Module 4.

Determining Plant Available Water Capacity

4. Determining Plant Available Water

Capacity
Introduction
The climate and soils of the northern crop- PAWC is the difference between the
ping region have determined the system of upper water storage limit of the soil and
agriculture that has developed. the lower extraction limit of a crop over
Dryland cropping in semi-arid climates the depth of rooting (Godwin et al. 1984;
depends heavily on water that has accumu- Ratliff et al. 1983; Gardner 1985). (Formu-
lated in the soil from rainfall during a lae 1 and 2 on page 73)
fallow. As soils vary greatly in their capac- In many seasons, the maximum water
ity to store water, knowing the storage storage capacity is not reached for reasons
capacity of a soil helps in assessing the op- including insufficient rainfall, fallow
portunities and risks of cropping. weeds, run-off and evaporation. In these
Continuity of water supply to the plant cases, the actual water present is described
depends on the storage capacity of the soil in terms of the PAWC, that is, how full is
and how often more water enters the stor- the bucket.
age. Simulation of crop growth can relate
yields to a water budget, but this requires
accurate weather data and good characteri-
sation of the water storage of the soil.

Plant available water

capacity
A growing crop relies greatly on water that
has been stored in the soil during periods
of fallow or reduced cropping activity; the
capacity to store this water depends on the
soil’s physical characteristics such as struc-
ture and depth.
Figure 4.1. A typical storage profile for a
The maximum water available is known slow-draining, heavy-textured soil showing
as the Plant Available Water Capacity the storage capacity of the soil, PAWC, as
(PAWC)(Figure 4.1); it varies with soil type defined by the drained upper limit, crop lower
and crop. limit, saturation and total porosity.

Are Modules 4 and 5 for you?

Module 4 provides an overview of the science and techniques involved in
characterising a soil for plant available water capacity (PAWC).
It is designed for those who want a better understanding of the science behind
the techniques or who actually go out and characterise soils.
Those who are mainly interested in using PAWC information should refer to
Module 5 before deciding to start their own soil characterisation work. The
Module 5 database provides PAWC data for a wide range of soils from the
northern cropping region.

71
Soil matters

Defining the variables of their roots, and the duration of their

growth. (Formula 7, p. 73)
to calculate PAWC A theoretical lower limit can be meas-
To determine PAWC, a number of soil vari- ured in the laboratory equilibrating the soil
ables have to be measured or calculated. at 1500 kPa (15 bar) suction (LL15). This
These include: shows differences between soil types, but
l soil bulk density does not differentiate between crops grown
l volumetric water content at Drained on one soil type. Crops can vary greatly in
Upper Limit (DUL) their ability to extract water, and may be quite
l volumetric water content at Crop Lower different to the 1500 kPa value, especially at
Limit (CLL) depth (Williams 1983) (Figure 4.2).
Two other soil variables—volumetric Measures of both LL15 and CLL are
water content at Saturation (SAT) and To- used in simulation, CLL to set PAWC for a
tal Porosity (PO)—can also be determined. particular soil x crop combination and
Total porosity is used to calculate saturation LL15 to set the soil water and nutrient bal-
—an important variable when characteris- ance. Where LL15 has not been measured,
ing a soil for crop simulation studies. the lowest CLL for any crop grown on the
Formulae to calculate variables are shown soil in question is used.
on page 73.

Bulk Density
Bulk density is a measure of the weight of
dry soil per unit volume of soil (see page
9). Bulk density is used to convert weight-
based measures of soil water and nutrients
to volume-based measures, e.g. from gravi-
metric to volumetric soil water content
(Bridge 1981; Gardiner 1988). Bulk den-
sities of soils of the northern grain belt Figure 4.2. The laboratory-measured 1500
range between 0.8 and 1.8 g/cc. (Formulae kPa suction for LL15 can over-estimate deep
3 and 4, p.73) profile PAWC for some crops.

Drained Upper Limit (DUL) Saturation and Total Porosity

Drained upper limit is defined as the The water content at saturation is the maxi-
amount of water that a particular soil holds mum able to be held in the soil before
after drainage has practically ceased drainage takes place (Godwin et al. 1984).
(Gardner 1984; Godwin et al. 1984; Ratliff However, even when the soil is considered
et al. 1983). It is water held against grav- to be at saturation, some pore space will
ity, and may be removed only by contain entrapped air. The percentage en-
plants—crops or weeds—or through direct trapped air depends on the soil type, but is
evaporation. (Formulae 5 and 6, p.73) commonly between 2-3% for a clay and up
Crop Lower Limit (CLL) to 7% for the lighter textured soils. Total
porosity (PO) accounts for both the air
Crop lower limit measures the extent to space able to be filled with water and the
which a particular crop can extract water entrapped air. (Formulae 8 and 9, p.73)
from a particular soil type. Crops differ in
their ability to extract water, determined by Saturation may be calculated from PO
the length, density and osmotic potential and an assumed entrapped air percentage.

72
 Module 4. Determining Plant Available Water Capacity

Formulae used in defining PAWC and its

associated variables
(1,2) Plant Available Water Capacity
PAWC (mm) for 1 depth interval = [DUL-CLL] x [depth interval (cm)/10]
PAWC for the full profile = sum of PAWC for each depth interval
(where DUL and CLL are expressed as Volumetric Water %)
(3) Bulk Density (BD field measured)
Bulk Density (g/cc) = dry soil wt (g)/total volume of soil (cc)
(4) Bulk Density (BD calculated)
BD (g/cc) = (1-e)/(1/AD +θg)
where θg = gravimetric water content (g/g) of wet soil
AD = absolute density of the solid matter in the soil (assumed 2.65 g/cc)
e = air filled porosity at θg
(5) Gravimetric water
Gravimetric Water % =
((wet wt of sample - dry wt of sample)/dry wt of sample – container tare) x 100
or use net weights for all weighings, i.e. ((wet wt – dry wt)/dry wt) x 100
(6) Drained upper limit (DUL)
DUL (volumetric water %) =
Gravimetric Water % (for each depth interval) x BD (g/cc)
(7) Crop Lower Limit (CLL)
CLL (volumetric water %) =
Gravimetric Water % (when crop is mature/ stressed) x BD (g/cc)
(8) Total porosity (PO)
PO (% volumetric) = (1-BD/2.65) x 100
where BD/2.65 is the fraction of the soil volume occupied by solid (sand, silt and
clay) particles, based on an assumed density of 2.65 g/cc for the solid matter in the
soil. A density figure of 2.65 g/cc holds for a wide range of soils, the exceptions
being the organic soils (lower) and oxisols (higher).
(9) Saturation (SAT)
SAT (% volumetric) = (PO* – e) x 100
Where e = 0.03(heavy clay soils) to 0.07 (sandy soils)
*PO in this case is a decimal fraction, not %

Porosity, saturation, drained upper limit and crop lower limit are presented in this
manual as Volumetric %.
More usually, soil water is expressed as the volumetric fraction of water, i.e. volume
of water per unit volume of soil, which is equivalent to the depth of water per unit
depth of soil.
For example, a drained upper limit value of 52% volumetric water may be expressed
as 52 mm of water/100 mm of soil depth or 0.52 mm of water/mm of soil depth.

73
Soil matters

When should a soil be characterised for PAWC?

Soil characterisation for PAWC is required if detailed information on soil water and
nutrient availability is needed for a commercial crop, on-farm research or for simula-
tion. Each soil type of importance in an area, such as a catchment or district, should
be characterised, but not the soil on every farm.
The soil properties (DUL, BD and SAT) need be determined only once for a particu-
lar soil type. However, if routine measurements on a farm differ from the local
standard, some modifications may be needed for that location. Crop lower limit
should be measured for each crop on each soil type, and should be repeated for a
number of years to capture seasonal variation in water extraction.
How long does it take to characterise a soil for DUL?
The time required to characterise a soil for DUL is governed by the time taken to
wet-up the soil profile. Free-draining soils through which water infiltrates quickly
may be sampled after 2–3 days, but more time is needed in some soil types
(Gardner 1985). In cracking clay soils where water entry is slow, wetting up may
take several months.

Determining bulk density

The method used for the determination of Sampling for bulk density
bulk density depends on the characteris-
tics of the soil being measured. In (shrink–swell and rigid soils)
shrink–swell soils, bulk density may be Hand sampling
measured in the field or calculated from
the relationship between gravimetric mois- Hand sampling is done with an open-ended,
ture content at saturation and bulk density. thin-walled (1.6 mm gauge) ring of 75-100
mm diameter and 50-100 mm length. This
Calculation is recommended for these is hammered into the soil using a rubber
soils, and is discussed in the section Water mallet or a sliding hammer attached to the
balance modelling of shrink–swell soils anvil of the driver (Talsma et al. 1976,
(page 80). Rigid soils must be measured in
Bridge 1981).
the field.
Access to the soil profile is generally by
Field measuring BD digging a pit and sampling horizontally into
the pit wall or vertically into prepared steps.
If bulk density of a shrink-swell soil is
An alternative is to work from the soil sur-
measured in the field, it is done when the
face, using a large (30 cm) diameter soil
soil is wet, and often in conjunction with
auger to access each of the depth layers in
the measurement of DUL. Wetting up soils
turn. Bulk density samples are taken using
to measure DUL is described on page 83.
the sliding hammer (see page 75).
Although bulk density changes with
moisture content in these soils, it is imprac- Procedure
tical to sample at lower moisture contents 1. Hammer the steel ring into the undis-
(than DUL) as it is difficult to obtain a rep- turbed soil
resentative sample that adequately 2. Excavate the ring without disturbing the
describes the whole soil matrix—includ- soil within the ring
ing the cracks (Berndt and Coughlan 1976). 3. Carefully trim excess soil from the ends
In rigid soils, sampling may be done at 4. Process the samples (see page 79).
any practical moisture content, as bulk den-
sity does not change with moisture content.
(Figure 4.6)

74
 Module 4. Determining Plant Available Water Capacity

Anvil, thin-walled ring and rubber mallet

for sampling bulk density by hand

Close-up view of thin-walled soil

sampling ring

Measuring bulk density: driving a

sampling ring into the wall of a pit A sliding hammer for sampling bulk
(Photo B. Bridge) density. The removable cutting tip is
placed onto the end of a removable steel
ring which is inserted into the body of the
sampler. After sampling, the cutting tip is
removed and the ring sealed for later
processing of the sample.

75
Soil matters

Mechanical sampling
Mechanical sampling is much more labour-
efficient, and is recommended when a
number of sites require characterisation.
This method utilises the hydraulic sampling
rig (mentioned in Module 2) combined with
special large-diameter coring tubes as de-
scribed on page 78.
Procedure
1. A thin-walled tube (60–80 cm long) is
pushed into the soil using an hydraulic
rig. Tubes of varying diameter (75, 100
or 125 mm) are suitable and may be used
individually or in combination to sam-
ple to greater depth (Figure 4.3)
(Dalgliesh 1996; Bridge 1981).
2. Carefully remove the soil core from the
tube.
3. Cut the samples accurately into appro-
priate lengths and process (see page 79).

Figure 4.4. Minimal and preferred strategies

for bulk density sampling. The top 5 cm of soil
is always discarded.

The minimum sampling strategy for

bulk density comprises sampling at the
mid-point of each soil depth layer. How-
ever, with mechanical coring the preferred
procedure is continuous sampling down the
profile, with the results being averaged for
the standard depth layers and replications.
With this technique, a short section of core
is discarded between each push (Figure 4.3
and 4.4) because of uneven breakage of the
core as it is extracted from the soil.
Measurements of bulk density should
start 5 cm below the soil surface due to
potential disturbance during sampling and
Figure 4.3. Sampling for bulk density using possible compaction, and damage to the soil
coring tubes of different diameters. This surface during wetting-up.
improves coring efficiency by minimising soil
adhesion to the tube.

76
 Module 4. Determining Plant Available Water Capacity

Because the calculation of bulk density In some soils with high bulk density
requires the weight of dry soil per unit vol- (greater than 1.6 g/cc) expansion may oc-
ume, sampling and handling of cores must cur and the core has to be cut in proportion,
be done carefully. The length and diameter particularly if the recovery ratio is greater
of each sample and its position in the pro- than 1.2.
file must be measured accurately. A core of less than 75 mm diameter may
After each core is removed, its length be compressed excessively because of the
must be compared to the depth of the hole to poor area ratio of small-diameter tubes (see
adjust for core expansion or compression Figure 4.5). Tubes of this diameter or
(Ross 1985). In most soils, compression smaller should be used only where larger
occurs during sampling and the recovery diameter ones are not suitable or are not
ratio (the length of the core sample divided available. Data associated with small-diam-
by the depth of the hole from which it was eter tubes should be treated with some
removed) should be greater than 0.98 for a reservation (Bridge 1981).
valid mean of bulk density (Bridge 1981).

Figure 4.5. Tube design

Whether sampling is by hand or with machine, the
design of the coring tube is of critical importance.
The area ratio (that is the ratio of the area of the annulus
of the sampling tube divided by the area of the soil core)
of the thin-walled tube should be less than 0.1 (Bridge
1981) to avoid compressing the sample within the tube.
Determining the area ratio of the tube
area of annulus
Area ratio = area of soil sample
where area of annulus (Aann) = π(ro2 – r12)
area of soil (Asoil)) = π r12
r02 – r12
area ratio =
r12
For example, a tube that produces a core of 100
mm diameter and has a combined internal and ex-
ternal offset and wall thickness of 2.5 mm has an
area ratio of 0.1.

Determining tube dimension for maximum

advisable annulus of 0.1
If the diameter of the desired core (d1) is known:
ro2 = 0.1r12 + r12
= 1.1 r12
r1
ro = √ 1.1 r12
ro

= 1.05 r1

77
 Soil matters

Mechanical sampling procedure for bulk density

Lubricate soil tubes before taking
samples. Tubes are 60–80 cm long with
diameters of 75, 100 and 125 mm.

Insert the tube.

Use a pusher to slide the

core from the tube onto the
special cutting tray.

Check the depth of the core hole against the

length of the core to detect compression or
expansion of the sample.

Confirm core length before making an accurate

cut. Piano wire gives a cleaner cut and less soil
adhesion than a knife.

78
 Module 4. Determining Plant Available Water Capacity

Processing samples
– for BD – for BD and DUL
Use this procedure when BD is to be meas- Use this procedure when both BD and
ured without DUL, and hence gravimetric DUL are needed.
water content is not needed.
Procedure
Procedure
1. Regularly check and record the internal
1. Regularly check and record the internal diameter of the cutting edge of tube.
diameter of the cutting edge of the 2. Place sample in wet strength bag (if
sampling tube or ring during sampling. wet weighing in field) or in sealed tin
2. Place sample in wet strength bag or in or plastic bag (if weighing later).
tin or plastic bag. 3. Record wet weight of sample.
3. Dry at 105°C for 48 hours. 4. Dry at 105°C for 48 hours.
4. Record dry weight. 5. Record dry weight.
5. Calculate the volume of the sample – 6. Calculate the volume of the sample –
(from tube diameter and sample length). (from tube diameter and sample length).
6. Determine BD. (Formula 3, on p. 73) 7. Determine BD. (Formula 3, on p.73)
8. Determine DUL. (Formula 5 and 6,
p.73)

Handle the cores carefully so that all

soil from the particular depth interval
is recovered.

If using paper bags,weigh samples

immediately to minimise water loss.

Regularly measure and record the

internal diameter of the cutting edge
of the tube for accurate and
consistent measurement of core
volume.

79
Soil matters

Water balance modelling of shrink–swell soils

The simulation of the soil water balance contents; as water content changes, there
requires specification of the soil’s water is a complementary change in air-filled po-
holding characteristics. For models such as rosity. However, this does not happen in
the SoilWat module of APSIM, these are the cracking clay soils that are wide-spread
defined in terms of the soil’s lower limit of in the northern grain belt. These soils ex-
extractable water (LL15), drained upper hibit shrink-swell behaviour, which means
limit (DUL), and saturated water content that as the soil dries there is a change in
(SAT) in each layer of the soil (Figures 4.1 volume of soil aggregates that is more or
and 4.2). Values are also required for soil less equal to the volume of water lost (Fig-
bulk density (BD). ure 4.6). The air filled porosity of the
The representation of water used in aggregates remains constant and the BD
SoilWat is only strictly valid for rigid soils changes (Bridge and Ross 1984).
in which BD remains constant at all water

Figure 4.6. The behaviour of soils under drying conditions:

a) rigid soils: as water content changes it is replaced by air; bulk density remains constant at all
water contents.
b) shrink– swell soils: formation of surface and visible cracks as the soil dries; air-filled porosity
remains constant, density of the soil aggregates increases.

a) rigid soil

b) shrink-swell soil

80
 Module 4. Determining Plant Available Water Capacity

For SoilWat to predict the behaviour of ought to be a measure of DUL, but this is
water in these soils, some assumptions are not necessarily the case in shrink-swell
made about how DUL, SAT and BD (from soils where drainage may be very slow.
which Total Porosity is determined) are If the total porosity is calculated from
defined. These assumptions enable soil the measured BD (Formula 8, p.73), the dif-
water to be simulated with measurable ac- ference between this value and the
curacy. There are also consequences for volumetric water content of the soil (θg x
measurement of the required soil water BD) may be too small for the latter to be a
properties in the field, one of which is that sensible estimate of DUL. In extreme cases,
there is no need to measure the BD of estimated water content may be greater than
shrink–swell clay soils (as discussed on the estimated total porosity.
p.74).
Data from 50 soils of the region show a
Calculating BD in shrink very close relation between the measured
BD and the gravimetric water content of
-swell soils the wet soil (see Figure 4.7), corresponding
Consider the situation where a clay soil has to an air-filled porosity of approximately 3%.
been wet up using the methods described This confirms that the soils are exhibiting
in the following section Measuring expected shrink-swell behaviour, thus ena-
Drained Upper Limit in the Field. After a bling the calculation of BD (Gardner 1988).
period of drainage, the soil is sampled to To use this relationship in overcoming
determine water content and bulk density. the problems associated with simulating
However, there is a problem in defining this soil water in cracking clay soils, an assumed
water content in terms of DUL, SAT, etc. It

Figure 4.7. Relationship between measured bulk density and gravimetric moisture content of wet
soil for 50 soils of the northern cropping region. Line of best fit indicates an air-filled porosity
over all soil depths below the top 15 cm, of 3.2%, BD=(1–0.032)/(1/2.65+θg ); R2=80.8%.

81
Soil matters

BD that corresponds with the soil being Adjusting field-measured

absolutely filled with water (zero air-filled
data for use in simulation
porosity) is used as a reference. Values are
then selected for (assumed) air-filled po- If BD has been measured in-field and con-
rosity at DUL and SAT. BD at DUL is then firmation of it meeting the above criteria is
calculated. The data tabulated in Module 5 required, Table 4.1 provides an example of
has been calculated using an assumed air- the calculations needed to analyse and
filled porosity at SAT of 3% and SAT-DUL modify the observed bulk density data. The
of 5%. left-hand side of the table performs the cal-
culations on the field data for gravimetric
Being able to calculate bulk density for
water content and BD assuming 3% air-
these soils from gravimetric soil water con-
filled porosity at SAT. For this data set, the
tent has major implications for the
difference between SAT – DUL is greater
characterisation of soils of the northern
than 5% in the top two soil layers, but less
cropping region. Instead of having to field-
than 5% in the deeper. It can be inferred
measure BD, a simplified procedure
that, in the deeper layers, the soil was ex-
requires only that the soil be wet up (as
hibiting shrink-swell behaviour. Accordingly,
described in the following section) before
on the right hand side, the calculations are
cores of 50 mm diameter are taken for
carried out with the appropriate assumptions
gravimetric soil water. These data are then
to provide estimates that are consistent with
used to calculate BD using (Formula 4,
the requirements of the SoilWat module.
p.73) with e = 0.08.

Table 4.1. Example of the calculations required to compare observed bulk density data, showing how
these data can be modified to fit the criteria that SAT-DUL = 5% and air-filled porosity at SAT = 3%.
Measure d Calc ulate d Recalculated fo r shrink-swell s oils
Dep th Grav BD DUL PO SAT SAT-DUL Ne w BD New DUL Ne w PO New SAT
mm mm
cm g/g g/c c / mm /mm mm/mm mm
/ mm g/c c mm
/ mm mm
/ mm mm
/ mm
0-15 0.575 0.90 0.52 0.66 0.63 0.11 0.90 0.52 0.66 0.63
15-30 0.527 1.01 0.53 0.62 0.59 0.06 1.01 0.53 0.62 0.59
30-60 0.529 1.04 0.55 0.61 0.58 0.03 1.02 0.54 0.62 0.59
60-90 0.542 1.07 0.58 0.60 0.57 -0.01 1.00 0.54 0.62 0.59
90-120 0.489 1.16 0.57 0.56 0.53 -0.03 1.06 0.52 0.60 0.57
120-150 0.426 1.24 0.53 0.53 0.50 -0.03 1.15 0.49 0.57 0.54
150-180 0.373 1.34 0.50 0.49 0.46 -0.04 1.23 0.46 0.54 0.51

Calculatio ns using me as ured data Re-c alculations

DUL = Grav x BD if m eas ured SAT - DUL<0.05, ass ume s
PO = 1- BD/2.65 SAT-DUL= 0.05 and PO-SAT = 0.03
SAT = PO - 0.03 New BD = (1-0.08)/(1/2.65 + G rav)
new DUL = Grav x ne w BD
new PO = 1- new BD/2.65
ne w S AT = new PO - 0.03

82
 Module 4. Determining Plant Available Water Capacity

Measuring DUL in the field

In principle, the field measurement of A neutron moisture meter (NMM) is a con-
drained upper limit should be a simple proc- venient tool to monitor the seasonal entry
ess of wetting up an area of soil until it has and movement of water, and will indicate
reached saturation, allowing time for drain- whether the soil is at drained upper limit to
age and then sampling for water content. depth. If sequential observations of wetting
In practice, the procedure can be a little up indicate no water movement below a
more difficult and techniques have been de- particular depth, the soil below that depth
veloped suitable for the variations has probably not reached drained upper
encountered in the soils of the region, in- limit. If this is suspected, or if no NMM
cluding both rigid and shrink–swell soils. information is available, the water potential
In freely draining soils, the techniques of the soil profile should be checked before
outlined below give a good estimate of ac- sampling. This may be done using either a
tual drained upper limit but are less suitable filter paper technique (Fawcett and Collis-
for the measurement of saturation due to George 1967) or a tensiometer (see p.88).
the rapid movement of water through the When the profile is considered to be
profile. fully wet, an area of about 4 m x 4 m is
In the heavy clay soils where drainage covered with heavy gauge plastic sheet
is inherently slow (Williams 1983), it may (100 micron builder’s plastic) to minimise
be more logical to refer to a soil being at evaporation before sampling.
its upper storage limit than at its drained Ponded water
upper limit. Some slow long-term drain-
age continues but, in the meantime, the If drained upper limit cannot be determined
water is available for plant use. In practi- from wettest soil profile or if the soil is al-
cal terms, this is the important water ready partially wetted and surface
(Bridge 1981). infiltration slow, an artificial wetting-up
technique can be used.
Techniques of wetting-up The ponded method (Figure 4.8) is suitable
Wettest soil profile for lighter-textured soils where entry and
movement of water through the profile are
The most convenient method of measur- rapid. However, it is not suitable for slow-
ing drained upper limit is to take samples draining, heavier textured soils.
during a wet season when the soil profile
Procedure for ponding
is thought to be fully re-charged. This is
most effective when a dry, deeply cracked 1. Select a representative site away from
soil is exposed to intense rainfall, and wa- trees and other vegetation.
ter enters through the cracks. 2. Insert a neutron moisture meter access
Re-charge under these circumstances tube to the potential depth of crop root-
can occur quickly even in heavy clay soil; ing (180 cm for most of the soils of the
with low intensity rainfall, swelling may northern grain belt).
close surface cracks, thus reducing the rate 3. Make a circular soil bund of 1.5 m ra-
of subsequent water entry (Williams 1983). dius and about 30 cm height around the
The limitation of this opportunistic ap- access tube.
proach is that it assumes the profile has 4. Apply water regularly to the pond, moni-
been wet to its full capacity and to full root- toring with the neutron moisture meter
ing depth. This is not certain unless the until saturation is reached.
water status can be checked before sampling. 5. Knock down the bund.

83
Soil matters

Figure 4.8. Layout for the ponded water technique showing the earth bund surrounding the
ponded area with the NMM access tube in the centre.

6. Cover the area with plastic sheeting to more water than the soil can accept. To pre-
minimise evaporation (100 micron vent the degradation of the surface
builder’s plastic). structure, application should be below the
7. Monitor the progress of drainage using rate that would cause surface ponding. An
the neutron moisture meter. application rate, used when describing
many of the soils listed in Module 5, was
8. Sample when drainage has almost
200 L per week (applied to a pond area of
ceased and the soil is considered to be
16 m2).
at drained upper limit (this may be con-
firmed using the tensiometer to check Another method involves intermittent
water potential). micro sprinkler irrigation (managed by an
Free-draining soils are usually allowed to electronic controller) applying small
drain for 2–3 days before sampling, but amounts of water on a regular basis. The
some soils should be left longer if drain- area is covered with straw mulch to mini-
age is still substantial (greater than 1 mm/ mise evaporation (Gardner E.A., pers coms).
day) (Gardner 1984). Combined technique
Trickle irrigation On a dry, cracked, heavy-textured soil, a
Trickle irrigation is the preferred method combination of techniques may reduce wet-
for shrink-swell soils where infiltration is up time.
slow (Figure 4.9). If these soils are ponded, High-volumes of water are applied di-
structural instability (slaking of soil rectly into the cracks (Swartz 1966) until
aggregates)may cause throttles to develop they close; trickle irrigation is then used to
at or near the soil surface (Williams 1983); complete the process.
these severely reduce the rate of infiltra- This system also ensures that the area
tion. The slower rate of application under surrounding the pond site is quickly wet-
trickle irrigation minimising this problem, up, thus slowing the lateral movement of
in one case reducing the time of wetting- water into the drier surrounding areas.
up from 12 weeks under ponding to three
weeks. Water should be applied down the
cracks and not onto the soil surface as any
The secret to success with trickle irri- surface degradation could affect later wa-
gation is not to push the system by applying ter entry during the trickle phase.

84
 Module 4. Determining Plant Available Water Capacity

CROSS SECTION

Figure 4.9. Layout for the trickle system showing the header tank supplying water to the trickle
lines which are covered by plastic sheeting to stop evaporation.

Sampling for DUL

Soil moisture levels are monitored with a eter of 50 mm is recommended. The tube
neutron moisture meter. Once readings in- must be able to be inserted into wet clay,
dicates that drainage is minimal, soil and the sample removed without substan-
samples are taken to determine volumet- tial damage.
ric water content at the estimated drained If both BD and DUL are measured to-
upper limit (Formulae 5 and 6, p. 73). gether, a single set of samples may be used.
When BD is not measured in conjunc- However, these samples must conform to
tion with DUL (e.g. when BD is calculated the more exacting requirements of sampling
– see Water balance modelling of shrink- and processing required for BD determina-
swell soils, p.80), coring may be done with tion (see Determining Bulk Density, p.74).
a small-diameter tube. A minimum diam-

85
Soil matters

Trickle irrigation method

1. Use the hydraulic soil coring rig to insert a
NMM access tube.
Insert a 50 mm soil tube to the desired depth
and remove the soil from the core hole. Push
the aluminium NMM access tube into the
hole using the hydraulics. The tube must fit
tightly in the core hole to ensure accurate
and consistent readings.

2. Dig a 15 cm deep trench to bury the

sheet edges to stop evaporation loss from
the pond site.

3. Lay out the trickle system.

4. Lay plastic sheeting in place

before back-filling the trench.

5. Attach the water reservoir

to the trickle system. Note
the NMM access tube in the
centre of the area.

6. Monitor the progress of

wetting-up using a Neutron
Moisture Meter.

86