S.No Topics Page No Emranditsinteractionwithatmosphere&Earth Material

S.
NO TOPICS PAGE NO
CHAPTER 1 1
EMRANDITSINTERACTIONWITHATMOSPHERE&EARTH
MATERIAL
1 Definitionofremotesensinganditscomponents 1
2 Electromagneticspectrum 2
3 wavelength regionsimportanttoremotesensing 4
4 Wavetheory,Particle theory 7
5 Stefan-Boltzmanand Wein’sDisplacement Law 8
6 Atmospheric scattering,absorption 9
7 Atmospheric windows 11
8 Spectralsignatureconcepts – 11
typicalspectralreflectivecharacteristicsofwater,vegetationand soil.
CHAPTER 2 PLATFORMSANDSENSORS
9 Types ofplatforms 14
10 orbittypes 15
11 Sun-synchronousandGeosynchronous 16
12 Passive andActive sensors 16
13 resolutionconcept 18
14 Payload descriptionofimportantEarthResources 20
15 Meteorological satellites 24
16 AirborneandspaceborneTIRand microwavesensors 26
CHAPTER 3 IMAGEINTERPRETATION ANDANALYSIS
17 TypesofDataProducts 29
18 typesofimageinterpretation 30
19 basicelementsofimageinterpretation 31
20 visualinterpretationkeys 32
21 DigitalImageProcessing 33
22 Pre-processing 33
23 imageenhancementtechniques 35
24 multispectral imageclassification 35
25 Supervisedandunsupervised. 36,37
CHAPTER 4 GEOGRAPHICINFORMATIONSYSTEM
26 Introduction 39
27 Maps–Definitions 41
28 Mapprojections 42
29 typesofmapprojections 43
30 mapanalysis 44
31 GISdefinition 45
32 basiccomponentsofGIS 47
33 standardGISsoftwares 48
34 Data type–Spatialand non-spatial (attribute)data 50
35 measurementscales–DataBaseManagementSystems(DBMS). 50
CHAPTER 5 DATAENTRY,STORAGEANDANALYSIS
36 Datamodels 55
37 vectorandrasterdata 55
38 datacompression 57
39 datainputbydigitizationand scanning 57
40 attributedataanalysis 61
41 integrateddataanalysis 61
42 Modeling inGISHighway alignmentstudies 62
43 LandInformationSystem. 65
CE2024 REMOTESENSINGTECHNIQUESAND GIS LTPC
3003
OBJECTIVE
Tointroducethestudentstothebasicconcepts andprinciples ofvariouscomponents ofremote
sensing.ToprovideanexposuretoGISand itspracticalapplicationsincivilengineering.
UNITI EMRANDITSINTERACTIONWITHATMOSPHERE&EARTH MATERIAL 9

Definitionofremotesensinganditscomponents–Electromagneticspectrum –wavelength
regionsimportanttoremotesensing –Wavetheory,Particle theory,Stefan-Boltzman and Wein’s
Displacement Law – Atmospheric scattering,absorption – Atmospheric windows –
spectralsignatureconcepts –typicalspectralreflectivecharacteristicsofwater,vegetationand soil.
UNITII PLATFORMSANDSENSORS 9
Types ofplatforms– orbittypes,Sun-synchronousandGeosynchronous–Passive andActive
sensors–resolutionconcept–Payload descriptionofimportantEarthResources and Meteorological
satellites–AirborneandspaceborneTIRand microwavesensors.
UNITIII IMAGEINTERPRETATION ANDANALYSIS 9

TypesofDataProducts–typesofimageinterpretation–basicelementsofimageinterpretation
-visualinterpretationkeys–DigitalImageProcessing–Pre-processing–imageenhancement
techniques–multispectral imageclassification –Supervisedandunsupervised.
UNITIV GEOGRAPHICINFORMATIONSYSTEM 9
Introduction–Maps–Definitions–Mapprojections–typesofmapprojections–mapanalysis–
GISdefinition –basiccomponentsofGIS–standardGISsoftwares–Data type–Spatialand non-spatial
(attribute)data–measurementscales–DataBaseManagementSystems(DBMS).
UNITV DATAENTRY,STORAGEANDANALYSIS 9
Datamodels–vectorandrasterdata–datacompression–datainputbydigitizationand
scanning–attributedataanalysis–integrateddataanalysis–Modeling inGISHighway
alignmentstudies–LandInformationSystem.
TOTAL:45PERIODS
TEXTBOOKS
1. Lillesand,T.M.,Kiefer,R.W.andJ.W.Chipman.(2004).RemoteSensingandImage
Interpretation.VEdn.JohnWilleyandSons(Asia)Pvt.Ltd.,NewDelhi.Pp:763.
2. Anji Reddy, M. (2001). Textbook of Remote Sensing and Geographical
InformationSystem.Secondedn.BSPublications,Hyderabad.
REFERENCES
1. Lo.C.P.andA.K.W.Yeung(2002).ConceptsandTechniquesofGeographicInformation
Systems.Prentice-Hall ofIndiaPvt.Ltd.,NewDelhi.Pp:492.
2. PeterA.Burrough,RachaelA.McDonnell(2000).PrinciplesofGIS.OxfordUniversity
Press.
3. Ian Heywood(2000).AnIntroductiontoGIS.PearsonEducationAsia.
CE2024 REMOTE SENSING TECHNIQUES AND GIS
CHAPTER 1
UNIT I EMR AND ITS INTERACTION WITH ATMOSPHERE & EARTH
MATERIAL
1.1 DEFINITION AND PROCESS OF REMOTE SENSING
1.1.1INTRODUCTION
Now-a-days the field of Remote Sensing and GIS has become exciting and glamorous
with rapidly expanding opportunities. Many organizations spend large amounts of money on
these fields. Here the question arises why these fields are so important in recent years. Two
main reasons are there behind this. 1) Now-a-days scientists, researchers, students, and even
common people are showing great interest for better understanding of our environment. By
environment we mean the geographic space of their study area and the events that take place
there. In other words, we have come to realize that geographic space along with the data
describing it, is part of our everyday world; almost every decision we take is influenced or
dictated by some fact of geography. 2) Advancement in sophisticated space technology
(which can provide large volume of spatial data), along with declining costs of computer
hardware and software (which can handle these data) has made Remote Sensing and G.I.S.
affordable to not only complex environmental / spatial situation but also affordable to an
increasingly wider audience.
1.2 REMOTE SENSING AND ITS COMPONENTS:

Remote sensing is the science of acquiring information about the Earth's
surface without actually being in contact with it. This is done by sensing and recording
reflected or emitted energy and processing, analyzing, and applying that information." In
much of remote sensing, the process involves an interaction beteen incident adiation
and the targets of interest. This is exemplified by the use of imaging systems where the
following seven elements are involved. However that remote sensg also involves the
sensing of emitted energy and the use of non-imaging sensors.
Fig 1.1- Components of Remote Sensing
SCE 1 Department of Civil Engineering

1. Energy Source or Illumination (A) – the first requirement for remote sensing is to have
an energy source which illuminates or provides electromagnetic energy to the target of
interest.
2. Radiation and the Atmosphre (B) – as the energy travels from its source to the target,
it will come in contact with and interact with the atmosphere it passes through. This
interaction may take place a second time as the energy travels from the target to the sensor.
3. Interaction with the Target (C) - once the energy makes its way to the target through the
atmosphere, it interacts with the target depending on the properties of both the target and the
radiation.
4. Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D) - after the energy has been scattered by,
or emitted from the target, we require a sensor (remote - not in contact with the target) to
collect and record the electromagnetic radiation.
5. Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E) - the energy recorded by the sensor has to be
transmitted, often in electronic form, to a receiving and processing station where the data are
processed into an image (hardcopy and/or digital).
6. Interpretation and Analysis (F) - the processed image is interpreted, visually and/or
digitally or electronically, to extract information about the target which was illuminated.
7. Application (G) - the final element of the remote sensing process is achieved when
we apply the information we have been able to extract from the imagery about the target in
order to better understand it, reveal some new information, or assist in solving a particular
problem.
HISTRY OF REMOTE SENSING:
1839 - first photograph
1858 - first photo from a balloon
1903 - first plane
1909 first photo from a plane
1903-4 -B/W infrared film
WW I and WW II
1960 - space
1.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

The first requirement for remote sensing is to have an energy source to illuminate
the target (unless thesensed energy is being emitted by the target). This energy is in the form
of electromagnetic radiation. All electromagnetic radiation has fundamental properties and
behaves in predictable ways according to the basicsof wave theory.
Electromagnetic radiation consists of an electrical field (E) which varies

inmagnitude in a direction perpendicular to the direction in which the radiation is traveling,
and a magnetic field (M) oriented at right angles to the electrical field. Both these fields

travel at the speed of light (c). Two characteristics of electromagnetic radiation are
particularly important to understand remote sensing. These are the wavelength and
frequency.
Electromagnetic radiation (EMR) as an electromagnetic wave that travels through

space at the speed of light C which is 3x108 meters per second.
Theoretical model of random media including the anisotropic effects, random distribution
discrete scatters, rough surface effects, have been studied for remote sensing with
electromagnetic waves.
L ig h t - c a n b e th o u g h t o f a s a w a v e in th e 'e le c tro m a g n e tic fie ld ' o f th e u n iv e rse
W a v e le n g th
F re q u e n c y
(h o w m a n y tim e s p e a k
p a sse s p e r se c o n d )
A w a v e c a n b e c h a ra c te riz e d b y its w a v e le n g th o r its fre q u e n c y

Fig 1.2 – Wavelength and frequency
The wavelength is the length of one wave cycle, which can be measured as the
distance between successive wave crests. Wavelength is usually represented by the Greek
letter lambda (λ). Wavelength is measured in metres (m) or some factor of metres such as
nanometres (nm, 10-9 metres), micrometres (μm, 10-6 metres) (μm, 10-6 metres) or
centimetres (cm, 10-2 metres). Frequency refers to the number of cycles of a wave passing a
fixed point per unit of time. Frequency is normally measured in hertz (Hz), equivalent to one
cycle per second, and various multiples of hertz.
Wavelength and frequency are related by the following formula:
Therefore, the two are inversely related to each other. The shorter the wavelength, the
higher the frequency. The longer the wavelength, the lower the frequency. Understanding the
characteristics of electromagnetic radiation in terms of their wavelength and frequency
iscrucial to understanding the information to be extracted from remote sensing data.
The electromagnetic spectrum ranges from the shorter wavelengths (including gamma
and x-rays) to the longer wavelengths (including microwaves and broadcast radio waves).
There are several regions of the electromagnetic spectrum which are useful for remote
sensing.

Fig 1.3 – Electromagnetic Spectrum

1.4 WAVELENGTH REGIONS IMPORTANT TO REMOTE SENSING:
1.4.1 Ultraviolet or UV
For the most purposes ultraviolet or UV of the spectrum shortest wavelengths are
practical for remote sensing. This wavelength beyond the violet portion of the visible
wavelengths hence it name. Some earth surface materials primarly rocks and materials are
emit visible radiation when illuminated by UV radiation.
1.4.2 Visible Spectrum

The light which our eyes - our "remote sensors" - can detect is part of the visible
spectrum. It is important to recognize how small the visible portion is relative to the rest of
the spectrum. There is a lot of radiation around us which is"invisible" to our eyes, but can be
detected by other remote sensing instruments and used to our advantage. The visible
wavelengths cover a range from approximately 0.4 to 0.7 μm. The longest visible wavelength
is red and the shortest is violet. Common wavelengths of what we perceive as particular
colours from the visible portion of the spectrum are listed below. It isimportant to note that
this is the only portion of the spectrum we can associate with the concept of colours.
Violet: 0.4 -0.446 μm
Blue: 0.446 -0.500 μm
Green: 0.500 -0.578 μm
Yellow: 0.578 -0.592 μm

Orange: 0.592 -0.620 μm
Red: 0.620 -0.7 μm
Blue, green, and red are the primary colours or wavelengths of the visible spectrum.
Theyare defined as such because no single primary colour can be created from the other two,
but all other colours can be formed by combining blue, green, and red in various proportions.
Although we see sunlight as a uniform or homogeneous colour, it is actually composed of
various wavelengths of radiation in primarily the ultraviolet, visible and infrared portions of
the spectrum. The visible portion of this radiation can be shown in its component colours
when sunlight is passed through a prism, which bends the light in differing amounts
according to wavelength.
1.4.3 Infrared (IR)
The next portion of the spectrum of interest is the infrared (IR) region which covers the
wavelength range from approximately 0.7 μm to 100 μm more than 100 times as wide as the
visible portion. The infrared can be divided into 3 categories based on their radiation
properties-the reflected near- IR middle IR and thermal IR.
The reflected near IR covers wavelengths from approximately 0.7 μm to 1.3 μm is
commonly used to expose black and white and color-infrared sensitive film.
The middle-infrared region includes energy with a wavelength of 1.3 to 3.0 μm.
The thermal IR region is quite different than the visible and reflected IR portions, as
this energy is essentially the radiation that is emitted from the Earth's surface in the form of
heat. The thermal IR covers wavelengths from approximately 3.0 μm to 100 μm.
Microwave
This wavelength (or frequency) interval in the electromagnetic spectrum is commonly

referred to as a band, channel or region.The major subdivision
The portion of the spectrum of more recent interest to remote sensing is the
microwave region from about 1 mm to 1 m. This covers the longest wavelengths used for
remote sensing. The shorter wavelengths have properties similar to the thermal infrared
region while the longer wavelengths approach the wavelengths used for radio
broadcasts.


1.5 WAVE THEORY AND PARRTICAL THEORY

Light can exhibit both a wave theory, and a particle theory at the same time. Much of
the time, light behaves like a wave. Light waves are also called electromagnetic waves
because they are made up of both electric (E) and magnetic (H) fields. Electromagnetic fields
oscillate perpendicular to the direction of wave travel, and perpendicular to each other. Light
waves are known as transverse waves as they oscillate in the direction traverse to the
direction of wave travel.
Fig 1.4 – Electromagnetic propagation

Waves have two important characteristics - wavelength and frequency.
The sine wave is the fundamental waveform in nature. When dealing with light waves, we
refer to the sine wave. The period (T) of the waveform is one full 0 to 360 degree sweep. The
relationship of frequency and the period is given by the equation:
f =1/T
T =1/f
The waveforms are always in the time domain and go on for infinity.
The speed of a wave can be found by multiplying the two units together. The wave's speed is
measured in units of length (distance) per second:
Wavelength x Frequency = Speed
As proposed by Einstein, light is composed of photons, a very small packets of energy. The
reason that photons are able to travel at light speeds is due to the fact that they have no mass
and therefore, Einstein's infamous equation - E=MC2 cannot be used. Another formula
devised by Planck, is used to describe the relation between photon energy and frequency -
Planck's Constant (h) - 6.63x10-34 Joule-Second.
E = hf(or)E = hc /ɣ
E is the photonic energy in Joules, h is Planks constant and f is the frequency in Hz.

1.5.1 PARTICAL THEORY

The basic idea of quantum theory is that radiant energy is transmitted inindivisible
packets whose energy is given in integral parts, of size hv, where h is Planck's constant =
6.6252 x 10-34 J - s, and v is the frequency of the radiation. These are called quanta or
photons.
The dilemma of the simultaneous wave and particle waves of electromagneticenergy
may be conceptually resolved by considering that energy is not supplied continuously
throughout a wave, but rather that it is carried by photons. The classical wave theory does not
give the intensity of energy at a point in space, but gives the probability of finding a photon at
that point. Thus the classical concept of a wave yields to the idea that a wave simply
describes the probability path for the motion of the individual photons.
The particular importance of the quantum approach for remote sensing is thatit
provides the concept of discrete energy levels in materials. The values and arrangement of
these levels are different for different materials. Information about a given material is thus
available in electromagnetic radiation as a consequence of transitions between these energy
levels. A transition to a higher energy level is caused by the absorption of energy, or from a
higher to a lower energy level is caused by the' emission of energy. The amounts of energy
either absorbed or emitted correspond precisely to the energy difference between the two
levels involved in the transition. Because the energy levels are different for each material, the
amount of energy a particular substance can absorb or emit is different for that material from
any other materials. Consequently, the position and intensities of the bands in the spectrum of
a given material are characteristic to that material.
1.6 STEFAN–BOLTZMANN LAW
Stefan–Boltzmann law, also known as Stefan's law, describes the power radiated from
a black body in terms of itstemperature. Specifically, the Stefan–Boltzmann law states that
the total energy radiated per unit surface area of a black body across all wavelengths per
unit time (also known as the black-body radiant exitance or emissive power), , is
directlyproportional to the fourth power of the black body's thermodynamic temperature T:
1. 7 WIEN'S DISPLACEMENT LAW

Wien's displacement law states that the black body radiation curve for different
temperatures peaks at a wavelength inversely proportional to the temperature. The shift of
that peak is a direct consequence of the Planck radiation law which describes the spectral
brightness of black body radiation as a function of wavelength at any given temperature.
However it had been discovered by Wilhelm Wien several years before Max
Planck developed that more general equation, and describes the entire shift of the spectrum of
black body radiation toward shorter wavelengths as temperature increases.
Formally, Wien's displacement law states that the spectral radiance of black body radiation
per unit wavelength, peaks at the wavelength λmax given by:
where T is the absolute temperature in degrees kelvin. b is a constant of

proportionality called Wien's displacement constant, equal to 2.8977721(26)×10−3 m
K.[1], or more conveniently to obtain wavelength in microns, b≈2900 μm K. If one is
considering the peak of black body emission per unit frequency or per proportional

bandwidth, one must use a different proportionality constant. However the form of the
law remains the same: the peak wavelength is inversely proportional to temperature (or
the peak frequency is directly proportional to temperature).
Wien's displacement law may be referred to as "Wien's law", a term which is also used
for the Wien approximation.
1.8 ENERGY INTERACTIONS WITH THE ATMOSPHERE

Before radiation used for remote sensing reaches the Earth's surface it has to
travel through some distance of the Earth's atmosphere. Particles and gases in the
atmosphere can affect the incoming light and radiation. These effects are caused by the
mechanisms of scattering and absorption .
Fig 1.5 Energy Interaction with Atmosphere

1.8.1 SCATTERING
Scattering occurs when particles or large gas
molecules present in the atmosphere interact with and cause the electromagnetic
radiation to be redirected from its original path. How much scattering takes place depends
on several factors including the wavelength of the radiation, the abundance of
particles or gases, and the distance the radiation travels through the atmosphere. There
are three (3) types of scattering which take place.
1.8.2 RAYLEIGH SCATTERING

Rayleigh scattering occurs when particles are very small compared to the
wavelength of the radiation. These could bearticles such as small specks of dust or nitrogen
and oxygen molecules. Rayleigh scattering causes shorter wavelengths of energy to be
scattered much more than longer wavelengths. Rayleigh scattering is the dominant
scattering mechanism in the upper atmosphere.The fact that the sky appears "blue" during the
day is because of this phenomenon. As sunlight passes through the atmosphere, the shorter
wavelengths (i.e. blue) of the visible spectrum are scattered more than the other (longer)
visible wavelengths. At sunrise and sunset the light has to travel farther through the
atmosphere than at midday and the scattering of the shorter wavelengths is more complete;
this leaves a greater proportion of the longer wavelengths to penetrate the atmosphere.

Fig 1.6 Raleigh Scattering

1.8.3ABSORPTION
Absorption is the other main mechanism at work when electromagnetic radiation
interacts with the atmosphere. In contrast to scattering, this phenomenon causes
molecules in the atmosphere to absorb energy at various wavelengths. Ozone, carbon
dioxide, and water vapor are the three main atmospheric constituents which absorb
radiation. Ozone serves to absorb the harmful (to most living things) ultraviolet
radiation for the sun. Without this protective layer in the atmosphere our skin would
burn when exposed to sunlight. Carbon dioxide referred to as a greenhouse gas. This
is because it tends to absorb radiation strongly in the far infrared portion of the
spectrum - that area associated with thermal heating - which serves to trap this heat
inside the atmosphere. Water vapour in the atmosphere absorbs much of the incoming
longwave infrared and shortwave microwave radiation (between 22μm and 1m). The
presence of water vapour in the lower atmosphere varies greatly from location to
location and at different times of the year. For example, the air mass above a desert
would have very little water vapour to absorb energy, while the tropics would have
high concentrations of water vapour (i.e. high humidity).
1.8.4 MIE SCATTERING

Mie scattering occurs when the particles are just about the same size as the
wavelength of the radiation. Dust, pollen, smoke and water vapour are common causes of
Mie scattering which tends to affect longer wavelengths than those affected by Rayleigh
scattering. Mie scattering occurs mostly in the lower portions of the atmosphere where larger
particles are more abundant, and dominates when cloud conditions are overcast.
The final scattering mechanism of importance is called nonselective scattering. This

occurs when the particles are much larger than the wavelength of the radiation.
Water droplets and large dust particles can cause this type of scattering. Nonselective
scattering gets its name from the fact that all wavelengths are scattered about equally. This
type of scattering causes fog and clouds to appear white to our eyes because blue, green, and
red light are all scattered in approximately equal quantities (blue+green+red light = white
light).

1.9 ATMOSPHERIC WINDOWS

While EMR is transmitted from the sun to the surface of the earth, it passes through
the atmosphere. Here, electromagnetic radiation is scattered and absorbed by gases and dust
particles. Besides the major atmospheric gaseous components like molecular nitrogen and
oxygen, other constituents like water vapour, methane, hydrogen, helium and nitrogen
compounds play important role in modifying electro magnetic radiation. This affects image
quality. Regions of the electromagnetic spectrum in which the atmosphere is transparent are
called atmospheric windows. In other words, certain spectral regions of the electromagnetic
radiation pass through the atmosphere without much attenuation are called atmospheric
windows. The atmosphere is practically transparent in the visible region of the
electromagnetic spectrum and therefore, many of the satellite based remote sensing sensors
are designed to collect data in this region. Some of the commonly used atmospheric windows
are shown in the figure.
Figure . They are: 0.38-0.72 microns (visible), 0.72-3.00 microns (near infra-red and middle
infra-red), and 8.00-14.00 microns (thermal infra-red).
Transmission100%UVVisibleInfraredEnergy Blocked0.3 Wavelength (microns)1101001 mm
1.10 SPECTRAL SIGNATURE CONCEPTS-TYPICAL SPECTRAL REFLECTANCE

CHARACTRISTICS OF WATER, VEGETATION AND SOIL:
A basic assumption made in remote sensing is that a specific target has anindividual
and characteristic manner of interacting with incident radiation. The manner of interaction is
described by the spectral response of the target. The spectral reflectance curves describe the
spectral response of a target in a particular wavelength region of electromagnetic spectrum,
which, in turn depends upon certain factors, namely, orientation of the sun (solar azimuth),
the height of the Sun in the sky (solar elevation angle), the direction in which the sensor is
pointing relative to nadir (the look angle) and nature of the target, that is, state of health of
vegetation.

Fig 1.8 Spectral reflectance Curve

Every object on the surface of the earth has its unique spectral reflectance.Fig. 1.8
shows the average spectral reflectance curves for three typical earth's features: vegetation,
soil and water. The spectral reflectance curves for vigorous vegetation manifests the "Peak-
and-valley" configuration. The valleys in the visible portion of the spectrum are indicative of
pigments in plant leaves. Dips in reflectance (Fig. 1.8) that can be seen at wavelengths of
0.65 .µm, 1.4 µm and 1.9 µm are attributable to absorption of water by leaves. The soil curve
shows a more regular variation of reflectance. Factors that evidently affect soil reflectance
are moisture content, soil texture, surface roughness, and presence of organic matter. The
term spectral signature can also be used for spectral reflectance curves. Spectral signature is a
set of characteristics by which a material or an object may be identified on any satellite image
or photograph within the given range of wavelengths. Sometime&,spectral signatures are
used to denote the spectral response of a target.
The characteristic spectral reflectance curve Fig1.8 for water shows thatfrom about 0.5µm, a
reduction in reflectance with increasing wavelength, so that in the near infrared range, the
reflectance of deep, clear water is virtually a zero (Mather, 1987). However, the spectral
reflectance of water is significantly affected by the presence of dissolved and suspended
organic and inorganic material and by thedepth of the water body. Fig. 1.8 shows the spectral
reflectance curves for visible and near-infrared wavelengths at the surface and at 20 m depth.
Suspended solids
in water scatter the down welling radiation, the degree of scatter being proportional to the
concentration and the color of the sediment. Experimental studies in the field and in the
laboratory as well as experience with multispectral remote sensing have shown that the
specific targets are characterized by an individual spectral response. Indeed the successful
development of remote sensing of environment over the past decade bears witness to its
validity. In the remaining part of this section, typical and representative spectral reflectance
curves for characteristic types of the surface materials are considered. Imagine a beach on a

beautiful tropical island. of electromagnetic radiation with the top layer of sand grains on the
beach. When an incident ray of electromagnetic radiation strikes an air/grain interface, part of
the ray is reflected and part of it is transmitted into the sand grain. The solid lines in the
figure represent the incident rays, and dashed lines 1, 2, and 3 represent rays reflected from
the surface but have never penetrated a sand grain. The latter are called specular rays by
Vincent and Hunt (1968), and surface-scattered rays by Salisbury and Wald
(1992); these rays result from first-surface reflection from all grains encountered. For a given
reflecting surface, all specular rays reflected in the same direction, such that the angle of
reflection (the angle between the reflected rays and the normal, or perpendicular to the
reflecting surface) equals the angle of incidence (the angle between the incident rays and the
surface normal). The measure of how much electromagnetic radiation is reflected off a
surface is called its reflectance, which is a number between 0 and 1.0. A measure of 1.0
means the 100% of the incident radiation is reflected off the surface, and a measure of 0
means that 0% is reflected.

CHAPTER 2
PLATFORMS AND SENSORS
2.1 TYPES OF PLATFORMS
Thebase,onwhichremotesensorsareplacedtoacquireinformationabouttheEarth’s surface,is
calledplatform.Platformscanbe stationarylike atripod(forfieldobservation)andstationary
balloonsormobilelikeaircraftsandspacecraft’s. Thetypesofplatformsdependupontheneeds
aswellasconstraintsoftheobservationmission.
Therearethreemaintypesofplatforms, namely 1) Ground borne, 2) Air borne and 3) Space
borne.
2.1.1.
GROUNDBORNEPLATFORMS:TheseplatformsareusedonthesurfaceoftheEarth.Cher
ryarm configuration of Remote Sensing van and tripod are the two commonly used
ground borne platforms.
Theyhavethecapabilityofviewingtheobjectfromdifferentanglesandare
mainly used for collecting the ground truth or for laboratory simulation studies.
2.1.2.
AIRBORNEPLATFORMS:TheseplatformsareplacedwithintheatmosphereoftheEartha
ndcan be further classified intoballoonsandaircrafts.
a. Balloons: Balloons as platforms are not very expensive like aircrafts. They have a
great variety o f s h a p e s , sizes and performance capabilities. Theballoons h a v e
low acceleration,requirenopowerandexhibitlowvibrations. Therearethreemaintypes
ofballoonsystems,viz.freeballoons,TetheredballoonsandPoweredBalloons. Free
balloonscan reach almostthetopoftheatmosphere;hencetheycanprovideaplatform at
intermediate altitude between those of aircraft and space craft.
Thousands of kilograms of scientific payloads can be lifted by free balloons.
Unless a mobile launching system is developed, the flights can be carried out
only from a fixed launching station. The free balloons are dependent on
meteorological conditions, particularlywinds.Theflight
trajectorycannotbecontrolled. Allthesemakeextremely
difficulttopredictwhethertheballoonswillflyoverthespecificareaofinterestornot.
InIndia,atpresent,Tata Institute of Fundamental Research,Mumbai,hassetupa
NationalballoonfacilityatHyderabad. Teetheredballoonsareconnectedtotheearth
stationbymeansofwireshavinghightensionalstrengthandhighflexibility.
The
teetheredlinecancarrytheantenna,powerlinesandgastubesetc.whenwindvelocity
islessthan35km.perhouratthealtitudeof3000m.,spheretypeballoonisused. When the
wind velocity is less than 30 km per hour, natural shape balloons are
restrictedtobeplaced. Tetheredballoons havethecapabilityofkeepingtheequipment at a
fixed position for a long time and thus, useful for many remote sensing
programmers.Powered balloonsrequiresomemeansofpropulsiontomaintainor achieve
station o v e r a d e s i g n a t e d geographic location. These can be remotely
controlledandguidedalongwithapathorfly above a given area within certain limitations.
b. Aircrafts: Aircrafts are commonly used as remote-sensing for obtaining Aerial
Photographs. In India, four types of aircrafts are being used for remote sensing
operations.These are asfollows:
DAKOTA:Theceilingheightis 5.6 to 6.2 kmand minimum speed is 240 km./hr.

AVRO: Ceiling height is 7.5 kmand minimum speed is 600 km./hr.

CESSNA: Ceiling height is 9 km. and minimum speed is 350 km./hr.
CANBERRA: Ceiling height is 40 km.and minimumspeed is 560
km./hr.
The following special aircrafts are being used in abroad for remote sensing
operations in high altitude photography.
U-2:Ceilingheightis21km.(forstrategicphotographic).Minimum speedis798
km./hr.
ROCKELL X-15 (Research Craft): Ceiling height is 108 km. and speed is 6620
km./hr.
Theadvantagesofusingaircraftsasremotesensingplatform are:highresolution
ofdatarecorded,possibilityofcarryinglargepayloads,capabilityofimaginglarge
areaeconomically,accessibility ofremoteareas,convenienceofselectingdifferent
scales,adequatecontrolatalltimeetc. However,duetolimitationsofoperating
altitudes and range, the aircraftfindsitsgreatestapplicationsinlocalorregional
programmeratherthanmeasurementsonglobal scale. Besidesallthese,aircraftshave
beenplayinganimportantroleinthedevelopmentofspaceborneremotesensing
Techniques. Testingofsensorsandvarioussystemsandsubsystemsinvolvedinspace
borne remote sensing programmeis alwaysundertaken in a well-equipped aircraft.
2.1.3.SPACEBORNEPLATFORMS:Platformsinspace,i.e.satellitesarenotaffectedbytheear
th’s atmosphere. Theseplatformsmovefreelyintheirorbitsaroundtheearth.
Theentireearthor anypartoftheearthcan becovered at specified intervals.
Thecoveragemainlydependson theorbitofthesatellite.
Itisthroughthesespaceborneplatforms,wegetenormousamount
ofremotesensingdataandasaresultRemote Sensinghasgainedinternationalpopularity.
Accordingtotheorbitalmode, therearetwotypesof satellites– Geostationary orEarth
synchronous and sun-synchronous.
2.2 ORBIT TYPES GEO- SYNCHRONOUS AND SUN-SYNCHRONOUS
Fig 2.1 Geo – Stationary and Sun synchronous satellites
2.2.1 GEO-

STATIONARYSATELLITES:Geostationarysatellitesarethesatelliteswhichrevol
veround theearthabovetheequatorattheheight ofabout36,000to41,000km.,
inthedirection of earth’s rotation. Theymakeonerevolutionin24hours, synchronous
withtheearth’s rotation(Fig.2).Asaresult,itappearsstationary withrespect toearth.
Theseplatforms always cover a specific area and give continuous coverage over
the same area day and night. Their coverage is limited to 70 N and 70 S latitudes
and one satellite can view onethirdglobe.
Thesearemainlyusedforcommunicationandweathermonitoring. Some ofthese
satellites are INSAT, METSAT and ERS series.
2.2.2 SUN-SYNCHRONOUSSATELLITES:Sun-
synchronoussatellitesarethesatelliteswhichrevolved roundtheearthinnorth-
southdirection(poleto pole)attheheightofabout300to1000 km. (Fig.2.1)they pass
over places on earth having the same latitude twice in each orbit
atthesamelocalsun-time,hencearecalled sun-synchronous satellites. Throughthese
satellites, the entire globe is covered on regular basis and gives repetitive coverage
on periodicbasis. Alltheremotesensingresourcessatellitesmaybegroupedinthis
category. Fewofthesesatellitesare:LANDSAT,IRS,SPOTseriesandNOAA,
SKYLAB, SPACE SHUTTLE etc.
2.3 PASSIVE AND ACTIVE SENSORS

Remotesensorsaretheinstrumentswhichdetectvariousobjectsontheearth’ssurface
bymeasuringelectromagneticenergyreflectedoremittedfromthem. Thesensorsaremounted
ontheplatformsdiscussedabove. Differentsensorsrecorddifferentwavelengthsbandsof
electromagneticenergycomingfromtheearth’ssurface. Asforexample,anordinarycamerais the
most familiar type ofremote sensor which uses visible portion of electromagnetic radiation.
Classification of Sensors
Remote sensors can be classifiedin different ways as follows.
1. OntheBasisofSourceofEnergyUsed:Onthebasisofsourceofenergyusedbythe sensors,
they can be classified into two types – Active sensors and Passive sensors.
2.3.1ACTIVESENSORS: Active sensors use their own source of energy and
earth surface is illuminatedbythisenergy.
Thenapartofthisenergyisreflectedback whichis received by the sensor to
gather information about the earth’s surface (Fig.3).
Whenphotographiccamerausesitsflash,it actsasanactivesensor. Radarand
laseraltimeterareactivesensors. Radariscomposedofatransmitteranda
receiver. Thetransmitter emitsawave,whichstrikesobjectsandisthenreflected
or echoed back to the receiver. The properties of an active sensor are: 1) It
uses both transmitter and receiverunitstoproduceimagery, hence it requires
high energy levels. 2) It mostly works in microwave regions of EMR
spectrum, which can penetrate clouds and is not affected by rain. 3) It is an
all weather, day-night system
andindependentofsolarradiation.4)TheRADARsignaldoesnotdetect colour
information or temperature information, but it can detect the roughness,
slope and electrical conductivityof the objects under study.
2.3.2. PASSIVESENSORS:Passivesensorsdonothavetheirownsourceofenergy.
The earth surface is illuminated by sun/solar energy. The reflected solar energy
from theearthsurfaceortheemittedelectromagneticenergybytheearthsurfaceitself
is received by the sensor (Fig.3). Photographic camera is a passive sensor when
it isusedinsunlight,withoutusingitsflash.Thepropertiesofapassivesensorare:

1)Itisrelativelysimplebothmechanicallyand electrically anditdoesnothave high

power requirement. 2) The wavebands, where natural remittance or reflected
levelsarelow,highdetectorsensitivitiesand wideradiation collectionapertures
arenecessarytoobtainareasonable signal level. Therefore,mostpassivesensors are
relatively wide band systems. 3) It depends upon good weather conditions.
2. OntheBasisofFunctionofSensors:Onthebasisoffunctionofsensors,theyaredivided into
two main types - Framing System and Scanning System.
a. Framingsystem:Inframingsystem,twodimensionalimagesareformedatone
singleinstant. Here,alensisusedtogatherthelightwhichispassedthrough various
filters and then focused on a flat photosensitive target. In
ordinary camera,thetargetisfilm emulsion,whereasinvidiconcamera,thetargetis
electrically charged plate.
b. ScanningSystem:Inscanningsystem,asingledetector/anumberofdetectors
withspecificfieldof view,isusedwhichsweepsacross a scene in a series of
parallellinesandcollectdataforcontinuouscellstoproduceanimage. Multi
SpectralScanner,MicrowaveRadiometer,MicrowaveRadar,OpticalScanners are
few examples of scanning system sensors.
3. OntheBasisofTechnicalComponentsoftheSystem:Thesensorscanbeclassifiedinto
threecategoriesonthebasisoftechnicalcomponentsofthesystem andthecapabilityof
thedetection. Theseare:1)Multispectralimagingsensorsystems,2)Thermalremote
sensing systems, and 3) Microwave radar sensing systems. The multispectral or
multiband imaging systems may use conventional type camers or may use a
combination ofbothcamerasandscannersforvarious bandsofelectromagneticenergy.Asfor
example,ReturnBeamVidicon(RBV)sensorofLandsatusesbothphotographicandScanning
systems,whichissimilartoanordinaryTVcamera. Thethermalsystem uses
radiometers,photometers,spectrometers,thermometerstodetectthe temperature changes
wheremicrowavesensingsystemsusetheantennaarraysforcollectinganddetectingthe
energy from the terrain elements.

Fig 2.2 active and passive sensor
1.4 RESOLUTION CONCEPT:
1.4.1 SPATIAL RESOLUTION:

It is a measure of the smallest angular or linear separation between two objects that
can be resolved by the sensor. The greater the sensor’s resolution, the greater the data volume
and smaller the area covered. In fact, the area coverage and resolution areinter‐dependent and
these factors determine the scale of the imagery.
Spatial resolution is a complex concept which can, for the purpose of remotesensing of polar
regions, be defined as the smallest object that can be detected and distinguished from a point.
The most frequently used measure, based upon the geometriC properties of an imaging
system, is the instantaneous field of view (IFOV) of a sensor. The IFOV is the area on the
surface that is theoretically viewed by the Instrument from a given altitude at a given time.
The spatial resolution is usually determined by instrumental parameters and by the height of
the satellite above the ground. With the exception of active microwave systems, the
resolution of a system cannot be better than approximately HIID (the diffraction limit), where
H is the height, I is the wavelength and 0 is the diameter of the objective lens, objective
mirror or antenna. This limit is typically of the order of 10 to 100 m for VIS and IR systems
operating from satellites in low orbits, and typically 1 to 10 km when the satellite is
geostationary. For passive microwave observations, the resolution limit is much coarser (of
the order of tens of km) because of the larger wavelength measured.
It was stated that the best achievable spatial resolution is of the order of HI/D (except for
some types of radar system), although some non-radar systems may not reach this resolution
because of other instrumental effects. Two important examples are sensors in which the
incoming radiation is focused on to an image array of discrete detecting elements, and
photographic systems. The detecting element or film imposes its own maximum resolution,
again proportional to the height H and, if this is poorer than the diffraction-limited resolution,
it will dominate.

The spatial resolution achievable by radar systems is very dependent on theway the
data from the system are processed. Such systems are often pulsed, and one important factor
is the length of the emitted pulse. Synthetic aperture radars (SARs) also integrate the return
signal for a period of time while the radar is carried forward on its platform, and the
integration time also influences the resolution. It is not possible to give here a statement of
the general principles determining radar spatial resolution, and the interested reader is
referred to treatments given by Ulaby, Moore and Fung (1981 and 1982), Elachi (1987) and
Rees (1990). Spatial resolution of an imaging system can be measured in a number of
different ways. It is the size of the smallest object that can be discriminated by the sensor.
The greater the sensor's resolution, the greater the data volume and smaller the area covered.
In fact, area coverage and resolution are interdependent and these two factors determine the
scale of an imagery. Altematively, spatial resolution can be said to be the length of the size of
the area on the ground represented by a pixel on an image. The basIs for the definition of
spatial resolution can depend on four criteria, namely, : (i) Geometrical properties of the
imaging system, (ii) the ability to distinguish between point targets, (iii) the ability to
meaSllre the periodicity of repetitive targets, and (iv) the ability to measure the spectral
properties of small targets (Mather, 1999).
Spatial resolution of any satellite sensor applies to the image produced by thesystem,
whereas resolving power of any photograph applies to an imaging system or a component of
the system. As mentioned earlier, the most commonly used measure for spatial resolution of
any sensor, based on the geometric properties of the imaging system, is the Instantaneous
Field of View (IFOV) of a sensor. IFOV is defined as thearea on the ground that is viewed by
an instrument from a given altitude at any given instant of time. Fig. 2.3 illustrates the
relationship between the swath width and the IFOV. The IFOV can be measured in one of the
two ways, (i) by measuring angle "a"and (ii) by measuring the distance XY on the ground.
Fig 2.3 IFOV

1.4.2 SPECTRAL RESOLUTION:
It refers to the dimension and number of specific wavelength intervals in the
electromagnetic spectrum to which a sensor is sensitive. Narrow bandwidths in certain
regions of the electromagnetic spectrum allow the discrimination of various features more
easily. Temporal resolution: It refers to how often a given sensor obtains imagery of a
particular area. Ideally, the sensor obtains data repetitively to capture unique discriminating
characteristics of the phenomena of interest.
It is the width of the spectral band and the number of spectral bands in whichthe image is
taken. Narrow band widths in certain regions of the electromagnetic spectrum allow us to
discriminate between the various features more easily. Consequently, we need to have more
number of spectra! bands, each having a narrow bandwidth, and these bands should together
cover the entire spectral range of interest. The digital images collected by satellite sensors

except microwave sensing systems like Seasat, SIR B Radarsat, have been multi-band or
multispectral, individual images separately recorded in discrete spectral bands. Multispectral
imaging refers to viewing a given area in several narrow bands to obtain better identification
andclassification of objects. Multistage imaging refers to the observations of the same area
from different positions of the platforms (stereoscopic data). Multistage imaging refers to the
observations made over the same area on different dates to monitor the objects like crop
growth. This is also called temporal resolution. The term spectral resolution refers to the
width of the spectral bands. Spectral resolution can be explained by considering two points,
(i) the position of the spectrum, width and number of spectral bands will determine the
degree to which individual targets can be determined on the multispectral image, and (ii) the
use of multispectral imagery can lead to a higher degree of discriminating power than any
single band taken on its own.
1.4.3 RADIOMETRIC RESOLUTION:

It is the capability to differentiate the spectral reflectance/ remittance from various
targets. This depends on the number of quantization levels within the spectral band. In other
words, the number of bits of digital data in the spectral band will decide the Sensitivity of the
sensor.
It is the smallest difference in exposure that can be detected in a given film analysis. It
is also the ability of a given sensing system to discriminate between density leve:s. In
general, the radiometric resolution is inversely proportional to contrast, so that higher
contrast film is able to resolve smaller differences in exposure. Low contrast films have
greater radiometric range while highest contrast films have smaller exposure range and lower
radiometric range.
1.5 PAY LOAD DESCRIPTION OF IMPORTANT EARTH RESOURCES AND

METEROLOGICAL SATELLITES
1.5.1 EARTH RESOURCES SATELLITES

There are three distinct groups of earth resources satellites. The first group of
satellites record visible and near visible wavelengths. The five satellites of Landsat series
which are the first generation earth resources satellites are a classic example of this group.
The four IRS satellites and the more improved SPOT series of these satellites may be
considered the second generation earth resources satellites of the same group. Group two
satellites carry sensors that record thermal infrared wavelengths and include the Heat
Capacity Mapping Mission sate·llites, namely, Explorer series. Group three satellites are
deployed with sensors that record microwavelengths. The seasat series and the ERS are
examples of this group.
1.5.2 LANDSAT SATELLITE PROGRAMME
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) of USA with the

cooperation of the U.S. Department of Interior planned the launching of a series of Earth
Resources Technology Satellites (ERTS). ERTS-1 was launched by a ThorDelta rocket on
July 23, 1972 and it operated until January 6,1978. It represented the first unmanned satellite
designed to acquire data about the earth resources on a systematic, repetitive, medium
resolution, multispectral basis. Subsequently, NASA renamed the ERTS programme as
"Landsat" programme to distinguish it from the series of meteorological and oceanographic
satellites that the USA launched later. ERTS-1 was retrospectively named Landsat-1. Five
Landsat satellites have been launched so far and this experimental programme has evolved

into an operational global resource monitoring programme. Three different types of sensors
have been flown in various combinations on the five missions. These are Return Beam
Vidicon (RBV) camera system, the Multispectral Scanner (MSS) system and the Thematic
Mapper (TM).
Characteristics of Landsat Satellites and Their Sensors:

1.5.3 SPOT SATELLITE PROGRAMME

France, Sweden and Belgium joined together and pooled up their resources todevelop
the System Pourl' Observation dela Terre (SPOT), an earth observation satelliteprogramme.
The first satellite of the series, SPOT-1 was launched from Kourou LaunchRange in French
Guiana on February 21,1986 aboard an Ariance Launch vehicle (AIV).This is the first earth
resource satellite system to include a linear array sensor employingthe push broom scanning
technique. This enables side-to-side oft-nadir viewingcapabilities and affords a full scene
stereoscopic imaging from two different viewingpoints of the same area. The high resolution
data obtained from SPOT sensors, namely,Thematic Mapper (TM) and High Resolution
Visible (HRV), have been extensively usedfor urban planning, urban growth assessment,
transportation planning, besides theconventional applications related to natural resources.
Characteristics of SPOT Satellite and HRV Sensor Satellite
1.5.4 INDIAN REMOTE SENSING SATELLITE (IRS)

The IRS mission envisages the planning and implementation of a satellite basedremote
sensing system for evaluating the natural resources. The principal componentsof the mission
are: a three axis stabilised polar sunsynchronous satellite withmultispectral sensors, a ground
based data reception, recording and processingsystems for the multispectral data, ground
systems for the in-orbit satellite controlincluding the tracking network with the associated

supporting systems, and hardwareand software elements for the generation of user oriented
data products, data analysisand archival. The principal aim of the IRS mission is to use the
satellite data inconjunction with supplementary/complementary information from other
sources forsurvey and management of natural resources in important areas, such as,
agriculture,geology and hydrology in association with the user agencies. IR$ series of
satellitesare IRS lA, IRS IB, IRS IC, IRS ID and IRS P4 apart from other satellites which
werelaunched by the Government of India. The orbital and sensor characteristics of IRS
IAand IB are the same and IRS IC and IRS ID have almost similar characteristics. IRSP4is an
oceanographic satellite, and this will be discussed in the next section. IRS hasapplication
potential in a wide range of disciplines such as management of agriculturalresources,
inventory of forest resources, geological mapping, estimation of waterresources, study of
coastal hydrodynamics, and water quality surveying.The sensor payload system consists of
two push broom cameras (LiSS-II) of36.25 m resolution and one camera .(LlSS-I) of 72.5 m
resolution employing linearCharge Coupled Device (CCD) arrays as detectors. Each camera
system images infour spectral bands in the visible and near IR region. The camera system
consists of collecting optics, imaging detectors, inflight calibration equipment, and
processing
devices. The orbital characteristics of the IRS-1A, 1 B satellites and the sensorcapabilities are
given in Table 4.3. As IRS-1 D satellite is the latest satellite of theseries and hence the system
overview of IRS - 1 D is provided.
The IRS-1 D is a three-axes body stabilized satellite, similar to IRS-1 C. SinceIRS-1
C and 1 D are similar in orbital characteristics and sensor capabilities, the detailsof IRS-1 D
are discussed as it is a very recent satellite. It will have an operational lifeof three years in a
near polar sunsynchronous orbit at a mean altitude of 780 Km.The payload consists of three
sensors, namely, Panchromatic camera (PAN), linearimaging and self-scanning sensor (LiSS-
III) and wide Field sensor (WiFs). The satelliteis equipped with an On-Board Tape Recorder
(OBTR) capable of recording limitedamount of specified sensor data. Operation of each of
the sensors can be programmed.
The payload operation sequence for the whole day can be loaded daily on to theon-
board command memory when the satellite is within the visibility range. The groundsegment
consists of a Telemetry Tracking and Command (TTC) segment comprisinga TTC network,
and an Image segment comprising data acquisition, data processingand product generation
system along with data dissemination centre. The over viewof IRS-1 D mission is to provide
optimum satellite operation and a mission controlcentre for mission management, spacecraft
operations and scheduling. The threesensors on board IRS-1 D and IRS-1 C are described in
the following paragraph.
The panchromatic camera provides data with a spatial resolution of 5.2-5.8 m(at
nadir) and a ground swath between 63 Km -70 Km (at nadir). It operates in the0.50 - 0.75
microns spectral band. This camera can be steered upto ± 26 deg.storable upto ±398 Km
across the track from nadir, which in turn increases the revisitcapability to 3 days for most
part of the cycle and 7 days in some extreme cases.

2.6 METEROLOGICAL SATELLITES:
Meteorological satellites designed specifically to assist. in weather predictionand

monitoring, generally incorporate sensors that have very coarse spatial resolution compared
to land-oriented systems. These satellites, however, afford a high frequency global coverage.
USA has launched a multiple series of meteorological satellites with a wide range of orbit
and sensing system designs. The first of these series is called the NOAA, an acronym for
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. These satetlites are in near-polar,
sunsynchronous orbits similar to those of 'Landsat and IRS'. In contrast, another series of
satellites which are of essentially meteorological type, called Geostationary Operational
Environmental Satellite (GOES) series and Meteosat operated by European Space Agency,
are geostationary, remaining in a constant relative position over the equator.
2.6.1 NOAA SATELLITES

Several generations of satellites in the NOAA series have been placed in orbit.The
satellites NOAA-6 through NOAA-10 contained Advanced Very High Resolution

Radiometer (AVHRR). The even-numbered missions have daylight (7.30 A.M.) north-to-
south equatorial crossing and the odd-numbered missions have night time (2.30 A.M.) north-
to-south equatorial crossing. The basic characteristics of these missions and the AVHRR
instrument are listed in Table 4.8. Apart from routine climatological analyses, the AVHRR
data have been used extensively in studies of vegetation dynamics, flood monitoring, regional
soil moisture analysis, dust and sandstorm monitoring, forest wild fire mapping, sea surface
temperature mapping, and various geological applications, including observation of volcanic
eruptions, and mapping of regional drainage and physiographic features.
2.6.1.1 Details of NOAA Satellite and AVHRR Sensor

Characteristics of Satellite

2.6.2 GOES SATELLITES

The GOES programme is a cooperative venture between NOM and NASA. The Geo-
stationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES) are part of a global network of
meteorological satellites spaced about 70° longitude apart around the world. The GOES
images are distributed in near real-time for use in local weatherforecasting. They have also
been used in certain large area analyses such as regional snow cover mapping.
2.6.3 NIMBUS SATELLITES

This is one of the ocean monitoring satellites launched in October 1978. This satellite
carries the Coastal Zone Colour Scanner (CZCS) designed specifically to measure ocean
parameters. The details of the six bands in which the CZCS operates and the characteristics
of NIMBUS-7 satellite are presented in Table 4.10 The CZCS has been used to measure sea
surface temperatures, detection of chlorophyll and suspended solids of near-shore and coastal
waters.
2.7 AIR BORNE AND SPACEBORNE TIR AND MICROWAVE SENSORS
Components of sensor systems operating in the visible, infrared, thermaland

microwave regions of the electromagnetic spectrum are described in this section.Although
analogue photographic imagery has many advantages, this book is mainly concerned with
image data collected by scanning systems that ultimately generate digital image products. It
is apparent that the useful wavebands are mostly in the visible and the infrared for passive
remote sensing detectors and in the radar and microwave region for active type of sensors.
Accordingly the imaging sensor systemsin remote sensing are classified as shown in Fig.2.4

In the case of multiband photographic system, different parts of the spectrumare

sensed with different film-filter combinations. Multiband digital camera images and video
images are also typically exposed on to the camera's CCD or CMOS sensor (s) through
different filters. Electro-optical sensors, such as, the thematic mapper of Landsat, typically
sense in atleast several bands of electromagnetic spectrum.
Fig 2.4 Sensor System

The photographic system suffers from one major defect of considerable distortion at
the edges. This is due to a large lens opening. From lens theory, we know that distortions can
be minimised and resolution considerably improved by using a narrow beam of light. This
can be achieved by a system called scanning system. A multispectral scanner (MSS) operates
on the same principle of selective sensing in multiple spectral bands, but such instruments
can sense in many more bands and over a great range of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Because of the advancement in utilising electronic detectors, MSS can extend the range of
sensing
from 0.3 flm to 14 flm. Further MSS can sense in very narrow bands. Multispectral scanner
images are acquired by means of two basic process: across-track and along-track scanning.
Multispectral scanner systems build up two-dimensional images of the terrain for a swath
beneath the platform. Across-track systems are also called whisk broom scanner systems.
This type of scanning system scans the terrain along scanlines that are right angles to the
direction of the spaceborne/airborne platform. Fig. 4.8 illustrates the operation across-track
system.
In this type of scanning system, scanner repeatedly measures the energy from one side
of the aircraft to the other. Data are collected within an arc below the aircraft typically of 900
to 1200. Successive scan lines are covered as the aircraft moves forward, yielding a series of
contiguous or narrow strips of observation comprising a two-dimensional image of rows
(scan lines) and columns. At any instant, the scanner'sees' the energy within the systems
IFOV. This explains the spatial resolution of the sensing.
The second type of multispectral scanning system is along-track scanning systemor push
broom systems. This type of scanners record multiband image data along a swath beneath an
aircraft. As the aircraft/spacecraft advances in the forward direction, the scanner scans the

earth with respect to the designed swath to build a twodimensional image by recording
successive scanlines that are oriented at right angles to the direction of the aircraft/spacecraft.
2.7.1THERMAL SENSING SYSTEMS

Thermal scanner is one of the most important thermal sensing systems, particular kind
of across track multispectral scanner which senses in the thermal portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum by means of inbuilt detectors. These systems are restricted to
operating in either 3 to 5 I-lm or 8 to 14 I-lm range of wavelengths. The operation and the
efficiency of this type of scanning systems are based on thecharacteristics of the detectors.
Quantum or photon detectors are typically used to detect the thermal radiation. These
detectors operate on the principle of direct interaction between photons of radiation incident
on them and the energy levels of electrical charge carriers within the detector material.
Fig 2.5 thermal Sensing System

2.7.2 MICROWAVE IMAGING SYSTEMS
The fundamental principle of microwave sensing and the conceptual design of radar
have been discussed in chapter 3, where it is stated that the microwave region of the
electromagnetic spectrum includes radiation with wavelengths longer than 1 mmImaging.
Microwave instruments do not, however, rely on the detection of solar or terrestrial
emissions. In the following sections of this chapter, the properties of the operational synthetic
aperture radar (SAR) systems and Radarsat systems are presented along with other sensing
systems.
CHAPTER – 3

IMAGE INTERPRETATION AND ANALYSIS
3.1 TYPES OF DATA PRODUCTS
The main interest of social scientists and applied scientists is the data produced by
Remote Sensing technique. The Remote Sensing data are of two types – pictorial and digital.
These data products are described in the following paragraphs:
3.1.1 DIGITAL DATA PRODUCTS:
The digital data products give information in the form of array of small cells having
quantitative values which is the function of the electromagnetic energy radiated from all
objects within the field of view. A digital data product is called digital image. A digital
image is a two dimensional array of pixels (picture elements). Each pixel represents an area
on the earth’s surface and has an intensity value (represented by a digital number) and a
location address (referenced by its row and column number). The intensity value represents
the measured solar radiance in a given wavelength band reflected from the ground. The
location address is a one-to-one correspondence between the column-row address of a pixel
and the geographical coordinates (e.g. latitude and longitude) of the imaged location. The
digital image is a vast matrix of numbers and is very often stored in amagnetic tape and in
particular in a computer compatible tapes (CCT). The digital data can be converted into
photographic image.
3.1.2 PICTORIAL DATA PRODUCTS
The pictorial data products give information of objects on the earth surface in the
form of photographs or images. The pictorial products provided by aircrafts are called aerial
photographs. These are generally taken by sophisticated cameras which use visible portion
of electromagnetic energy. Therefore, aerial photographs give the exact view / picture of
objects on the earth surface on reduced scale. The aerial photographs may be black and
white or may be coloured, it depends upon the camera used in aircraft. The pictorial data
products provided by satellites are called satellite images. These images are generally taken
by sensors which use both visible and invisible portion of electromagnetic energy. The
satellite images can be black and white or can be coloured. The black and white pictures or
images are produced from each band of digital data. For a particular band, black and white
image is generated by assigning different shades of grey (white to black) to its digital data.
Likewise unicolour images (blue, green, red etc.) can be generated by assigning different
shades of blue / green/ red to a particular band data. When any three bands are combined, it
gives multi coloured imagery. If images are taken in blue, green and red bands (visible
portion of electromagnetic energy) respectively, they can be combined to give natural colour
image. If images are taken in green, red (visible portion of electromagnetic energy) and
infrared band (invisible portion of electromagnetic energy) and blue, green and red
colours are assigned to them respectively and then they are combined together, it will
produce a False Colour Composite (FCC) image. The FCC image does not give the exact
picture / view of the earth’s surface like aerial photographs. The lay person cannot visualize
anything from FCC image. Only an expert can interpret it.
3.2 TYPES OF IMAGE INTERPRETATION

We have studied two major types of Remote Sensing data products, viz. pictorial and
digital. The pictorial data products, such as aerial photographs and satellite imageries are
interpreted visually. Likewise, digital data products or digital images are interpreted
mathematically by using computer software. So, there are two ways of Remote Sensing data
interpretation – 1) Visual Interpretation and 2) Digital Interpretation
3.2.1 VISUAL INTERPRETATION:

Both aerial photographs and satellite imageries are interpreted visually.
Photogrammetry is the science which study interpretation of aerial photographs. To interpret
aerial photographs, a number of sophisticated instruments such as pocket stereoscope, mirror
stereoscope, plotter is used in photogrammetry for measuring area, height, slopes of different
parts of earth photographed and also for plotting different objects
/ Themes from aerial photographs. With the development of science and technology, satellite
imageries become more and more popular gradually. Satellite image interpretation is an art of
examining images for the purpose of identifying objects and judging their significance.
Interpreters study remote sensing image logically and attempt to identify, measure and
evaluate the significance of natural and cultural features. Image interpretation technique
requires extensive training and is labour intensive. Information extraction from imageries is
based on the characteristics of image features, such as size, shape, tone, texture, shadow,
pattern, association etc. Though this approach is simple and straight forward, it has
following short comings: i) The range of gray values product on a film or print is limited in
comparison to what can be recorded in digital form, ii) Human eye can recognize limited
number of colour tones, so full advantage of radiometric resolution cannot be used, iii) Visual
interpretation poses serious limitation when we want to combine data from various sources.
3.2.2 DIGITAL INTERPRETATION

Digital interpretation facilitates quantitative analysis of digital data with the help of
computers to extract information about the earth surface. Digital interpretation is popularly
known as ‘Image Processing’. Image processing deals with image correction, image
enhancement and information extraction. Image correction means to correct the errors in
digital image. Errors are resulted due to two reasons. When errors are resulted due to defect
in sensor (as for example if one of the detector out of ‘n’ number of detectors does not work),
it is called radiometric error. When errors are resulted due to earth rotation, space craft
velocity, atmosphere attenuation etc., it is called geometric error. Both radiometric and
geometric errors / noise in images are reduced through different techniques with the
help of computer. Image Enhancement deals with manipulation of data for improving its
quality for interpretation. Sometimes digital image lacks adequate contrast, as a result
different objects cannot be recognized properly. So, the image requires contrast
improvement. Through different image enhancement technique,contrast is improved in
digital image. After image correction / rectification, and contrast enhancement, information’s
are extracted from the digital image, which is the ultimate goal of an interpreter. In
Information Extraction, spectral values of pixels are analyzed through computer to identify /
classify objects on the earth surface. In other words, spectrally homogenous pixels in the
image are grouped together and differentiated from other groups. In this way, different
features of earth are recognised and classified. The field knowledge and other sources of
information also help in recognition and classification processes.
3.3 BASIC ELEMENTS OF IMAGE INTERPRETATION

As we noted in the previous section, analysis of remote sensing imagery involves the
identification of various targets in an image, and those targets may be environmental or
artificial features which consist of points, lines, or areas. Targets may be defined in terms of
the way they reflect or emit radiation. This radiation is measured and recorded by a sensor,
and ultimately is depicted as an image product such as an air photo or a satellite image.
What makes interpretation of imagery more difficult than the everyday visual
interpretation of our surroundings? For one, we lose our sense of depth when viewing a two-
dimensional image, unless we can view it stereoscopically so as to simulate the third
dimension of height. Indeed, interpretation benefits greatly in many applications when
images are viewed in stereo, as visualization (and therefore, recognition) of targets is
enhanced dramatically.
Viewing objects from directly above also provides a very different perspective than
what we are familiar with. Combining an unfamiliar perspective with a very different scale
and lack of recognizable detail can make even the most familiar object unrecognizable in an
image.
Finally, we are used to seeing only the visible wavelengths, and the imaging of
wavelengths outside of this window is more difficult for us to comprehend. Recognizing
targets is the key to interpretation and information extraction. Observing the differences
between targets and their backgrounds involves comparing different targets based on any, or
all, of the visual elements of tone, shape, size, pattern, texture, shadow, and association.
Visual interpretation using these elements is often a part of our daily lives, whether
we are conscious of it or not. Examining satellite images on the weather report, or following
high speed chases by views from a helicopter are all familiar examples of visual image
interpretation. Identifying targets in remotely sensed images based on these visual elements
allows us to further interpret and analyze.
Tone refers to the relative brightness or colour of objects in an image. Generally,

toneis the fundamental element for distinguishing between different targets or features.
Variations in tone also allows the elements of shape, texture, and pattern of objects to be
distinguished.
Ground objects of different colour reflect the incident radiation differentlydepending
upon the incident wave length, physical and chemical constituents of the objects. The
imagery as recorded in remote sensing is in different shades or tones. For example, ploughed
and cultivated lands record differently from fallow fields. Tone is expressed qualitatively as
light, medium and dark. In SLAR imagery, for example, the shadows cast by non-return of
the microwaves appear darker than those parts where greater reflection takes place. These
parts appear of lighter tone. Similarly in thermal imagery objects at higher temperature are
recorded of lighter tone compared to objects at lower temperature, which appear of medium
to darker tone. Similarly top soil appears as of dark tone compared to soil containing quartz
sand. The coniferous trees appear in lighter tone compared to broad leave tree clumps.
Size of objects in an image is a function of scale. It is important to assess the size of

atarget relative to other objects in a scene, as well as the absolute size, to aid in the
interpretation of that target. A quick approximation of target size can direct interpretation to
an appropriate result more quickly. For example, if an interpreter had to distinguish zones of

land use, and had identified an area with a number of buildings in it, large buildings such as
factories or warehouses would suggest commercial property, whereas small buildings would
indicate residential use.
Pattern refers to the spatial arrangement of visibly discernible objects. Typically an

Orderly repetition of similar tones and textures will produce a distinctive and ultimately
recognizable pattern. Orchards with evenly spaced trees and urban streets with regularly
spaced houses are good examples of pattern.
Texture refers to the arrangement and frequency of tonal variation in particular areas
of animage. Rough textures would consist of a mottled tone where the grey levels change
abruptly in a small area, whereas smooth textures would have very little tonal variation.
Smooth textures are most often the result of uniform, even surfaces, such as fields, asphalt,
or grasslands. A targetwith a rough surface and irregular structure, such as a forest canopy,
results in a rough textured appearance. Texture is one of the most important elements for
distinguishingfeatures in radar imagery.
Shadows cast by objects are sometimes important clues to their identification and
Interpretation. For example, shadow of a suspension bridge can easily be discriminated from
that of cantilever bridge. Similarly circular shadows are indicative of coniferous trees. Tall
buildings and chimneys, and towers etc., can easily be identified for their characteristic
shadows. Shadows on the other hand can sometimes render interpretation difficult i.e. dark
slope shadows covering important detail.
Association takes into account the relationship between other recognizable objects
orfeatures in proximity to the target of interest. The identification of features that one would
expect to associate with other features may provide information to facilitate identification. In
the example given above, commercial properties may be associated with proximity to major
transportation routes, whereas residential areas would be associated withschools,
playgrounds, and sports fields. In our example, a lake is associated with boats, a marina, and
adjacent recreational land.
3.4 VISUAL INTERPRETATION KEYS
Keys that provide useful reference of refresher materials and valuable trainingaids for
novice interpreters are called image interpretation keys. These image interpretation keys are
very much useful for the interpretation of complex imageries or photographs. These keys
provide a method of organising the information in a consistent manner and provide guidance
about the correct identification of features or conditions on the images. Ideally, it consists of
two basic parts' (i) a collection of annotated or captioned images (stereopalrs) illustrative of
the features or conditions to be identified, and (ii) a graphic or word description that sets forth
in some systematic fashion the image recognition characteristics of those features or
conditions. There are two types of keys: selective key and elimination key.
Selective Key
Selective key is also called reference key which contains numerous examples images
with supporting text. The interpreter select one example image that most nearly resembles the
fracture or condition found on the image under study.

Elimination Key
An elimination key is arranged so that interpretation process step by step from general
to specific, and leads to the elimination of all features of conditions except the one being
identified. Eliminationkeys are also called dichotomous keys where the interpreter makes a
series of choices between two alternatives and progressively eliminates all but one possible
answer.
3.5 DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING
3.5.1 Introduction
As seen in the earlier chapters, remote sensing data can be analysed using visual
image interpretation techniques if the data are in the hardcopy or pictorial form. It is used
extensively to locate specific features and conditions, which are then geocoded for inclusion
in GIS. Visual image interpretation techniques have certain disadvantages and may require
extensive training and are labour intensive. In this technique, the spectral characteristics are
not always fully evaluated because of the limited ability of the eye to discern tonal values and
analyse the spectral changes. If the data are in digital mode, the remote sensing data can be
analysed using digital image processing techniques and such a database can be used in raster
GIS. In applications where spectral patterns are more informative, it is preferable to analyse
digital data rather than pictorial data.
In today's world of advanced technology where most remote sensing data are
recorded in digital format, virtually all image interpretation and analysis involves some
element of digital processing. Digital image processing may involve numerous procedures
including formatting and correcting of the data, digital enhancement to facilitate better visual
interpretation, or even automated classification of targets and features entirely by computer.
In order to process remote sensing imagery digitally, the data must be recorded and available
in a digital form suitable for storage on a computer tape or disk. Obviously, the other
requirement for digital image processing is a computer system, sometimes referred to as an
image analysis system, with the appropriate hardware and software to process the data.
Several commercially available software systems have been developed specifically for
remote sensing image processing and analysis.
For discussion purposes, most of the common image processing functions available in image
analysis systems can be categorized into the following four categories:
Preprocessing
Image Enhancement
Image Transformation
Image Classification and Analysis
3.5.2 PREPROCESSING
Preprocessing functions involve those operations that are normally required prior
tothe maindata analysis and extraction of information, and are generally grouped as
radiometric orgeometric corrections. Radiometric corrections include correcting the data
for sensorirregularities and unwanted sensor or atmospheric noise, and converting the data so

they accurately represent the reflected or emitted radiation measured by the sensor.
Geometric corrections include correcting for geometric distortions due to sensor-Earth
geometryvariations, and conversion of the data to real world coordinates (e.g. latitude and
longitude) on the Earth's surface. The objective of the second group of image processing
functions grouped under the term of image enhancement, is solely to improve the
appearance of theimagery to assist in visual interpretation and analysis. Examples of
enhancement functionsinclude contrast stretching to increase the tonal distinction between
various features in a scene, and spatial filtering to enhance (or suppress) specific spatial
patterns in an image.
Image transformations are operations similar in concept to those for image

enhancement.However, unlike image enhancement operations which are normally applied
only to a single channel of data at a time, image transformations usually involve combined
processing of data from multiple spectral bands. Arithmetic operations (i.e. subtraction,
addition, multiplication, division) are performed to combine and transform the original bands
into "new" images which better display or highlight certain features in the scene. We will
look at some of these operations including various methods of spectral or band ratioing, and
a procedure called principal components analysis which is used to more efficiently
represent the information
Image classification and analysis operations are used to digitally identify and
classify pixelsin the data. Classification is usually performed on multi-channel data sets (A)
and this process assigns each pixel in an image to a particular class or theme (B) based on
statistical characteristics of the pixel brightness values. There are a variety of approaches
taken to perform digital classification. We will briefly describe the two generic approaches
which are used most often, namely supervised and unsupervised classification. In the
following sections we will describe each of these four categories of digital image processing
functions in more detail.
Pre-processing operations, sometimes referred to as image restoration and
rectification, are intended to correct for sensor- and platform-specific radiometric and
geometric distortions of data. Radiometric corrections may be necessary due to variations in
scene illumination and viewing geometry, atmospheric conditions, and sensor noise and
response. Each of these will vary depending on the specific sensor and platform used to

acquire the data and the conditions during data acquisition. Also, it may be desirable to
convert and/or calibrate the data to known (absolute) radiation or reflectance units to
facilitate comparison between data.
3.5.3 IMAGE ENHANCEMENT TECHNIQUES

Low sensitivity of the detectors, weak signal of the objects present on the earth
surface, similar reflectance of different objects and environmental conditions at the time of
recording are the major causes of low contrast of the image. Another problem that
complicates photographic display of digital image is that the human eye is poor at
discriminating the slight radiometric or spectral differences that may characterize the
features. The main aim of digital enhancement is to amplify these slight differences for better
clarity of the image scene. This means digital enhancement increases the separability
(contrast) between the interested classes or features. The digital image enhancement may be
defined as some mathematical operations that are to be applied to digital remote sensing input
data to improve the visual appearance of an image for better interpretability or subsequent
digital analysis (Lillesand and Keifer, 1979). Since the image quality is a subjective measure
varying from person to person , there is no simple rule which may produce a single best
result. Normally, two or more operations on the input image may suffice to fulfil the desire of
the analyst, although the enhanced product may have a fraction of the total information stored
in the original image. This will be realized after seeing the different contrast enhancement
techniques in this
chapter. There are a number of general categories of enhancement techniques. As in many
outer areas of knowledge, the distinction between one type of analysis andanother is a matter
of personal taste and need of the interpreter. In remote sensing literature, many digital
enhancement algorithms are available.
They are contrast stretching enhancement, ratioing , linear combinations,
principalcomponent analysis, and spatial filtering . Broadly, the enhancement techniques are
categorised as point operations and local operations. Point operations modify the values of
each pixel in an image data set independently, whereas local operations modify the values of
each pixel in the context of the pixel values surrounding it. Point operations include contrast
enhancement and band combinations, but spatial filtering is an example of local operations.
In this section, contrast enhancement, linear contrast stretch , histogram equalisation,
logarithmic contrast enhancement, and exponential contrast enhancement are considered.
3.6 IMAGE CLASSIFICATION

Image classification is a procedure to automatically categorize all pixels in an image
of a terrain into land cover classes. Normally, multispectral data are used to perform the
classification of the spectral pattern present within the data for each pixel is used as the
numerical basis for categorization. This concept is dealt under thebroad subject, namely, Pattern
Recognition. Spectral pattern recognition refers to the family of classification procedures that utilizes this
pixel-by-pixel spectral information as the basis for automated land cover classification. Spatial pattern
recognition involves the categorization of image pixels on the basis of the spatial relationship with pixels
surrounding them. Image classification techniques aregrouped into two types, namely supervised and
unsupervised. The classification process may also include features, such as, land surface elevation and the
soil type that are not derived from the image. A pattern is thus a set of measurements on the chosen
features for the individual to be classified. The classification process may therefore be considered a form
of pattern recognition, that is, the identification of the pattern associated with each pixel position in an
image in terms of the characteristics of the objects or on the earth's surface.

3.6.1 SUPERVISED CLASSIFICATION

A supervised classification algorithm requires a training sample for each class, that is, a
collection of data points known to have come from the class of interest. Theclassification is
thus based on how "close" a point to be classified is to each training sample. We shall not
attempt to define the word "close" other than to say that both geometric and statistical
distance measures are used in practical pattern recognition algorithms. The training samples
are representative of the known classes of interest to the analyst. Classification methods that

relay on use of training patterns are called supervised classification methods. The three basic
steps (Fig. 6.23) involved in a typical supervised classification procedure are as follows:
(i) Training stage: The analyst identifies representative training areas and develops
numerical descriptions of the spectral signatures of each land cover type of
interest in the scene.
(ii) The classification stage: Each pixel in the image data set IS categorised intothe
land cover class it most closely resembles. If the pixel is insufficientlysimilar to
any training data set it is usually labeled 'Unknown'.
(iii) The output stage: The results may be used in a number of different ways.Three
typical forms of output products are thematic maps, tables and digitaldata files
which become input data for GIS. The output of image classificationbecomes
input for GIS for spatial analysis of the terrain.
3.6.2 UNSUPERVISED CLASSIFICATION

Unsupervised classification algorithms do not compare .points to be classified with
training data. Rather, unsupervised algorithms examine a large number of unknown data
vectors and divide them into classes based on properties inherent to the data themselves. The
classes that result stem from differences observed in the data. In particular, use is made of the
notion that data vectors within a class should be in some sense mutually close together in the
measurement space, whereas data vectors in different classes should be comparatively well
separated. If the components of the data vectors represent the responses in different spectral
bands, the resulting classes might be referred to as spectral classes, as opposed to information
classes, which represent the ground cover types of interest to the analyst. The two types of

classes described above, information classes and spectralclasses, may not exactly correspond
to each other. For instance, two information classes, corn and soyabeans, may look alike
spectrally. We would say that the two classes are not separable spectrally. At certain times of
the growing season corn and soyabeans are not spectrally distinct while at other times they
are. On the other hand a single information class may be composed of two spectral classes.
Differences in planting dates or seed variety might result in the information class" corn"
being reflectance differences of tasseled and untasseled corn. To be useful, a class must be of
informational value and be separable from other classes in the data.

CHAPTER 4
GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM
4.1 INTRODUCTION:
The expansion of GIS is Geographic Information System which consists of three words,
viz. Geographic,InformationandSystem. Heretheword‘Geographic’dealswithspatialobjects
or featureswhichcanbereferencedorrelatedtoaspecificlocation ontheearthsurface. Theobject
maybephysical/naturalormaybe cultural/manmade. Likewisetheword‘Information’ deals
withthelargevolumeofdataaboutaparticularobjecton theearthsurface. Thedataincludesa
setofqualitativeandquantitativeaspectswhichtherealworldobjectsacquire.
Theterm ‘System’is used to represent systems approach
wherethecomplexenvironment(consistsofa
largenumber,ofobjects/featuresontheearthsurfaceandtheircomplexcharacteristics)is
brokendownintotheircomponentpartsforeasyunderstandingandhandling,butisconsidered
toform anintegratedwholeformanaginganddecisionmaking. Now-a-daysthisispossibleina
veryshortspanoftimewiththedevelopmentof sophisticatedcomputerhardwareandsoftware.
Therefore,GISisacomputerbasedinformationsystem whichattachesavarietyofqualitiesand
characteristics to geographicallocation (Fig.5)and helps in planning and decision making. A
Geographic Information System(GIS) may bedefined in different manners. International
Training Centre (ITC), Holland defined Geographic Information System (GIS) as a
computerisedsystem thatfacilitatesthephasesof dataentry,dataanalysisanddatapresentation
especially incases when we are dealing with geo referenced data.
IndianSocietyofGeomatics(ISG)andIndianSpaceApplicationCentre(ISRO)definedGIS
as asystem whichprovidesacomputerisedmechanism
forintegratingvariousgeoinformationdata sets and analysing themin order to generate
information relevant to planning needs in a context. According to Centre for Spatial
Database Management and Solutions (CSDMS), GIS is a
computerbasedtoolformappingandanalysingthingsthatexistandeventsthathappenone earth.
Fig 4.1 Layers

Burrough(1986)definedGISasasetoftoolsforcollecting,storing,retrievingatwill,transfor
mingand displaying spatial data fromthe real world for a particular set of purpose.
Arnoff(1989)definedGISasacomputerbasedsystem thatprovidesfoursetsofcapabilities to
handlegeoreferenced data,viz.datainput,datamanagement(datastorageandretrieval),
manipulation analysis and data output.
Fromtheabovedefinitions,wecanconcludethataGISuserexpectssupportfromthesystem
to enter geo referenced data to analyse it in various ways and to produce output (maps and
other) fromthedata. GISdrawsonconceptsandideasfrommanydifferentdisciplines,suchas
cartography,congitivescience,computerscience,
engineering,environmentalsciences,geodesy, landscape architecture, law,
photogrammetry,publicpolicy,remotesensing,statisticsand surveying.
So,itinvolvesnotonlythestudyofthefundamentalissuesarisingfrom thecreation,
handling,storageanduseofgeographicinformation, but it also examines the impacts of GIS
on individuals and society and the influences of society on GIS.
4.1.1 DEVELOPMENT OF GIS

Keepinglongtraditionofmapmakingasbackground,G.I.S. hasbeendevelopedduring
mid20th centurywiththedevelopmentofcomputerscience.Thedataanalysisof geographic
locations was being done by computers in government organizations and universities in
U.S.A. during 1950s and 1960s. The first true operational G.I.S. was developed by
Dr. Roger Tomlinson, Department of Forestry and Rural Development , Canada. It was
called as Canada
GeographicInformationSystem(CGIS)andwasusedtostoreanalyseandmanipulateland
relateddata.Dr.RogerTomlisonwasalsoknownasthe‘FatherofG.I.S’.In1964,alaboratory
ofComputerGraphicsandSpatialAnalysiswasestablishedattheHarvardGraduateSchoolof
Design by Howard T. Fisher. Thisorganizationdevelopedanumber of importanttheoretical
conceptsofspatialdatahandlingandin1970sit distributed seminal software code and system
such as ‘SYMAP’, ‘GRID’ and ‘ODYSSEY’. This inspired subsequent
commercial development.Byearly1980s,M&SComputing(laterIntergraph)and
EnvironmentalSystems
ResearchInstitute(ESRI)emergedascommercialvendorsofG.I.S.software.ESRIreleased
ARC/InfoandARCViewsoftwarein1981and1992respectively.Bytheendof20thCentury,
thedevelopmentofARCViewenabledviewingG.I.S.datathroughinternetandeliminated
manyofthehardwareandlicensingexpensesof softwarepackages.Sincethenanumberof
organisations anduniversitieshavebeendoingresearchinthefieldofG.I.S.anddeveloping user
friendly softwares . Now there is a growingnumberoffree,opensourceG.I.S.packages which
run in a wide range of operating systems and performspecific tasks.
4.1.2 REQUIREMENT OF GIS
Primarilydealswithgeographicdatato beanalysed,manipulatedandmanagedinan organized
manner through computers to solve real world problems. So, GIS operation requires two
things – computer systemand geographic data.
4.1.3 COMPUTER SYSTEM
Itincludesbothhardwareandsoftware. GISrunsthroughcomputersystemrangingfrom
portablepersonalcomputers(PCs)tomulti-usersupercomputerswhichareprogrammedby
widevarietyofsoftwarelanguages. Inallranges,thereareanumberthings,thatareessentialfor
effectiveGISoperation. Theseinclude:1)aprocessorwithsufficientpowertorunthesoftware,
2)sufficient memory forthe storage of large volumeofdata,3)agoodquality,highresolution

colour graphic screen and 4)data input and output devices (for example digitizers, scanners,
keyboard, printers and plotters).
There are a wide range of software packages for GIS analysis, each with its own advantages
and disadvantages. Eventhoselistsaretoolongtobementionedhere,theimportantonesare
different versions of ARC View, ARC Info, Map Info., ARC GIS, Auto Cad Map etc.
4.2 MAPS DEFINITION
A map is a set of points, lines and areas that are defined by their spatial location with
respect to a coordinate system and by their non-spatial attributes‖ (Burrough 1986). A map
legend links the non-spatial attributes to spatial attributes.
Types of Maps
There are three different types of maps, they are :
(i) General – purpose maps
They do not show any feature with special emphasis – they usually show roads,
power lines, transportation routes, water features etc.
(ii) Special Purpose Maps
They are made for specific purposes such as ocean charts for navigation, cadastral
maps to show property ownership details. They are usually of a large scale, which means a
smaller portion of the earth.
(iii) Thematic maps
A map, which has a particular geographic theme. In a GIS the roads, rivers,
vegetation, contour elevations etc, are categorized separately and stored in different map
themes or overlays.
There are two different types of thematic maps, they are :
(i) A choropleth Map
A choropleth map contains different zones. The different zones are used to represent
the different classes present in a theme for example,
Theme : census tracts class : average income, percentage, female populations, mortality rate
etc.
(ii) An isopleth Map

An isopleth map is a map, which contains imaginary lines used to connect points of
equal values. (Isolines) They may be contours in the case of a topographic map. Similarly
maps can be drawn for variables such as temperatures, pressure, rainfall and population
density.
Uses of Maps
1. Maps have been around since ancient times where they were originally used for
navigation and military purposes.
2. Maps are used to organize geographic data. The geographic data are :
A. Topography
General in nature.
B. Natural resources
―Thematic maps‖, contains information about a specific subject or theme
(geology, soils, roads, ecology, hydrology… etc.).
C. Political
―Abstract‖ boundaries for public, private, national and international lands.
D. Information types
Qualitative – land use classes.
Quantitative – depth to

bedrock.
Characteristics of Maps
The following are the characteristics of maps, they may be of any type but they all
have the same characteristics.
1. Maps are always concerned with two elements of reality
a) One is the location, which is the special data.
b) The attributes concerned with it, which are referred to as a spatial or non
spatial data..
2. Maps are usually outdated representations. This is because yesterday‘s reality need
not be true today also.
3. Maps are always static versions i.e., they are permanent prints on paper, in which
alterations or changes cannot be made.
4. Maps cannot be updated with the same version in other words, updating a map
involves the preparation of a new map.
5. Maps are always drawn to some scale, smaller the scale more detailed will be the
map.
4.3 MAP PROJECTIONS

A projection is a method by which the curved surface of the earth is represented on a
flat surface and it involved the use of mathematical transformations between the location of
places on the earth and their projected locations on the plane. A map projection is
anytransformation between the curved reference surface of the earth and the flat plane of the
map.
Fig 4.2 Map projections
For each map projection the following equations are available:
X,Y = f ( j, l ) Forward equation
j, l = f ( X,Y ) Inverse equation
The forward equations are used to transform geographic coordinates - latitude (j) and
longitude (l) - into Cartesian coordinates (X,Y), while the inverse equations of a map
projection are used to transform Cartesian coordinates into geographic coordinates
Properties of Map Projections

The following properties would be present on a map projection without any scale distortions:
Areas are everywhere correctly represented
All distances are correctly represented.
All directions on the map are the same as on Earth
All angles are correctly represented.
The shape of any area is correctly represented
General projections Classified as folloes:
EQUAL AREA PROJECTIONS: An equivalent map projection, also known as an equal-
area map projection, correctly represents areas sizes of the sphere on the map. Conformal
projections:
A conformal map projection represents angles and shapes correctly at infinitely small
locations.
EQUIDISTANT PROJECTIONS:They represent the distances to places from one or two
points. Types of projection
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM),

Transverse Mercator (also known as Gauss-Kruger),
Polyconic
4.3.1 POLYCONIC PROJECTION
It is used to project for preparing world map.
In this projection all parallels are projected without any distortion, which means scale
is exact along all parallels. Scale is exact along the central meridian also.
1. The projection is called polyconic as many cones are involved to make all parallels exact.
Transverse Mercator Project it is used to project near the pole regions.
This widely used conformal projection was invented by mathematician and

cartographer Johnn Heinrich Lambert in 1772. Carl F. Gauss analysed the projection in 1882
and L. Kruger completed the development of the projection by developing the formulae
further in order to be suitable for numerical calculations in 1912. This is a beautiful example
or creating for malising – implementing, all three processes taking over a century time.
1. A policy decision for a gradual switch over. Both, transverse mercator and conformal
conic projection with two standard parallels, are suitable and do not have the drawbacks
0 0 0 0
mentioned in respect of polyconic projection. Suitable zones of 6 x6 or 8 x8 or
statewise can be designed. All maps from village to subdivision to taluka to district to
state on various scales can be on the same projection within a particular zone.
Universal Transverse Mercator Projection UTM) It is used to project near the equator
regions.
The Universal Transverse Mercator Projection is a particular case of transverse
mercator projection. This is a world wide plane coordinate system brought up by the
military during World War II. This was adopted by the U.S. Army in 1947 for
designating rectangular coordinates on large scale military maps of the entire world.
4.4 MAP ANALYSIS

There are mainly four key activities that any urban planners or scientists orresource
managers and others use geographic information for. They observe and measure
environmental parameters and develop maps which portray characteristics of the earth. They
monitor changes in our surroundings in space and time. In addition, they model alternatives
of actions and process operation in the environment. These, four activities are Measurement,
Mapping, Monitoring and Modelling termed as key activities which can be enhanced by the
using information systems.
Fig 4.3 Map Analysis

GIS technology is more different from traditional mapping and map analysis.GIS is based on
a mathematical framework of primitive map analysis operations analogous to those of
traditional statistics and algebra. From this perspective, GIS forms a toolbox for processing
maps and fundamental concepts for spatial measurement. It provides a foundation for
advanced analytic operations involving spatial analysis and measurement. Most of GISs
contain analytic capabilities forreclassifying and overlaying maps. Any GIS system for the
measurement of areas, distances, angles and and so on requires two components, namely, a
standard measurement unit and a measurement procedure. Another major function of GIS
capability is the study of environmental surroundings and the monitoring of environmental
parameters (Burrough et ai, 1988). Although analytical models have been linked to GIS for
spatial measurement and resource assessment, the cross fertilisation between the modules of
modelling, measurement and automated mapping allows the GIS user to monitor the
environment· and the earth system. In principle, it is possible to make a clear distinction
between GIS and digital cartography. Mapping technology or digital cartography deals with
map features and with associated attributes of colour, symbology, name of annotation,
legends, neatlinesand north arrows. GIS includes the capabilities for storing, editing, and
handling the relationships of attributes with their spatial entities along with the capabilities of
digital cartography. A map, an ultimate product of digital cartography or GIS, is a very
persuasive form of data display and a computer drawn map carries the authority of a powerful
technology. GIS applications now span a wide range, from sophisticated analysis and
modelling of spatial data to simple inventory and management. They also dictate the
development directions of much of the industry. However, several vendors have chosen to
concentrate on the niche market for environmental applications and to emphasise support for
environmental modelling. GRASS is a Significant public domain GIS software developed by
USA with substantial capabilities for modelling.
4.4 DEFINITIONS OF GIS
The tool-base definition of a GIS is a powerful set of tools for collecting, storing,

retrieving at will, transforming and displaying spatial data from the real world for a particular
set of purpose.
(a) Toolbox – based definitions
A powerful set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will, transforming and
displaying spatial data from the real world. A system for capturing, storing, checking,
manipulating, analyzing and displaying data which are spatially referenced to the Earth. An
information technology which stores, analyses, and displays both spatial and non-spatial data.
b) Data base definitions
A database system in which most of the data are spatially indexed, and upon which a
set of procedures operated in order to answer queries about spatial entities in the database.
Any manual or computer based set of procedures used to store and manipulated
geographically referenced data.
c) Organization – based definitions
An automated set of functions that provides professionals with advanced capabilities

for the storage, retrieval, manipulation and display of geographically located data.
4.4.1 DEVELOPMENT OF GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS
In the late twentieth century, demands for data on the topography and specific themes
of the earth‘s surface, such as natural resources, have accelerated greatly. Stereo aerial
photography and remotely sensed imagery have allowed photogrammetrists to map large
areas with great accuracy. The same technology also gave the earth resource scientists – the
geologist, the soil scientist, the ecologist, the land use specialist – enormous advantages for
reconnaissance and semi – detailed mapping.
The need for spatial data and spatial analyses is not just the preserve of each
scientists.
Urban planners and cadastral agencies need detailed information about the
distribution of land and resources in towns and cities.
Civil engineers need to plan the routes of roads and canals and to estimate
construction costs, including those of cutting away hillsides and filling in valleys.
Police departments need to know the spatial distribution of various kinds of crime,
medical organizations
Epidemiologists are interested in the distribution of sickness and disease, and

Commerce as interested in improving profitability through the optimization of the
distribution of sales outlets and the identification of potential markets.
The enormous infrastructure of what are collectively known as ‗utilities‘ -that is

water, gas, electricity, telephone lines, sewerage systems – all need to be recorded
and manipulated as spatial data linked to maps.

About 15,500 years ago on the walls of caves near Lascaux, France, Cro-Magnon
hunters drew pictures of the animals they hunted. Associated with the animal drawings are
track lines and tallies thought to depict migration routes.
In 1854, John Snow depicted a cholera outbreak in London using points to represent
the locations of some individual cases, possibly the earliest use of the geographic method.[4]
His study of the distribution of cholera led to the source of the disease, a contaminated water
pump (the Broad Street Pump, whose handle he disconnected terminating the outbreak)
within the heart of the cholera outbreak.
The year 1967 saw the development of the world's first true operational GIS in
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada by the federal Department of Forestry and Rural Development.
Developed by Dr. Roger Tomlinson, it was called the "Canada Geographic Information
System" (CGIS) and was used to store, analyze, and manipulate data collected for the Canada
Land Inventory (CLI)—an initiative to determine the land capability for rural Canada by
mapping information about soils, agriculture, recreation, wildlife, waterfowl, forestry, and
land use at a scale of 1:50,000. A rating classification factor was also added to permit
analysis.
CGIS was the world's first "system" and was an improvement over "mapping"
applications as it provided capabilities for overlay, measurement, and digitizing/scanning. It
supported a national coordinate system that spanned the continent, coded lines as "arcs"
having a true embedded topology, and it stored the attribute and locational information in
separate files. As a result of this, Tomlinson has become known as the "father of GIS,"
particularly for his use of overlays in promoting the spatial analysis of convergent geographic
data CGIS lasted into the 1990s and built the largest digital land resource database in Canada.
It was developed as a mainframe based system in support of federal and provincial resource
planning and management. Its strength was continent-wide analysis of complex datasets. The
CGIS was never available in a commercial form.
By the early 1980s, M&S Computing (later Intergraph), Environmental Systems
Research Institute (ESRI) and CARIS (Computer Aided Resource Information System)
emerged as commercial vendors of GIS software, successfully incorporating many of the
CGIS features, combining the first generation approach to separation of spatial and attribute
information with a second generation approach to organizing attribute data into database
structures. In parallel, the development of two public domain systems began in the late 1970s
and early 1980s. MOSS, the Map Overlay and Statistical System project started in 1977 in
Fort Collins, Colorado under the auspices of the Western Energy and GRASS GIS was begun
in 1982 by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineering Research Laboratory (USA-CERL) in
Champaign, Illinois, a branch of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to meet the need of the
United StatesMilitary for software for land management and environmental planning. The
later 1980s and 1990s industry growth were spurred on by the growing use of GIS on Unix
workstations and the personal computer. By the end of the 20th century, the rapid growth in
various systems had been consolidated and standardized on relatively few platforms and
users were beginning to export the concept of viewing GIS data over the Internet, requiring
data format and transfer standards. More recently, there are a growing number of free, open
source GIS packages which run on a range of operating systems and can be customized to
perform specific tasks.
4.5 BASIC COMPONENTS OF GIS

Fig 4.4 Components of GIS

Geographic information systems have three important components they are
(i) Computer hardware
(ii) Set of application software modules.
(iii) And a proper organizational contest.
Fig 4.5 Components of GIS
4.5.1 HARDWARE COMPONENTS OF A GIS

The general hardware components of a GIS are shown in the figure

CPU –Central processing unit is linked to disk drive, which provides space for storing
dataand programs.
Digitizer –It is a device used to convert data from maps and documents into
digitalform (Raster to Vector).
Plotter –Plotter is used to present the results of the data processing on a paper.
Tape drive –It is used to store data or programs on magnetic tape for
communicatingwith other systems.
VDU (Visual Display Unit)–It is used to control the computer and the
otherperipherals. It is otherwise known as terminal or workstation.
Fig 4.6 Hardware components of GIS
4.6 STANDARD GIS SOFTWARE
Arc info
Arc info was developed by Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI), Redlands,
California, USA.Arc Info data structure Arc Info is a vector- based GIS package, capable of
handling both spatial and non-spatial data. It organizes geographical data using vector
topological models and non-spatial data using relational models in a DBMS. The arc node
and polygon topology are organized to identify points, lines, and polygon relations. The
cartographic data are then linked to the attribute data through a link item.

Arc Info functionalities : Arc Info has a wide range of functions which have been developed
based on a tool-box concept -where each function can be visualized as a tool and having a
specific utility. The major modules of Arc Info functionalities are :
(a) ADS and ARCEDIT: data base creation in Arc Info is possible through the process of
digitisation using the Arc Digitising System(ADS) and the ARCEDIT module. ARCEDIT is
a powerful editing utility having capabilitiesfor feature -based editing. These modules include
the functions for coordinate entry using different devices - digitisers, screen cursors and so
on;
(b) INFO: INFO is the manager for tabular data associated with geographic features in map
coverage of Arc Info. INFO provides facilities for data definition of data files, use of existing
data files, data entry and update and, sorting and querying;
(c) Analysis Modules: Arc Info offers spatial overlay capabilities based on topological
overlay concepts. Union/ intersect overlays, buffer generation, proximity analysis, feature
aggregation, feature extraction, transformation, nearness functions and other integration
utilities are available;
(d) ARCPOLT: This module has capabilities for generating cartographic quality outputs
from the database. This includes utilities for interactive map composition, editing map
compositions, functionality, the incorporation of coverage features to the required scale,
generalisation, symbolisation, transformation, and so on. Placement of non-coverage features,
include legends, free text, and logos, graphic elements.
(e) TIN: The TIN module of Arc Info can be used to create, store, manage, and perform
analysis pertaining to the third dimension data. The modeling capabilities include calculation
of slope, aspect, isolines or contouring range estimation, perspectives, and volumes.
Additional functions for determining spatial visibility zones and line of sight are also
provided;
(f) NETWORK: The NETWORK module of Arc Info performs two general categories of
functions: network analysis and address geocoding. Network analysis is p05sible for optimal
path determination and resource allocation analysis. The geocoding module allows for
associating addresses to line networks and determining the spatial framework of addresses in
an application;
(g) COGO: It is the coordinate geometry module of Arc Info; supports the functions
performed by land surveyors and civil engineers for the design and layout of sub-divisions,
roads and related facilities, as well as the special plotting requirements. COGO allows
definition, adjustment and close traverse including adding curves on a traverse; it computes
area, bearing and azimuths;
(h) GRID is a raster-based module of Arc Info. GRID has an interface to Arc Info, so
coverage can be converted to GRID and from GRID to Arc Info. GRID supports powerful
modeling tools of raster integration, potential mapping, spread/grow operations and so on.
Arc Info also supports ERDAS system, OEM data, Autocad -DXF format, IGES format and a
flat file format. ARCVIEW module is a desktop mapping package oriented towards viewing
and querying Arc Info databases.
GIS MAPPER : It is the basic module for data entry to create a data base of maps by
generation and editing of the vector database, which forms the base for subsequent raster -
based analysis. It includes Planner, for quick interactive report generator. GIS MAPPER also
supports pen plotter output to several plotters;
ANALYSER : This module allo~s the user to perform data conversion forpolygonisation:
raster creation from the v~ctor boundaries of the polygonal areas , overlay operations for two
or more polygonal overlays to generate another level of output, proximity analysis, and
corridor analysis around specified map features

TOPOGRAPHER: This is for processing of three dimensional data and Dem. Different
products like slope, aspect, perspective views, and volume calculations can be derived from
this module;
INTERPRETER: This is for importing remotely sensed images from digital image analysis
system in to the PAMAP GIS as surface covers.
MODELLER : This module integrates multiple -surface rasters or multiple data base
attributes to make planning decisions quickly and accurately. It has three main functions -
combination of modeling, regression analysis and correlation, and covariance analysis;
NETWORKER : This module is used to create, analyse, and manage networks.
FILE TRANSLATOR: This is for importing and processing map files created in various
data formats like IGDS, SIF (Intergraph), DLG and DXF (Autocad).
PAMAP platforms : This is available on variety of platforms -on pentium 486 PCs; UNIX
workstations and VAX systems and also on MS Windows with multitasking capability.
4.7 DATA TYPES
4.7.1 SPATIAL DATA
Spatial data (mapable data) of geo-referenced data is commonly characterized by

the presence of two fundamental components.
(i) The physical dimension or class i.e., the phenomena being reported.
For example : Height of the forest canopy, demographic class, rock type,
regetation type details of a city etc.
(ii) The spatial location of the phgenomena
For example : Specified with reference to common coordinate system (latitude
and longitude etc).
4.7.2 NON SPATIAL / ATTRIBUTE / A SPATIAL OR TABULAR DATA
1. There are usually data tables that contain information about the spatialcomponents
of the GIS theme. These can be numeric and/or character data such as timber type,
timber volume, road size, well depth etc. The attributes are related back to the
spatial features by use of unique identifiers that are stored both with the attribute
tables and the features in each spatial data layer. Attributes can be either
qualitative (low, medium, high income) or quantitative (actual measurements).
The database allows us to manipulate information in many ways : from simple
listing of attributes, sorting features by some attributes, grouping by attributes, or
selecting and singling out groups by attributes.
4.8DBMS (DATA BASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS)
The data bases used in GIS are most commonly relational. Nevertheless, Object
Oriented data bases are progressively incorporated.

Fig 4.6 DBMS
4.8.1 Hierarchical database
A hierarchical database is a kind of database management system that links records

together in a tree data structure such that each record type has only one owner, e.g. an order is
owned by only one customer. Hierarchical structures were widely used in the first mainframe
database management systems. However, due to their restrictions, they often cannot be used
to relate structures that exist in the real world. Hierarchical relationships between different
types of data can make it very easy to answer some questions, but very difficult to answer
others. If one-to-many relationship is violated (e.g., a patient can have more than one
physician) then the hierarchy becomes a network.
Field - smallest unit of data
Segment - groups of fields; nodes of the tree structure
Data base record - a collection of related segments; a particular tree

structure Data base - composed of database records
Data base description - how data base records are defined; set of assembly-language
macro instructions
Root - first segment
Sequence field - one field in each segment used to order the occurrences of a
given type

Fig 4.7 Hierarchical Data Case

4.8.2 NETWORK MODEL
A network model database management system has a more flexible structure than the
hierarchical model or relational model, but pays for it in processing time and specialization of
types. Some object-oriented database systems use a general network model, but most have
some hierarchical limitations.
The neural network is an important modern example of a network database - a large number
of similar simple processing units, analogous to neurons in the human brain, 'learn' the
differences and similarities between a number of inputs.
Fig 4.8 Network model

4.8.3 Relational data bases
In a relational data base, data is stored in tables where rows represent the objects or entities and
columns the attributes or variables. A data base is usually composed of several tables and the

relations between them is possible through a common identifier that is unique for each entity.
Most of the relational data bases in GIS present two variables with identifiers; one ofthem is
unique and correlative, it could be numeric or alphabetic, and the second one might be
repeated and helps to organize the attribute table.
The advantages of using this kind of data base are:
The design is based in a methodology with heavy theoretical basis, which

offers confidence in its capacity to evolve.
It is very easy to implement it, specially in comparison with other models such as
hierarchical, network, and object oriented
It is very flexible. New tables can be appended easily.
Finally, many powerful DBMS using this approach contains query languages (like
SQL) which makes easy to include this tool in a GIS. Thus, some commercialised
GIS packages include a DBMS pre- existent.
4.8.4 OBJECT ORIENTED DATA BASES
Based on objects, it can be defined as an entity with a localisation represented by

values and by a group of operations. Thus, the advantage in comparison with relational data
bases is based on the inclusion, in the definition of an objet, not only its attributes but also
the methods or operations that act on this object. In addition, the objects belong to classes
that can have their own variables and these classes can belong to super-classes.
Fig 4.9 Object oriented Data Base
A simple, unstructured, unordered list of data records.

Easy to construct, but inefficient to access and retrieve.

For a simple flat file with n records, (n+1)/2 search operations are required to find
a record.
2). Ordered Sequential Files
Records are organized as a sequential list according to alphabetic order or

other criteria.
Only LOG2(n+1) searching operations are required to find a record from the file if
divide-and-conquer searching method is used.
3). Indexed files
Easy to find a specific record with associated, cross-referenced attributes.
The index is used to quickly find a particular type of information in a larger file
by selecting key features that can be searched for
Direct index file
Inverted index files

CHAPTER 5
DATA ENTRY, STORAGE AND ANALYSIS
5.1 DATA MODELS VECTOR AND RASTER DATA
A vector based GIS is defined by the vectorial representation of its geographic data.
The most common representation of map is using vector date that is consist of point,
line and polygon
5.1.1 VECTOR DATA
i. Point Data -- layers described by points (or "event") described by

x,y (lat,long; east, north)
ii. Line/Polyline Data -- layers that are described by x,y points

(nodes, events) and lines (arcs) between points (line segments
and polylines)
iii. Polygon Data -- layers of closed line segments enclosing areas that
are described by attributes
Polygon data can be "multipart" like the islands of the state of

Hawaii.
Vector Data Structures
• Fundamental unit is the x, y coordinate (vertex)
– points are explicitly defined
– lines, arcs and polygons are constructed
• Map area is presumed continuous
– position can be defined with great precision; limited by precision of software/hardware and
source data
• Usually provides finer spatial resolution than raster model
Point
A zero-dimensional abstraction of an object represented by a single X,Y co-ordinate. A point
normally represents a geographic feature too small to be displayed as a line or area; for

example, the location of a building location on a small-scale map, or the location of a service
cover on a medium scale map.
Line
A set of ordered co-ordinates that represent the shape of geographic features too narrow to be
displayed as an area at the given scale (contours, street centrelines, or streams), or linear
features with no area (county boundary lines). A lines is synonymous with an arc.
Polygon
A feature used to represent areas. A polygon is defined by the lines that make up its boundary
and a point inside its boundary for identification.Polygons have attributes that describe the
geographic featurethey represent.
5.1.2 RASTER DATA
Consists of a matrix of cells (or pixels) organized into rows and columns (or a grid)
where each cell contains a value representing information, such as temperature. Rasters are
digital aerial photographs, imagery from satellites, digital pictures, or even scanned maps.
Fig 5.1 Raster and Vector Data

5.2 DATA COMPRESSION:

Data compression of Network GIS refers to compression of geospatial data within a
network GISso that volume of data transmitted across the network can be reduced. Typically,
a properly chosen compression algorithm can reduce data size to 5~10% of original for
images [1-2], and 10~20% for vector [3] and textual data [4]. Such compression ratios result
in significant performance improvement.
Data compression algorithms can be categorized into lossless and lossy. Bit streams
generated by lossless compression algorithm can be faithfully recovered to the original data.
If loss of one single bit may cause serious and unpredictable consequences in original data
(for example, text and medical image compression) lossless compression algorithm should be
applied. If dataconsumers can tolerate distortion of original data to a certain degree, lossy
compressionalgorithms are usually better because they can achieve much higher compression
ratios than lossless ones
Data compression of network GIS is similar to other data compression algorithms on
distributed computing platforms. Image compression algorithms such as JPEG had been
applied since the first Web-based GIS emerged in 1993. However, the compression of vector
data is introduced much later, such as the Douglas-Peuker algorithm and the work done in
2001 by Bertolotto and Egenhofer.
5.2.1 SCIENTIFIC FUNDAMENTALS

Data compression originates from information theory, which concentrates on
systematicresearch on problems arising when analog signals are converted to and from digital
signals and digital signals are coded and transmitted via digital channels. One of the most
significant theoretical results in information theory is the so-called source coding theorem,
which asserts that there exists a compression ratio limit that can only be approached but never
be exceeded by any compression algorithms. For most practical signals it is even very
difficult to obtain compression algorithms whose performance is near this limit. However,
compression ratio is by no means the unique principal in the development of compression
algorithm. Other important principals include fast compression speed, low resource
consumption, simple implementation, error resilience, adaptability to different signals, etc.
5.3 DATA INPUT BY DIGITIZATION SCANNING

The data to be input for GIS are typically acquired in a diverse variety of forms.Some
data come in graphic and tabular forms. These would include maps and photographs, records
from site visits by specialists, related to non-spatial information from both printed and digital
files (including descriptive information about the spatial data, such as date of compilation,
and observational criteria). Other data come in digital form. These would include digital
spatial data such as computer records of demographic or land ownership data, magnetic tapes
containing information about topography and remotely sensed imagery. The data to be input
for GIS are of different forms. These include key board entry or key coding, digitising,
scanning and digital data. The process of data encoding and editing is often called as data
stream.

Fig 5.2 Data input methods

5.3.1 DATA INPUT METHODS
Before explaining the input methods, it is necessary to make a distinction between
analogue (non-digital) and digital sources of spatial data. Analogue data are normally in
paper form and include paper maps, tables of statistics and hardcopy aerial photographs. All
these forms of data need to be converted to digital form before use in a GIS. Digital data like
remote sensing data are already in compute-readable formats and are supplied on diskette,
magnetic tape or CD-ROM or across a computer network. All data in analogue form need to
be converted to digital form before they can be input into GIS. There are four methods of
data input which are widely used: keyboard entry, manual digitising, automatic digitisation,
and scanning. Digital data must be downloaded from their source media and may require
reformatting to convert them to an appropriate format for the GIS being used. Reformatting
or conversionmay also be required after analogue data have been converted to digital form.
For example, after scanning a paper map, the file produced by the scanning equipment may
not be compatible with the GIS, so it needs reformatting. For both the analogue anrJ digital
data, keyboard entry method, manual digitising and automatic digitizing and scanning
methods are very important as detailed below.
5.3.2 MANUAL DIGITISING

Manual digitising is the most common method of encoding spatial features frompaper
maps. It is a process of converting the spatial features on a map into a digital format. Point,
line, and area features that form a map, are converted into (x, y) coordinates. A point is
represented by a single coordinate, a line by a string of coordinates, and, when one or more
lines are combined with a label point inside an outline, then an area (polygon) is identified.
Thus digitising is the process of capturing a series of points and lines. Points are used for two
different purposes: to represent point features or to identify the presence of a polygon.
Manual digitising requires a table digitiser that is linked to a computer work station (Fig
10.2). To achieve good results, the following steps are necessary. Before, discussing these
steps, the description of digitisers is provided for the beginners in this field of technology.
Digitisers are the most common device for extracting spatial information from maps and
photographs. The position of an indicator as it is moved over the surface of the digitizing
tablet is detected by the computer and interpreted as pairs of x, y coordinates. The indicator
may be a pen-like stylus or a cursor. Frequently, there are control buttons on the cursor which
permit control of the system without having to turn attention from the digitising tablet to a

computer terminal. The current most popular digitiser is contemporary tablets using a gird of
wires embedded in the tablet to a generate magnetic field which is detected by the cursor. The
accuracy of such tables are typically better than 0.1 mm which is better than the accuracy
with which the average operator can position the cursor. Sometimes the functions for
transforming coordinates are built into the tablet and used to process data before it is sent to
the host (Fig 10.2).
Fig 5.3 Manual Digitizing
5.3.3 THE DIGITIZING OPERATION

The map is affixed to a digitizing table. Three or more control points are to be
identified and digitized for each map sheet. These points should be those that can be easily
identified like intersections of major streets and prominent landmarks. The points are called
reference points or tics or control points.
The coordinates of these control points will be known in the coordinate system to be used in
the final data, such as, latitude and longitude. The control points are used by the system to
calculate the necessary mathematical transformations to convert all coordinates to the final
system. The more the control points, the better the accuracy of digitisation. Digitising the
map contents can be done in two different modes: point mode and stream mode. Point mode
is the mode in which the operator identifies the points to be captured explicitly by pressing a
button, and stream mode is the mode in which points are captured at set time intervals,
typically 10 per second, or on movement of the cursor by filed distance. Most digitizing is
currently done in point mode.
Problems with Digitising Maps

The problems that come during the process of converting the maps into digital mode through
the process of digitisation vary from one CAD operator to another. It depends upon the
experience and skill of the operator and density of points, lines and polygons of the map. The
accuracy of the output of the digitisation also depends upon the selection and distribution of
the control points. Some of the commonly occurred problems during the digitisation of any
paper map are as follows:
(i) Paper maps are unstable; each time the map is removed from the digitising table, the
reference points must be re-entered when the map is affixed to the table again.

(ii) If the map has stretched or shrunk in the interim, the newly digitised points will be
slightly off in their location when compared to previously digitised points.
(iii) Errors occur on these maps, and these errors are entered into the GIS data base as well.
(iv) The level of error in the GIS database is directly related to the error level of the source
maps.
(v)Maps are meant to display information, and do not always accurately record vocational
information.
A digital image of the map is produced by moving an electronic detector acrossthe
map surface. The size of the map area viewed by the detector and scanning should be
processed or edited to improve the quality and convert the raster to vector after online
digitisation. The accuracy of the scanned output data depends on the quality of the scanner,
the quality of the software used to process the scanned data, and the quality of the source
document. A very important feature that a GIS user should observe after scanning the paper
map is the occurrence of splines, which is black appearance on the scanned output. This can
be removed by using a process called thinning.
The resolution of the scanner used affects the quality and quantity of outputdata. The
cheaper flat-bed scanners have resolutions of 200-500 mm whereas the more expensive drum
scanners use resolutions of 10-50 mm. The higher the resolution, the larger the volume of the
data produced.
Scanning and Automatic Digitising

Scanning is the most commonly used method of automatic digitising. Scanning is an
appropriate method of data encoding when raster data are required, since this is the automatic
output format from most scanning software. Thus scanning may be used as a background
raster dataset for the over-plotting of vector infrastructure data, such as, pipelines and cables.
A scanner is a piece of hardware Fig for converting an analogue source document to a digital
raster format (Jackson Woodsford, 1997). There are two types of scanners, (i) Flatbed
scanner and (ii) rotating drum scanners. The cheapest scanners are small flatbed scanners,
and high quality and large format scanners are rotating drum scanners in which the sensor
moves along the axis of rotation.
Fig 5.4 Scanned output map

5.4 ATTRIBUTE DATA ANALYSIS
Attribute data tells the characteristics of different objects / features on the earth
surface. These are descriptions, measurements or classification of geographic features.
Attribute data can be both qualitative (like land use type, soil type, name of the city/river etc.)
and quantitative (like elevation, temperature, pressure of a particular place, crop yield per
acre etc.). So, the attribute can be both numeric and textual. The examples of attribute data of
different spatial features like point (well), line (river), area (village) are shown in box 1. The
attribute data are generally in tabular form.
Different Types Of Spatial Data Analysis Can Be Performed By Gis, Viz. Performing
Queries, Proximity Analysis, Network Analysis, Overlay Operations, and Model Building
Etc. Since Gis Stores Both Spatial And Non Spatial Data And Links Them Together, It Can
Perform Different Types Of Queries.
For Example By Joining The Spatial Data And Its Attributes. And Then By
Performing Queries, One Can See On Map, The Water Of Which Tube Wells Having
Chlorine Content More Than 200 Mg/Litre. Likewise One Can See On Map). The Roads
Constructed Before 1980 Which Need To Be Repaired. In The Same Way, Which Area Of A
Given Forest Having More Than 60 Per Cent Tree Density, Can Be Shown On The Map (By
Joining Map Of The Forest Shown In Figure 6 And Its Attribute Table Given In Table 3)
Proximity Analysis
Can Be Done Through Buffering, I.E. Identifying A Zone Of Interest Around A Point,
Line Or Polygon. For Example, 10 M. Around On Tube Well Can Be Marked For Planting
Flower Plants; Or 50 M. Along National Highways (Both Sides) Can Be Buffered For
Planting Trees. A Specified Distance Around The Forest Can Be Buffered As No Habitation
Zone.
Network Analysis
Is Another Important Analysis Done Through Gis. For Example Optimum Bus
Routing Can Be Determined By Examining All The Field Or Attribute Data (Given In Table
2) Linked To Road Map / Spatial Data.
Overlay Operation
Can Be Done Through Gis By Overlaying / Integrating A Number Of Thematic
Maps. Overlay Operation Allows Creation Of A New Layer Of Spatial Data By Integrating
The Data From Different Layers. For Example, A Particular Land Use Class Having Saline
Soils, Slope Less Than 20%, Drainage Density Less Than 10 M. Per Squre Km. Can Be
Created From Four Different Thematic Maps, Viz. Land Use Map, Soil Map, Topographic
Map And Water Resource Map.
Model Building Capability Of Gis Is Very Helpful For Decision Makers. It Is Usually
Referred To As ‘What If’ Analysis. For Example, If A Certain Amount Of Water Is Released
From A Dam, How Much Area Would Be Inundated?
5.5 INTEGERATED DATA ANALYSIS
GIS model is the integrated data model which is more closely integrated with the
database management system than in the hybrid system. The integrated data model approach
is also described as the spatial data base management system approach, with the GIS serving
as the query processor sitting on top of the database itself. The integrated data model has a
number of implications in terms of the special characteristics of spatial data. From the data
base viewpoint, it is possible to store both the coordinates and the topological information
required to characterise digital cartographic elements using a design based on Codd's Normal
Forms. (x, y) coordinate pairs for individual vertices along line segments are stored as

different rows in a data base table. To achieve satisfactory retrieval performance it has been
found necessary to store coordinate strings in long or 'bulk data' columns in tables. Handling
of large spatial databases is the need to convert 2-D coordinate information into 1-D spatial
keys that can be stored as data base table columns. These can then be indexed in the normal
way and used for fast retrieval of map elements contained within or overlapping a specified
geographical search area.
There are two ways of storing coordinate information as relational tables. The first
records individual (x, y) coordinate pairs and polygon terminator and vertices as individual
atomic elements or a row in a database. It is very difficult to search any element because each
element must be recomposed from its atomic format to grate whole polygons or groups of
polygons. The integrated GIS with which it can be understood how a single database can be
configured to certain separate files for entities and attributes.GIS purpose are based on
entities, attributes, and the relationship between entities and attributes with respect to the
locations, temporal changes and both location and time. In the following sections, an attempt
is made to provide a preliminary study for creating object based data models on the basis of
entity-attribute relationships, location based representations of spatio-temporal data, and time
based representations of spatio-temporal data and a combined approach of representing
spatio-temporal data.
5.6 MODELING IN GIS HIGHWAY ALINGMENT STUDIES

Vector GIS displays the locations or all objects stored using points and arcs.Attributes
and entity types can be displayed by varying colors, line patterns and point symbols (Fig) .
Using vector GIS, one may display only a subset of the data. For example, one may select all
political boundaries and highways, but only areas that had urban land uses.
Fig 5.5 Boundaries and highways

Relational query is an important concept in vector overlay analysis. Differentsystems use
different ways of formulating queries. Structured Query language (SQl) is used by many
systems. It provides a "standard" way in querying spatial data bases. Using relational queries,
the user can select objects interested in producing map output using colours, symbols, text
annotations and so on. Reclassify, dissolve, and merge operations are used frequently in
working with area objects. They are used to aggregate areas based on attributes. Consider a
soil map in Fig. We wish to produce a map of major soil types from a layer that has polygons
based on much more finely defined classification scheme. To do this, we process the data
using three steps: (i) Reclassify areas by a single attribute or some combination; for instance
reclassify soil areas by soil type only (ii) Dissolve boundaries

Lines are broken at each area object boundary to form new line segments andnew attributes
created for each output line specifying the area it belongs to Fig.
A triangulated irregular network (TIN) is a digital data structure used in a geographic

information system (GIS) for the representation of a surface. A TIN is a vector based
representation of the physical land surface or sea bottom, made up of irregularly distributed
nodes and lines with three dimensional coordinates (x,y, and z) that are arranged in a network
of nonoverlapping triangles. TINs are often derived from the elevation data of a rasterized
digital elevation model (DEM). An advantage of using a TIN over a DEM in mapping and
analysis is that the points of a TIN are distributed variably based on an algorithm that
determines which points are most necessary to an accurate representation of the terrain. Data
input is therefore flexible and fewer points need to be stored than in a DEM with regularly
distributed points. While a TIN may be less suited than a DEM raster for certain kinds of GIS
applications, such as analysis of a surface's slope and aspect, TINs have the advantage of
being able to portray terrain in three dimensions.

A TIN comprises a triangular network of vertices, known as mass points, with associated
coordinates in three dimensions connected by edges to form a triangular tessellation. Three-
dimensional visualizations are readily created by rendering of the triangular facets. In regions
where there is little variation in surface height, the points may be widely spaced whereas in
areas of more intense variation in height the point density is increased.
Characteristics
Contours should always point downridge along ridges Adjacent contours should always
be sequential or equivalent
Contours should never split into two
Contours should never cross or loop
Contours should never spiral
Contours should never stop in the middle of a map
Fig 5.6 Contour Map

A streamlined approach is developed for Land Information System to LIS thatincorporates

key data into a land registration structure, subsequently transferring them into a fully
automated information system. Under this approach, a land parcel is not stored as a polygon
or area in the LIS and hence is not used as the base framework for the related database.
Instead, a single point feature representing each property is used as the identifier and
geographic locator and are usually termed as, "lots by dots." This is the critical difference
from the polygon-based approach which attempts to reconcile geometry and compile all land
parcels together into a contiguous map of polygons. This is practically impossible to achieve
even in the United States since individual surveys of land parcels or 'lots' are often, not
entirely accurate and do not actually reconcile with one another.
This point-based property database can be developed from hardcopy very
highresolution satellite imagery or aerial photographs, or through ground-based collection
using Global Positioning System (GPS) techniques. As the field person collects the
geographic (point) position of each land parcel the property identifier number as well as
physical characteristics of the land, such as, land cover, soil condition, and number of
structures can also be logged. This effectively allows an LIS database to be built in the field
during survey. Additional complementary data can also be integrated into the LIS, such as,
scanned property documents.
5.7 LAND INFORMATION SYSTEM

The land use/land cover system adopted by almost all concerned organisationsand
scientists, engineers and remote sensing community who are involved in mapping of earth
surface features, is a system derived from the United States Geological Survey (USGS) land
use/land cover classification system. This system was designed on the basis of the following
criteria (Lillesand and Kiefer 1999) : (i) the minimum level of interpretation accuracy using
remotely sensed data should be at least 85 percent, (ii) the accuracy of interpretation for the
several categories should be about equal, (iii) repeatable results should be obtainable from
one interpreter to another and from one time of sensing to another, (iv) the classification
system should be applicable over extensive areas, (v) the categorization should permit land
use to be inferred from the land cover types, (vi) the classification system should be suitable
for u'se with remote sensor data obtained at different times of the year, (vii) categories should
be divisible into more detailed subcategories that can be obtained from large-scale imagery or
ground surveys, (viii) aggregation of categories must be possible, (ix) comparison with future
land use and land cover data should be possible, and (x) multiple uses of land should be
recognized when possible.
The basic USGS LU/LC classification system for use with remote sensor data isshown in
Table 14.1. On the basis of this system a multi-level system has been devised because
different degrees of detail can be obtained from aerial and space images, which depend upon
the resolution. Fig. 14.1 illustrates a sample aggregation of classifications for levels III, II and
I. One more level that is level IV is also devised for local users. In principle, levels IV and III
are designed for local level or very large scale mapping whereas levels II and I are meant for
small scale mapping.
Table 14.2 lists representative interpretation formats for various land use/land cover
classification levels.


USGS Land Use/Land Cover Classification System for use with Remote Sensor Data

National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA), Government of India, has devised ageneralised land
uselland cover classification system with respect to the Indian conditions based on the various
categories of Earth surface features, resolution of available satellite data, capabilities of sensors,
and present and future applications. Table shows the general legend adapted for land use/land
cover categories. This system is used for the development of land use/land cover map for the
project area, namely, MCH area of Hyderabad.



UNIT I
EMRAND ITSINTERACTIONWITH ATMOPHEREAND EARTH MATERIAL
1.What is Remote Sensing?

Remote sensing is the science and art of obtaining information
about object, area, or phenomena through the analysis of data acquired by a
device that is not in contact with the object, area, or phenomena under
investigation.
2.What are all the applications of remote sensing?
In many respects, remote sensing can be thought of as a reading
process. Using various sensors, we remotely collect data that may be analyzed to
obtain information about the objects, areas,or phenomena beinginvestigated.
The remotely collected data can be of many forms, including variations
in force distributions, acoustic wave distributions, or electromagnetic energy
distributions.
3.Write the physics of remote sensing ?
Visible light is only one of many forms of electromagnetic
energy. Radio waves, heat, ultraviolet rays, and X-rays are other familiar
forms. All this energy is inherently similar and radiates in accordance with
basic wave theory. This theory describes electromagnetic energy as
traveling in harmonic, sinusoidal fashion at the “velocity of light” c. The
distance from one wave peak to the next is the wave length ψ, and the
number of peaks passing a fixed point in space per unit time is the
wave frequency V.
From basic physics, wave obey the general equation
C=vy
4.What are the Components of Remote Sensing ?

5.What is Electromagnetic radiation?

Electromagnetic (EM) radiation is a self-propagating wave in space or
through matter. EM radiation has an electric and magnetic field component
which oscillate in phase perpendicular to each other and to the direction
of energy propagation.
6.Write the type of Electromagnetic radiation?
Electromagnetic radiation is classified into types according to
the frequency of the wave, these types include (in order of increasing
frequency): radio waves, microwaves, terahertz
radiation, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays and
gamma rays.
7.Draw the quantum theory interaction?
A quantum theory of the interaction between electromagnetic radiation
and matter such as electrons is described by the theory of
quantum electrodynamics.
8.Write about refraction?

In refraction, a wave crossing from one medium to another of
different density alters its speed and direction upon entering the new medium.
The ratio of the refractive indices of the media determines the degree of
refraction, and is summarized by Snell's law. Light disperses into a visible
spectrum as light is shone through a prism because of refraction.
9.Draw the Wave model?
10.Write Planck’s equation?

The frequency of the wave is proportional to the magnitude of
the particle's energy. Moreover, because photons are emitted and absorbed
by charged particles, they act as transporters of energy. The energy per photon
can be calculated by Planck's equation:
where E is the energy, h is Planck's constant, and f is frequency.

11.What is Black body ?
By definition a black body is a material that absorbs all the radiant energy that
strikes it. A black body also radiates the maximum amount of energy, which is
dependent on the kinetic temperature.
12.Write Stefan Boltzman law?
According to the Stefan-Boltzman law the radiant flux of a black body,
Fb, at a kinetic temperature, Tkin, is Fb = s* Tkin
4 where s is the Stefan- Boltzman constant, 5.67*10-12 W*cm-2*°K-
4.
13.What is emissivity?
Emissivity is a measure of the ability of a material to both radiate and absorb
energy. Materials with a high emissivity absorb and radiate large proportions of
incident and kinetic energy, respectively (and vice-versa).
14.Write Wein’s Displacement law?
For an object at a constant temperature the radiant power peak refers to the wavelength
at which the maximum amount of energy is radiated, which is expressed as lmax. The
sun, with a surface temperature of almost 6000°K, has its peak at 0.48mm (wavelength
of yellow). The average surface temperature of the earth is 290°K
(17°C), which is also called the ambient temperature; the peak concentration
of energy emitted from the earth is at 9.7mm.This shift to longer wavelengths
with decreasing temperature is described by Wien’s displacement law, which
states:
lmax = 2,897mm°K
/Trad°K
15.Write Planck’s Law?
The primary law governing blackbody radiation is the Planck Radiation
Law, which governs the intensity of radiation emitted by unit surface area into a fixed
direction (solid angle) from the blackbody as a function of wavelength for a
fixed temperature. The Planck Law can be expressed through the following equation.
16.What is Scattering?
Scattering occurs when particles or large gas molecules present in the atmosphere
interact with and cause the electromagnetic radiation to be redirected from its original
path. How much scattering takes place depends on several factors including the
wavelength of the radiation, the abundance of particles or gases, and the distance the
radiation travels through the atmosphere. There are three (3) types of scattering which
take place.
17.What are the types of scattering?
(i) Rayleigh scattering occurs when particles are very small compared to
the wavelength of the radiation.
(ii) Mie scattering
It occurs when the particles are just about the same size as the wavelength of
the radiation.
(iii) Non Selective Scattering
The final scattering mechanism of importance is called nonselective scattering.
This occurs when the particles are much larger than the wavelength of the radiation.
18.What is Atmospheric Windows?

The areas of the spectrum which are not severely influenced by
atmospheric absorption and thus, are useful to remote sensors, are called
atmospheric windows.
PART B
1. Discuss on spectral signature and its rule in identifying objects
with suitable diagrams.
2. Explain the principle of working of remote sensing?
3. With a suitable diagram explain the Electromagnetic Spectrums and its
characteristics used in remote sensing?
4. Explain on the different types of interactions of EMR with atmosphere?
UNIT II
PLATFORMS AND SENSORS
PART A
1.What is passive sensors?

Passive sensors can only be used to detect energy when the
naturally occurring energy is available. For all reflected energy, this can only
take place during the time when the sun is illuminating the Earth. There is
no reflected energy available from the sun at night. Energy that is naturally
emitted (such as thermal infrared) can be detected day or night, as long as the
amount of energy is large enough to be recorded.
2.What is Active sensors?
On the other hand, provide their own energy source for illumination. The
sensor emits radiation which is directed toward the target to be investigated.
The radiation reflected from that target is detected and measured by the sensor.
3.Write the advantages of active sensors?
Advantages for active sensors include the ability to obtain measurements
anytime, regardless of the time of day or season. Active sensors can be used for
examining wavelengths that are not sufficiently provided by the sun, such
as microwaves, or to better control the way a target is illuminated. However,
active systems require the generation of a fairly large amount of energy to
adequately illuminate targets. Some examples of active sensors are a laser
fluorosensor and a synthetic aperture radar (SAR).
4. What are the types of Platforms?
The vehicle or carrier for remote sensor is borne is called the Platform.” The
typical platforms are satellite and aircraft, but they can also include radio controlled
airplanes, balloons, pigeons, and kites for low altitude remote sensing, as well as ladder
and cherry pickers for ground investigation.
5.Differentiate Geostationary orbit and Polar sun synchronous
orbit.
Geostationary orbit
High altitude (36,000km)
Remains in same position above the Earth
Used by meteorological and communications satellites
Sees Earth disk (between third and quarter of Earths

surface) High temporal frequency (c.30 mins typical)
Polar sun synchronous orbit
Low altitude (200-
1000km) Goes close to
poles
Higher spatial resolution than geostationary
Lower temporal resolution than geostationary
6. What is Resolution?
In general resolution is defined as the ability of an entire remote-sensing
system, including lens antennae, display, exposure, processing, and other factors, to
render a sharply defined image.It is the resolving power of the sensor to detect the
smallest meaningful elemental area in different spectral bands in s defined gray level at
a regular interval.
7.What are the elements of resolution?
The four elements of resolutions are Spatial, Spectral, Radiometric and
Temporal.
8. Write short notes about Spatial resolution.
It is the minimum elemental area the sensor can detect or measure. The
resolution element is called pixel (picture element).
Example: IRS LISS 1-72.5m; LISS II-36.25m
Land sat MSS-80m; Land sat TM-30m
SPOT MSS HRV-120m; SPOT MSS HRV II-10m
9. Write short notes about Spectral resolution.
It refers to the sensing and recording power of the sensor in
different bands of EMR. The sensors can observe an object separately in different bands
or colors.
Examples: IRS-4 bands; Land sat MSS-4 bands; Land sat MSS TM-7 bands
SPOT-4
bands
It is the ability if the sensor to distinguish the finer variation of the
reflected radiation from different objects.
It is the smallest amount of energy that can be detected by sensor and
differentiate the same in a defined scale. It is recorded in digital number (DN)
for different bands of the satellite. The radiometric value of the pixel is the average of
the values coming from every part of the pixel.
Example: IRS-128 gray level; Land sat MSS-64; Land sat TM-256; SPOT-
256(it is to be noted that ‘0’is also a value in the gray scale).
11. Write short notes on Temporal
resolution.
It is the time interval between two successive surveys of a particular
place of the earth by the sensor or satellite.
Examples: IRS-22days; Land sat 16/18days; SPOT-16days.
12. Write the types of Microwave
Sensors?
Active microwave sensors are generally divided into two distinct categories:

imaging and non-imaging. The most common form of imaging active microwave
sensors is RADAR.
13.What is
RADAR?
RADAR is an acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging, which essentially
characterizes the function and operation of a radar sensor. The sensor transmits a
microwave (radio) signal towards the target and detects the backscattered portion of the
signal.
14. What are the types of DATA
products?
The data for all the sensors of IRS -1C/1D are supplied on digital media
like a) Computer copatible tapes (CCTs)
b) Cartridge
tapes c)
Floppies
d) CD-ROM products
PART B
1.What is resolution of a sensor? Describe all sensor resolutions.
2.Write short notes on the Indian remote sensing programme.
3.What is the role of a scanner in remote sensing and describe the different types
of scanners used in remote sensing.
4.Discuss the thermal infrared in remote sensing?
5. Give details and examples about platforms and sensors.
6. What are the two type of sensors and discuss detail?
UNIT III
IMAGE INTERPRETATION AND ANALYSIS
PART A
1.What is image interpretation?
Image interpretation is defined as the extraction of qualitative and quantitative
information in the form of a map, about the shape, location, structure, function, quality,
condition, relationship of and between objects, etc. by using human knowledge or
experience.
2. What are all the Types of image interpretation?
Photo interpretation photographic interpretation and image interpretation are
the terms used to interpret the Visual Image Interpretation.
3. What is Visual Image interpretation?
Visual Image interpretation is the act of examining photographs/images for the
purpose of identifying objects and judging their significance”
4. What is Photo interpretation?
Photo interpretation is defined as the process of identifying objects or conditions in
aerial photographs and determining their meaning or significance.
4.What is image reading?
Image reading is an elemental form of image interpretation. It corresponds to simple
identification of objects using such elements as shape, size, pattern, tone, texture, color,
shadow and other associated relationships. Image reading is usually implemented with
interpretation keys with respect to each object .
5.What is image measurement?

Image measurement is the extraction of physical quantities, such as length, location,
height, density, temperature and so on, by using reference data or calibration data
deductively or inductively.
6. What is image analysis?
Image analysis is the understanding of the relationship between interpreted
information and the actual status or phenomenon, and to evaluate the situation.
7. What is thematic map?
Extracted information will be finally represented in a map form called an
interpretation map or a thematic map.
8. What are the Image interpretation elements ?
The eight elements of image interpretation are shape, size, tone, shadows, texture,
site, pattern and association.
9. What is Digital Image Processing?
Digital Image Processing is a collection of techniques for the manipulation of digital
images by computers. The raw data received from the imaging sensors on the satellite
platforms contains flaws and deficiencies. To overcome these flaws and deficiencies in
order to get the originality of the data, it needs to undergo several steps of
processing. This will vary from image to image depending on the type of image format,
initial condition of the image and the information of interest and the composition of the
image scene.
10. What are the general steps of image
processing? The three steps of image processing
are ,
• Pre-processing
• Display and enhancement
• Information extraction
11.Write about pre processing?
In the preprocessing ,prepare data for subsequent analysis that attempts to correct
or compensate for systematic errors.
12. What is Image Enhancement?
The operations are carried out to improve the interpretability of the image by
increasing apparent contrast among various features in the scene. The enhancement
techniques depend upon two factors mainly l The digital data (i.e. with spectral bands
and resolution)
14. Write the objectives of interpretation?
The objectives of interpretation as an image enhancement technique often drastically
alters the original numeric data, it is normally used only for visual (manual)
interpretation and not for further numeric analysis. Common enhancements include
image reduction, image rectification, image magnification, transect extraction, contrast
adjustments, band ratioing, spatial filtering, Fourier transformations, principal
component analysis and texture transformation.
15.What is digital image?
Digital Image is the matrix of “Digital Numbers”. A digital image is
composed of thousands of pixels. Each pixel represents the brightness of small
region on the
earth surface.Digital Image processing involves the manipulation and

interpretation of digital image with the aid of computer.
16.What is filtering?
Filtering means the smoothening of an image using different Masks or Kernels.\
17.What is spatial filtering?
“ Spatial Filtering can be described as selectively emphasizing or suppressing
information at different spatial scales over an image. “
Spatial operation consists in changing the values of each pixels according to the
values of the pixels in the neighborhoods.
18.What is convolution?
A convolution is an integral which expresses the amount of overlap of one function g as it
is shifted over another function f. “
PART B
1.Write a detailed description on the elements of visual interpretation quoting suitalble
examples for each.
2.Give a detailed description on the how the flaws and deficiency in remote sensing data
can be removed.
3.Describe the different digital image processing techniques used.
4.Give a deatailed description on image classification and analysis of a remotely sensed
data.What is the use of classifying image.
UNIT IV
GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM
1.What is map?
A map is usually considered to be a drawing to scale of the whole or a part
of the surface of the earth on a plane surface; it is a manually or mechanically
drawn picture of the earth showing the location and distribution of various
natural and cultural phenomena.A map is a symbolic representation of an area.
2.Write the two types of maps?
The two maps are topographical and thematic maps.
3.Write about topographical map?
It is a reference tool, showing the outlines of selected natural and man-made features
of the Earth
– often acts as a frame for other information
"Topography" refers to the shape of the surface, represented by contours and/or
shading, but topographic maps also show roads and other prominent features.
4.Write about thematic map?
It is a tool to communicate geographical themes such as, the distribution of population &
densities, climatic variables and land use etc.
5.What are the thematic maps in GIS?
a)choropleth map
b) area class map
c) isopleth map
6.What are the characteristics of map?
• maps are often stylized, generalized or abstracted, requiring careful interpretation
• usually out of date

• show only a static situation - one slice in time

• often highly elegant/artistic
• easy to use to answer certain types of questions:
– how do I get there from here?
– what is at this point?
• difficult or time-consuming to answer other types:
– what is the area of this lake?
– what places can I see from this TV tower?
– what does that thematic map show at the point I'm interested in on
this topographic map?
7.Write the necessity of map projection?
Projection is necessary one because spatial entities locate in two dimensions.
The method by which the “world is laid flat” is use to help projection. Doing
the process introduce error into spatial data. Spatial data character varies depending
on the projection method chosen. Shape and distance are distorted the accuracy
world is spherical shape visualize the two dimension in flat surface is difficult.
8.Write the types of map projection?
1.Cylindrical projection 2. Azimuthal projection
3. Conical projection
9.Write few lines about cylindrical projection?
Countries near the equator in true relative portion
Distance increases between countries located towards top and bottom of
mage. The view of the poles is very distorted
Area for the most part is preserved
10.Write few lines about conical projection?
Area is distorted.
Distance is very distorted towards the bottom of the
image. Scale for the most part is preserved
11.Write few lines about azimuthal projection?
Only a part of the earth surface is visible.
The view will be of half the globe or
less. Distortion will occur at all four
edges. Distance for the more part is
preserved.
12.What is referencing system?
Referencing system is used to locate a feature on the earth’s surface or a
two dimension representation of this surface such as a map.
13.What are the methods of spatial referencing systems?
Several methods of spatial referencing exist all of which can be grouped into
three categories.
Geographical co-ordinate
system Rectangular co-ordinate
system Non-co-ordinate system
14. What is Geographic Co-Ordinate System?
This is a one of true co-ordinate system .the location of any point on the earth
surface can be defined by a reference using latitude and longitude.
15.What is QTM?
The quaternary triangular mesh refrenshing system tries to deal
with irregularities in the earth surface.
16.What is GIS?
It’s a computer based information system primarily aims in collecting,
classifying, crosschecking, manipulating, interpreting, retrieving and displaying data
which are spatially referred to the earth in an appealing way.
17.What are the components of GIS?
i) The Computer System (Hardware and Operating System)
ii) The
Software iii)
Spatial Data
iv) Data Management and analysis
procedures v) The People to operate the GIS
18.What are the GIS softwares used?
Standard GIS Softwares
• ARCGIS
• ARCVIEW
• ARCINFO
• MAPINFO
• ERDAS
• ENVI
• AUTOCADMAP
• IDRISI
PART B
1.What is map projection and explain the differentiate types of map projections with
their characteristics.
2.Explain in detail on the different types of data utilized in GIS technology.
3.Explain the different classification of maps.
4.Explain DBMS ,with emphasis on the differentiate types of DBMS used in GIS
functioning.
UNIT V
DATA - ENTRY ,STORAGE AND ANALYSIS
1.What is Data model?
Data Models: Vector and Raster
Spatial data in GIS has two primary data formats: raster and vector.
Raster uses a grid cell structure, whereas vector is more like a drawn map.
Raster and Vector Data
Vector format has points, lines, polygons that appear normal, much like a map.
Raster format generalizes the scene into a grid of cells, each with a code
to indicate the feature being depicted. The cell is the minimum mapping unit.
Raster has generalized reality: all of the features in the cell area are reduced to
a single cell identity.
2.What is raster data?
Raster is a method for the storage, processing and display of spatial
data.
Each area is divided into rows and columns, which form a regular grid structure.
Each cell must be rectangular in shape, but not necessarily
square.
Each cell within this matrix contains location co-ordinates as well as an attribute
value. The origin of rows and column is at the upper left corner of the grid.
Rows function as the “y”coordinate and column as”x”coordinate in a two dimensional
system. A cell is defined by its location in terms of rows and columns.
3.What is vector data?
• Vector data uses two dimensional Cartesian coordinates to store the shape of
spatial entity. Vector based features are treated as discrete geometric objects over
the space.
• In the vector data base point is the basic building block from which all the spatial
entities are constructed.
• The vector spatial entity ,the point is represented by a single x,y coordinate pair.
Line and area entities are constructed by a series of points into chains and
4. What is Raster?
The raster cell’s value or code represents all of the features within the grid, it does not
maintain true size, shape, or location for individual features. Even where “nothing” exists
(no data), the cells must be coded.
5. What is Vector?
vectors are data elements describing position and direction. In GIS, vector is the map-
like drawing of features, without the generalizing effect of a raster grid. Therefore, shape
is better retained. Vector is much more spatially accurate than the raster format.
6.What is raster coding?
In the data entry process, maps can be digitized or scanned at a selected cell size
and each cell assigned a code or value.
The cell size can be adjusted according to the grid structure or by ground units,
also termed resolution.
There are three basic and one advanced scheme for assigning cell codes.
Presence/Absence: is the most basic method and to record a feature if some of it
occurs in the cell space.
7. What is Cell Center?
The cell center involves reading only the center of the cell and assigning the code
accordingly. Not good for points or lines.
8.What is Dominant Area?
To assign the cell code to the feature with the largest (dominant) share of the cell. This is
suitable primarily for polygons.
9.What is Percent Coverage?
A more advanced method. To separate each feature for coding into individual themes and
then assign values that show its percent cover in each cell.
10.Different methods of data
input?
Key board entry
Digitizing
Manual digitizing
Automatic digitizing
Scanning
Automatic line follower
Electronic data transfer
11. What is digitizing?
The most common method employed in encoding data from a paper map.
Manual digitizing
Automatic digitizing
Scanning
Automatic line follower
12.Write the errors in digitizing?
Scale and resolution of the source/base map.
Quality of the equipment and the software used.
Incorrect registration.
A shaky hand.
Line thickness.
Overshoot.
Under shoot.
Spike.
Displacement.
Polygonal knot.
Psychological errors.
13.What is scanning?
piece of hard ware for converting an analogue source of document into digital
raster format (a light sensitive device).
Most commonly used method.
When raster data are there to be encoded scanning is the most appropriate option.
There are three different types of scanners available in usage :-
Flat-bed scanners (a PC peripheral). Rotating drum
scanners.
Large format feed scanners
14.Write the important components of scanner?
A light source.
A back ground.
A lens.
15.Write the practical problems in scanning?
Possibility of optical distortion associated with the usage of flat bed scanners.
Automatic scanning of unwanted information.
Selection of appropriate scanning tolerance to ensure important data are encoded,
and background data ignored.
The format of files produced and the input of data into G.I.S. software.
The amount of editing required to produce data suitable for analysis.
PART B
1.What is data model ?Enumerate different types of GIS data.
2.Write short notes on:
(i) Overlaying
(ii) Buffering and GIS

3.What are the possible techniques best adopted for better storage of raster data that
would avoid repetition of characters.
4.Explain on the different methods of data input in GIS.

Reg. No. :
Question Paper Code : 11200
1
B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION, APRIL/MAY 2011
0
Sixth Semester
Civil Engineering
4
CE 2024 — REMOTE SENSING TECHNIQUES AND GIS
(Regulation 2008)
Time : Three hours Maximum : 100 marks
Answer ALL questions
PART A — (10 × 2 = 20 marks)
1.
1
What are the components of Remote Sensing System?
0
2. Explain in briefly Spectral Reflectance of Water bodies.
3. Describe balloons and aircraft under airborne platforms.

4. Write the importance of Earth Resources Satellites.
4
5. What are the types of Data products?
6. Define image Rectification and Restoration.
7. Explain in detail about different types of Map Projection.
8. What are the important functions of Data base management system?
9. Write the classification of data input to a Geographic Information System.

1
10. Definition of Geometric Correction and Radiometric Correction.
PART—B (5 × 16 = 80 marks)
0
11. (a) What is mean by Electromagnetic Spectrum and Explain in detail for
Energy Source and its characteristics with neat sketch?
Or
4
(b) Explain in detail with neat sketches for Atmospheric interactions with
Electro Magnetic Radiation.
12. (a) What are the different types of platform and explain in detail with
give examples?
Or
(b) Define Active sensor and Passive sensor and Explain in detail for
Meteorological satellites designed.
1
13. (a) Describe in detail with neat sketch on Key elements for Terrain
Evaluation.
0
Or
(b) Discuss image enhancement techniques and explain image
classification procedure with flow chart.
4
14. (a) Describe in detail, Components of GIS and Theoretical models of GIS
operation.
Or
(b) Explain in detail for Spatial and Non-spatial data and write the major
components of a GIS.
15. (a) What are the traditional advantages and disadvantages of raster
versus vector spatial data structures?
(b)
1 Or
What are the techniques adopted for Land use and Land Cover change
0
detection analysis and explain in detail for Watershed?
————––––——
4
1
0
4
2 11200

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UNITI EMRANDITSINTERACTIONWITHATMOSPHERE&EARTH MATERIAL 9

UNITIII IMAGEINTERPRETATION ANDANALYSIS 9

1.2 REMOTE SENSING AND ITS COMPONENTS:

Fig 1.1- Components of Remote Sensing

SCE 1 Department of Civil Engineering

1.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

Electromagnetic radiation consists of an electrical field (E) which varies

SCE 2 Department of Civil Engineering

Electromagnetic radiation (EMR) as an electromagnetic wave that travels through

A w a v e c a n b e c h a ra c te riz e d b y its w a v e le n g th o r its fre q u e n c y

Wavelength and frequency are related by the following formula:

SCE 3 Department of Civil Engineering

Fig 1.3 – Electromagnetic Spectrum

1.4.2 Visible Spectrum

Violet: 0.4 -0.446 μm

Blue: 0.446 -0.500 μm

Green: 0.500 -0.578 μm

Yellow: 0.578 -0.592 μm

SCE 4 Department of Civil Engineering

Orange: 0.592 -0.620 μm

Red: 0.620 -0.7 μm

1.4.3 Infrared (IR)

This wavelength (or frequency) interval in the electromagnetic spectrum is commonly

SCE 5 Department of Civil Engineering

SCE 6 Department of Civil Engineering

1.5 WAVE THEORY AND PARRTICAL THEORY

Fig 1.4 – Electromagnetic propagation

SCE 7 Department of Civil Engineering

1.5.1 PARTICAL THEORY

1. 7 WIEN'S DISPLACEMENT LAW

where T is the absolute temperature in degrees kelvin. b is a constant of

SCE 8 Department of Civil Engineering

1.8 ENERGY INTERACTIONS WITH THE ATMOSPHERE

Fig 1.5 Energy Interaction with Atmosphere

1.8.2 RAYLEIGH SCATTERING

SCE 9 Department of Civil Engineering

Fig 1.6 Raleigh Scattering

1.8.4 MIE SCATTERING

The final scattering mechanism of importance is called nonselective scattering. This

SCE 10 Department of Civil Engineering

1.9 ATMOSPHERIC WINDOWS

1.10 SPECTRAL SIGNATURE CONCEPTS-TYPICAL SPECTRAL REFLECTANCE

SCE 11 Department of Civil Engineering

Fig 1.8 Spectral reflectance Curve

SCE 12 Department of Civil Engineering

SCE 13 Department of Civil Engineering

SCE 14 Department of Civil Engineering

AVRO: Ceiling height is 7.5 kmand minimum speed is 600 km./hr.

2.2 ORBIT TYPES GEO- SYNCHRONOUS AND SUN-SYNCHRONOUS

Fig 2.1 Geo – Stationary and Sun synchronous satellites

SCE 15 Department of Civil Engineering

2.3 PASSIVE AND ACTIVE SENSORS

SCE 16 Department of Civil Engineering

1)Itisrelativelysimplebothmechanicallyand electrically anditdoesnothave high

SCE 17 Department of Civil Engineering

Fig 2.2 active and passive sensor

1.4 RESOLUTION CONCEPT: