic therapy (PDT).
Despite the rapid pace of development in
the field of 2D nanomaterials, these
materials must be carefully evaluated for
biocompatibility in order to be relevant
for biomedical applications.[83] The
newness of this class of materials
means that even the relatively well-
established 2D materials like graphene
are poorly understood in terms of their
physiological interactions with living
tissues. Additionally, the complexities of
variable particle size and shape,
impurities from manufacturing, and
protein and immune interactions have
resulted in a patchwork of knowledge on
the biocompatibility of these materials.
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