http://www.eetindia.

com/CAT_1800006_networking-
design.HTM?refer=google_cpc&gclid=CMHE9ueB6Y4CFQfIbgodJmYODQ

ref:- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network#Definition

A computer network is composed of multiple connected computers that communicate

over a wired or wireless medium to share data and other resources. For instance, a home
computer network may consist of two or more computers that share files and a printer
using the network. The size and scalability of any computer network are determined both
by the physical medium of communication and by the software controlling the
communication (i.e., the protocols).

Computer networks may be classified according to the network topology upon which the
network is based, such as Bus network, Star network, Ring network, Mesh network, Star-
bus network, Tree or Hierarchical topology network, etc.

Network Topology signifies the way in which intelligent devices in the network see their
logical relations to one another. The use of the term "logical" here is significant. That is,
network topology is independent of the "physical" layout of the network. Even if
networked computers are physically placed in a linear arrangement, if they are connected
via a hub, the network has a Star topology, rather than a Bus Topology. In this regard the
visual and operational characteristics of a network are distinct.

By network layer

Computer networks may be classified according to the network layer at which they
operate according to some basic reference models that are considered to be standards in
the industry such as the seven layer OSI reference model and the four layer Internet
Protocol Suite model. In practice, the great majority of networks use the Internet Protocol
(IP) as their network layer. Some networks, however, are using IP Version 6 IPv6, usually
in coexistence with IPv4. IPv6 use is often experimental. it is an interconnection of a
group of computers in other words.

A network as simple as two computers linked with a crossover cable has several points at
which the network could fail: either network interface, and the cable. Large networks,
without careful design, can have many points at which a single failure could disable the
network.

When networks are critical the general rule is that they should have no single point of
failure. The broad factors that can bring down networks, according to the Software
Engineering Institute [3] at Carnegie-Mellon University:

1. Attacks: these include software attacks by various miscreants (e.g., malicious

hackers, computer criminals) as well as physical destruction of facilities.
2. Failures: these are in no way deliberate, but range from human error in entering
commands, bugs in network element executable code, failures of electronic
 components, and other things that involve deliberate human action or system
design.
3. Accidents: Ranging from spilling coffee into a network element to a natural
disaster or war that destroys a data center, these are largely unpredictable events.
Survivability from severe accidents will require physically diverse, redundant
facilities. Among the extreme protections against both accidents and attacks are
airborne command posts and communications relays[4], which either are
continuously in the air, or take off on warning. In like manner, systems of
communications satellites may have standby spares in space, which can be
activated and brought into the constellation.

Why Networking ??
• Network Criteria
• Networking Basics
a.) LAN(Local Area Network)
b.) MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
c.) WAN(Wide Area Network)
• Types of Connection
• Topologies
• Transmission Media
• N/W Interface Card
• N/W Connectivity Devices

• INTRODUCTION
• NEED OF NETWORKS
• NETWORK CLASSIFICATION
• NETWORK DEVICES
• NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
• NETWORK SOFTWARE
• APPLICATIONS
• CONCLUSION
• BIBLIOGRAPHY

A computer network is a system for communication

among two or more computers.
TOPICS TO BE COVERED

• INTRODUCTION
• TYPES
• TOPOLOGIES
• OSI MODEL
• HARDWARE
• PROTOCOLS
• SECURITY(FIREWALL)
• FUTURE ASPECTSRED

NETWORKING & NETWORK COMPONENTS

• INTRODUCTION
• TYPES OF NETWORK
• NETWORK RELATIONSHIP
• FEATURES OF NETWORK
• OSI MODEL
• NETWORK HARDWARE COMPONENT
• CONCLUSION
• BIBLIOGRAPHY

FUTURE ASPECTS OF NETWORKING

NEEDS OF NETWORKING

1 - RESOURCE SHARING .

2 - HIGH RELIABILITY .

3 - COMMUNICATION MEDIUM

CONTENTS:

• VIRTUAL PRIVATE NETWORK(VPN)

• GIGABIT ETHERNET
• COMMON USES
• ADVANTAGES
• DISADVANTAGES

http://freecomputerebooks.blogspot.com/2007/05/free-computer-networking-ebooks.html

http://more-networking.blogspot.com/2007/02/computer-networks-and-internets.html

There are many different computing and networking technologies -- some

available today, some just now emerging, some well-proven, some quite
experimental. Understanding the computing dilemma more completely involves
recognizing technologies; especially since a single technology by itself seldom
suffices, and instead, multiple technologies are usually necessary.
This document describes a sampling of technologies of various types, by using
a tutorial approach. It compares the technologies available in the three major
technology areas: application support, transport networks, and subnetworking.
In addition, the applicability of these technologies within a particular situation
is illustrated using a set of typical customer situations.
This document can be used by consultants and system designers to better
understand, from a business and technical perspective, the options available to
solve customers' networking problems.

http://basic-networking.blogspot.com/2007/08/computer-network-devices-and-
component.html

A Computer network is comprised of different devices to share, transmit, and 
boost the signal, voice and data. Network devices or components are the 
physical parts connected to a network. There is a large number of the network 
devices and are increasing daily. The basic network devices are: Individual 
Computers, Server, Hub, Switch, Bridges, Routers, Modems, Printers, DSL 
Modems & Routers, Gateways, Network Interface Cards, Cabling & Wireless 
access point. The following is a overview of each of these network devices.

INDIVIDUAL COMPUTERS: The personal computer is usually a desktop 
computer, a work station or a laptop. The personal computers are most widely 
used in any organization or for personal use. The individual computers are the 
most common types of the microcomputers.

SERVER: A server is a computer on a network, which process request and is 
used to share the data and resources among the other computers in a network. A 
server stores all the necessary information and provides the different services 
like, workstation computer’s logon access, internet sharing, print sharing, disk 
space sharing etc. There are different types of servers e.g File and print server, 
database server, proxy server, Fax server, backup server etc. A database server 
stores all the data and software, which may related to the certain database and it 
allows other network devices to access and process the database queries. A file 
server is used to store the data of any user on the network and a print server 
manages one or more printers in a network. Similarly a network server is a server 
that manages the network traffic.

NETWORK INTERFACE CARD: Network interface cards are attached with the 
computer or other network devices and are used to provide the connectivity 
between the two computers. Each network card is specifically designed for the 
different types of the network like Ethernet, FDDI, Token Ring and Wireless 
Networks. The Network card operates on the first and second layers of the OSI 
models i.e Physical layer and datalink layer specifications. NIC basically defines 
the physical connection methods and the control signals that provides the timings 
of the data transfer over the network.

HUBS: Hub is a simplest network device. The function of the hub is broadcasting 
i.e data is forwarded towards the all ports of a hub, regardless of whether the 
data was intended for the particular systems in the network or not. Computers in 
a network are connected to a hub with a twisted pair (CAT5) cables. There are 
two types of the hubs. 1. Active Hubs. 2. Passive Hubs.

SWITCHING HUB: The Switching hub (also called “switch” is the most advance 
shape of the basic hub. In a basic hub all the computers are connected with the 
hub and the speed of the network is defined by the slowest computer network 
card connected. For example if you have 10/100 Mbps cards in a network and 
only one card of 10Mbps speed then the system cannot run faster than the 10 
Mbps. Now if you have a switching hub in a network, it will allow all the faster 
connections in the network to remain at the higher speed and still interact with 
the 10Mbps system.

SWITCHES: Switch is a intelligence device than hub. Switch is a layer 2 device. 
Swith provides the same function as a hub or a bridge but it has the advance 
functionality of connecting the two computers together temporarily. Switch 
contains the switch matrix or switch fabric that can connect and disconnect ports. 
Unlike hubs, switch only transmit or forwards the data to the destined computer 
and it does not broadcasts the data to all its ports.

MODEMS: Modems are the devices, which are used to translate the digital data 
into the analog format and vice versa. It performs the two main functions. 
Modulation and demodulation. A modulated data can travel across the 
conventional telephone lines. The modem modulates the signals at the sending 
end and demodulates at the receiving end. Modems are required for different 
types of the access methods such ISDN, DSL and 56K data modem. Modem can 
be the internal devices that plug into the expansion slots in a system or can be 
external devices that plug into the serial or USB ports. In Laptops, PCMCIA cards 
are used for this purpose and many new laptops having the built in integrated 
modems. The specialized devices are designed for use in the systems such as 
handheld computers. In ISPs where the large scaled modems are required, rack­
mounted modems are used.

ROUTERS: Routers route the data between two logically and physically different 
networks. A Router has the capability to determine the destination address for the 
data and hence provides the best way for the data to continue its journey. Router 
gets this capability through its software called routing software. Unlike Switches 
and Bridges, which use hardware configured MAC address to determine the 
destination of the data, router uses logical network address such as IP address to 
make the decision in determining the destination of the data.

GATEWAY: A gateway performs the function of translating the data from one 
format to another format without changing the data itself. A gateway can be a 
device, system, software. A computer with two NIC cards can function as a 
gateway. Router acts as a gateway e.g a router that routes the data from a IPX 
network to a IP network is technically a gateway. The same can be said of 
translational switch converts from a Ethernet network to a token ring network.

CABLES: There are two most common types of the cables. 1. 10baseT and 
10base2. 10baseT is a four paired cable. 10baseT has further two types 1. UTP 
(unshielded twisted pair) and 2. STP (shielded twisted pair. STP is most secure 
cable covered with the silver coated twisted paper to protect the cable. On the 
other end Thin 10base2 looks like the copper coaxial cabling that often used to 
connect TV sets and VCR. 10baseT/Cat5 cables are most commonly used 
cables to connect the computers. It has the connector, (like a telephone 
connector) called RJ45 connector.

Twisted pair cables are ideal for the small, medium or large networks.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network#By_network_topology

By network layer

Computer networks may be classified according to the network layer at which they
operate according to some basic reference models that are considered to be standards in
the industry such as the seven layer OSI reference model and the four layer Internet
Protocol Suite model. In practice, the great majority of networks use the Internet Protocol
(IP) as their network layer. Some networks, however, are using IP Version 6 IPv6, usually
in coexistence with IPv4. IPv6 use is often experimental. it is an interconnection of a
group of computers in other words.

A network as simple as two computers linked with a crossover cable has several points at
which the network could fail: either network interface, and the cable. Large networks,
without careful design, can have many points at which a single failure could disable the
network.

When networks are critical the general rule is that they should have no single point of
failure. The broad factors that can bring down networks, according to the Software
Engineering Institute [1] at Carnegie-Mellon University:

1. Attacks: these include software attacks by various miscreants (e.g., malicious

hackers, computer criminals) as well as physical destruction of facilities.
2. Failures: these are in no way deliberate, but range from human error in entering
commands, bugs in network element executable code, failures of electronic
components, and other things that involve deliberate human action or system
design.
3. Accidents: Ranging from spilling coffee into a network element to a natural
disaster or war that destroys a data center, these are largely unpredictable events.
Survivability from severe accidents will require physically diverse, redundant
facilities. Among the extreme protections against both accidents and attacks are
airborne command posts and communications relays[2], which either are
continuously in the air, or take off on warning. In like manner, systems of
communications satellites may have standby spares in space, which can be
activated and brought into the constellation.

[edit] Dealing with Power Failures

One obvious form of failure is the loss of electrical power. Depending on the criticality
and budget of the network, protection from power failures can range from simple filters
against excessive voltage spikes, to consumer-grade Uninterruptible Power
Supplies(UPS) that can protect against loss of commercial power for a few minutes, to
independent generators with large battery banks. Critical installations may switch from
commercial to internal power in the event of a brownout,where the voltage level is below
the normal minimum level specified for the system. Systems supplied with three-phase
electric power also suffer brownouts if one or more phases are absent, at reduced voltage,
or incorrectly phased. Such malfunctions are particularly damaging to electric motors.
Some brownouts, called voltage reductions, are made intentionally to prevent a full
power outage.

Some network elements operate in a manner to protect themselves and shut down
gracefully in the event of a loss of power. These might include noncritical application and
network management servers, but not true network elements such as routers. UPS may
provide a signal called the "Power-Good" signal. Its purpose is to tell the computer all is
well with the power supply and that the computer can continue to operate normally. If the
Power-Good signal is not present, the computer shuts down. The Power-Good signal
prevents the computer from attempting to operate on improper voltages and damaging
itself

To help standardize approaches to power failures, the Advanced Configuration and Power
Interface (ACPI) specification is an open industry standard first released in December
1996 developed by HP, Intel, Microsoft, Phoenix and Toshiba that defines common
interfaces for hardware recognition, motherboard and device configuration and power
management.

[edit] By scale

Computer networks may be classified according to the scale: Personal Area Network
(PAN), Local Area Network, Campus Area Network, Metropolitan area network (MAN),
or Wide area network (WAN). As Ethernet increasingly is the standard interface to
networks, these distinctions are more important to the network administrator than the end
user. Network administrators may have to tune the network, based on delay that derives
from distance, to achieve the desired Quality of Service (QoS).

Controller Area Networks are a special niche, as in control of a vehicle's engine, a boat's
electronics, or a set of factory robots.

[edit] By connection method

Computer networks may be classified according to the hardware technology that is used
to connect the individual devices in the network such as Ethernet, Wireless LAN,
HomePNA, or Power line communication.

[edit] By functional relationship

Computer networks may be classified according to the functional relationships which

exist between the elements of the network, for example Active Networking, Client-server
and Peer-to-peer (workgroup) architectures.

[edit] By network topology

 Main article: Network Topology

Computer networks may be classified according to the network topology upon which the
network is based, such as Bus network, Star network, Ring network, Mesh network, Star-
bus network, Tree or Hierarchical topology network, etc.

Network Topology signifies the way in which intelligent devices in the network see their
logical relations to one another. The use of the term "logical" here is significant. That is,
network topology is independent of the "physical" layout of the network. Even if
networked computers are physically placed in a linear arrangement, if they are connected
via a hub, the network has a Star topology, rather than a Bus Topology. In this regard the
visual and operational characteristics of a network are distinct.

[edit] By protocol

Computer networks may be classified according to the communications protocol that is

being used on the network. See the articles on List of network protocol stacks and List of
network protocols for more information.

[edit] Types of networks:

Below is a list of the most common types of computer networks in order of scale.

[edit] Personal Area Network (PAN)

Main article: Personal area network

A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among
computer devices (including telephones and personal digital assistants) close to one
person. The devices may or may not belong to the person in question. The reach of a PAN
is typically a few meters. PANs can be used for communication among the personal
devices themselves (intrapersonal communication), or for connecting to a higher level
network and the Internet (an uplink).

Personal area networks may be wired with computer buses such as USB and FireWire. A
wireless personal area network (WPAN) can also be made possible with network
technologies such as IrDA and Bluetooth.

[edit] Local Area Network (LAN)

Main article: Local Area Network

A network covering a small geographic area, like a home, office, or building. Current
LANs are most likely to be based on Ethernet technology. The defining characteristics of
LANs, in contrast to WANs (wide area networks), include their much higher data transfer
rates, smaller geographic range, and lack of a need for leased telecommunication lines.
Hosts can be made part of a specific LAN can be defined by setting their address to one
within the address range of the LAN subnet This can be done by manual configuration, or
by configuring DHCPDynamic Host Configuration Protocol autoconfiguration to give the
host an address in the appropriate range.

Currently standardized LAN technologies operate at speeds up to 10 Gbit/s. IEEE has

projects investigating the standardization of 100 Gbit/s, and possibly 40 Gbit/s. Inverse
multiplexing is commonly used to build a faster aggregate from slower physical streams,
such as bringing 4 Gbit/s aggregate stream into a computer or network element with four
1 Gbit/s interfaces.

[edit] Campus Area Network (CAN)

Main article: Campus Area Network

A network that connects two or more LANs but that is limited to a specific and
contiguous geographical area such as a college campus, industrial complex, or a military
base. A CAN, may be considered a type of MAN (metropolitan area network), but is
generally limited to an area that is smaller than a typical MAN, so it is called a CAN.

This term is most often used to discuss the implementation of networks for a contiguous
area. In the past, when layer 2 switching (i.e., bridging (networking) was cheaper than
routing, campuses were good candidates for layer 2 networks, until they grew to very
large size. Today, a campus may use a mixture of routing and bridging. The network
elements used, called "campus switches", tend to be optimized to have many Ethernet
interfaces rather than an arbitrary mixture of Ethernet and WAN interfaces.

[edit] Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Main article: Metropolitan Area Network

A network that connects two or more Local Area Networks or CAN together but does not
extend beyond the boundaries of the immediate town, city, or metropolitan area. Multiple
routers, switches & hubs are connected to create a MAN

[edit] Wide Area Network (WAN)

Main article: Wide Area Network

A WAN is a data communications network that covers a relatively broad geographic area
(i.e. one country to another and one continent to another continent) and that often uses
transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies. WAN
technologies generally function at the lower three layers of the OSI reference model: the
physical layer, the data link layer, and the network layer.
The highest data rate commercially available, as a single bitstream, on WANs is 40
Gbit/s, principally used between large service providers. Wavelength Division
Multiplexing, however, can put multiple 10 or 40 Gbyte/s streams onto the same optical
fiber.

[edit] Global Area Network (GAN)

Main article: Global Area Network

Global area networks (GAN) specifications are in development by several groups, and
there is no common definition. In general, however, a GAN is a model for supporting
mobile communications across an arbitrary number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage
areas, etc. The key challenge in mobile communications is "handing off" the user
communications from one local coverage area to the next. In IEEE Project 802, this
involves a succession of terrestrial Wireless local area networks (WLAN) is the [3].
INMARSAT has defined a satellite-based Broadband Global Area Network (BGAN).

IEEE mobility efforts focus on the data link layer and make assumptions about the media.
Mobile IP is a network layer technique, developed by the IETF, which is independent of
the media type and can run over different media while still keeping the connection.

[edit] Internetwork

Main article: Internetwork

Two or more networks or network segments connected using devices that operate at layer
3 (the 'network' layer) of the OSI Basic Reference Model, such as a router. Any
interconnection among or between public, private, com, or governmental networks may
also be defined as an internetwork.

In modern practice, the interconnected networks use the Internet Protocol. There are at
least three variants of internetwork, depending on who administers and who participates
in them:

• Intranet
• Extranet
• "The" Internet

Intranets and extranets may or may not have connections to the Internet. If connected to
the Internet, the intranet or extranet is normally protected from being accessed from the
Internet without proper authorization. The Internet itself is not considered to be a part of
the intranet or extranet, although the Internet may serve as a portal for access to portions
of an extranet.

[edit] Intranet
Main article: Intranet
An intranet is a set of interconnected networks, using the Internet Protocol and uses IP-
based tools such as web browsers, that is under the control of a single administrative
entity. That administrative entity closes the intranet to the rest of the world, and allows
only specific users. Most commonly, an intranet is the internal network of a company or
other enterprise.

[edit] Extranet
Main article: Extranet

A extranet is network or internetwork that is limited in scope to a single organization or

entity but which also has limited connections to the networks of one or more other
usually, but not necessarily, trusted organizations or entities (e.g., a company's customers
may be provided access to some part of its intranet thusly creating an extranet while at
the same time the customers may not be considered 'trusted' from a security standpoint).
Technically, an extranet may also be categorized as a CAN, MAN, WAN, or other type of
network, although, by definition, an extranet cannot consist of a single LAN, because an
extranet must have at least one connection with an outside network.

[edit] Internet, The

Main article: Internet

A specific internetwork, consisting of a worldwide interconnection of governmental,

academic, public, and private networks based upon the Advanced Research Projects
Agency Network (ARPANET) developed by ARPA of the U.S. Department of Defense –
also home to the World Wide Web (WWW) and referred to as the 'Internet' with a capital
'I' to distinguish it from other generic internetworks.

obtained from address registries that control assignments. Service providers and large
enterprises also exchange information on the reachability of their address ranges through
the Border Gateway Protocol.

[edit] Basic Hardware Components

All networks are made up of basic hardware building blocks to interconnect network
nodes, such as Network Interface Cards (NICs), Bridges, Hubs, Switches, and Routers. In
addition, some method of connecting these building blocks is required, usually in the
form of galvanic cable (most commonly Category 5 cable). Less common are microwave
links (as in IEEE 802.11) or optical cable ("optical fiber").

[edit] Network Interface Cards

Main article: Network card

A network card, network adapter or NIC (network interface card) is a piece of

computer hardware designed to allow computers to communicate over a computer
network. It provides physical access to a networking medium and provides a low-level
addressing system through the use of MAC addresses. It allows users to connect to each
other either by using cables or wirelessly.

[edit] Repeaters

Main article: Repeater

A Because repeaters work with the actual physical signal, and do not attempt to interpret
the data being transmitted, they operate on the Physical layer, the first layer of the OSI
model.BY HAYTECH

[edit] Hubs

Main article: Network hub

A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied the packets
to all the ports of the hub. When the packets are copied, the destination address in the
frame does not change to a broadcast address. It does this in a rudimentary way, it simply
copies the data to all of the Nodes connected to the hub. [4]

[edit] Bridges

Main article: Network bridge

A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer (layer 2) of
the OSI model. Bridges do not promiscuously copy traffic to all ports, as does a hub. but
learns which MAC addresses are reachable through specific ports. Once the bridge
associates a port and an address, it will send traffic for that address only to that port.
Bridges do send broadcasts to all ports except the one on which the broadcast was
received.

Bridges learn the association of ports and addresses by examining the source address of
frames that it sees on various ports. Once a frame arrives through a port, its source
address is stored and the bridge assumes that MAC address is associated with that port.
The first time that a previously unknown destination address is seen, the bridge will
forward the frame to all ports other than the one on which the frame arrived.

Bridges come in three basic types:

1. Local bridges: Directly connect local area networks (LANs)

2. Remote bridges: Can be used to create a wide area network (WAN) link between
LANs. Remote bridges, where the connecting link is slower than the end
networks, largely have been replaced by routers.
3. Wireless bridges: Can be used to join LANs or connect remote stations to LANs
[edit] Switches

Main article: Network switch

Switches are a marketing term that encompasses routers and bridges, as well as devices
that may distribute traffic on load or by application content (e.g., a Web URL identifier).
Switches may operate at one or more OSI layers, including physical, data link, network,
or transport (i.e., end-to-end). A device that operates simultaneously at more than one of
these layers is called a multilayer switch.

Overemphasizing the ill-defined term "switch" often leads to confusion when first trying
to understand networking. Many experienced network designers and operators
recommend starting with the logic of devices dealing with only one protocol level, not all
of which are covered by OSI. Multilayer device selection is an advanced topic that may
lead to selecting particular implementations, but multilayer switching is simply not a real-
world design concept.

[edit] Routers

Main article: Router

Routers are the networking device that forwards data packets along networks by using
headers and forwarding tables to determine the best path to forward the packets. Routers
work at the network layer (layer 3) of the OSI model. Routers also provide
interconnectivity between like and unlike media.[5] This is accomplished by examining
the Header of a data packet.[6] They use routing protocols such as Open Shortest Path
First (OSPF) to communicate with each other and configure the best route between any
two hosts. A router is connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs
or a LAN and its ISP's network. Some DSL and Cable Modems have been integrated with
routers for home consumers.

[edit] Building a simple computer network

A simple computer network may be constructed from two computers by adding a network
adapter (Network Interface Controller (NIC)) to each computer and then connecting them
together with a special cable called a crossover cable. This type of network is useful for
transferring information between two computers that are not normally connected to each
other by a permanent network connection or for basic home networking applications.
Alternatively, a network between two computers can be established without dedicated
extra hardware by using a standard connection such as the RS-232 serial port on both
computers, connecting them to each other via a special crosslinked null modem cable.

Practical networks generally consist of more than two interconnected computers and
generally require special devices in addition to the Network Interface Controller that each
computer needs to be equipped with. Examples of some of these special devices are hubs,
switches and routers.
[edit] Ancillary equipment used by networks

To keep a network operating, to diagnose failures or degradation, and to circumvent

problems, networks may have a wide-ranging amount of ancillary equipment.

[edit] Providing Electrical Power

Individual network components may have surge protectors - an appliance designed to

protect electrical devices from voltage spikes. Surge protectors attempt to regulate the
voltage supplied to an electric device by either blocking or shorting to ground voltage
above a safe threshold.[5]

Beyond the surge protector, network elements may have uninterruptible power supplies
(UPS), which can be anywhere from a line-charged battery to take the element through a
brief power dropout, to an extensive network of generators and large battery banks that
can protect the network for hours or days of commercial power outages.

[edit] Monitoring and Diagnostic Equipment

Networks, depending on their criticality and the skill set available among the operators,
may have a variety of temporarily or permanently connected performance meaasurement
and diagnostic equipment. Routers and bridges intended more for the enterprise or ISP
market than home use, for example, usually record the amount of traffic and errors
experienced on their interfaces.

Diagnostic equipment, to isolate failures, may be nothing more complicated than a spare
piece of equipment. If the problem disappears when the spare is manually replaced, the
problem has been diagnosed. More sophisticated and expensive installations will have
spare elements that can automatically replace a failed unit. Failures can be made
transparent to user computers with techniques such as the Virtual Router Redundancy
Protocol (VRRP), as specified in RFC 3768.

http://more-networking.blogspot.com/2007/02/networking-fundamentals-v40.html

Networking Fundamentals, v4.0

By Brian Brown
Networks are an interconnection of computers. These computers can be
linked together using a wide variety of different cabling types, and for a wide
variety of different purposes.
The basis reasons why computers are networked are
 • to share resources (files, printers, modems, fax machines)
• to share application software (MS Office)
• increase productivity (make it easier to share data amongst users)

Take for example a typical office scenario where a number of users in a small
business require access to common information. As long as all user computers
are connected via a network, they can share their files, exchange mail,
schedule meetings, send faxes and print documents all from any point of the
network.

It would not be necessary for users to transfer files via electronic mail or
floppy disk, rather, each user could access all the information they require,
thus leading to less wasted time and hence greater productivity.

Imagine the benefits of a user being able to directly fax the Word document
they are working on, rather than print it out, then feed it into the fax machine,
dial the number etc.

Small networks are often called Local Area Networks [LAN]. A LAN is a
network allowing easy access to other computers or peripherals. The typical
characteristics of a LAN are,

• physically limited ( less than 2km)

• high bandwidth (greater than 1mbps)
• inexpensive cable media (coax or twisted pair)
• data and hardware sharing between users
• owned by the user

http://physinfo.ulb.ac.be/cit_courseware/networks/default.htm,

BASIC NETWORK CONCEPTS

Networks are an interconnection of computers. These computers can be linked together
using a wide variety of different cabling types, and for a wide variety of different
purposes.

The basis reasons why computers are networked are

• to share resources (files, printers, modems, fax machines)

• to share application software (MS Office)
• increase productivity (make it easier to share data amongst users)
Take for example a typical office scenario where a number of users in a small business
require access to common information. As long as all user computers are connected via a
network, they can share their files, exchange mail, schedule meetings, send faxes and
print documents all from any point of the network.

It would not be necessary for users to transfer files via electronic mail or floppy disk,
rather, each user could access all the information they require, thus leading to less wasted
time and hence greater productivity.

Imagine the benefits of a user being able to directly fax the Word document they are
working on, rather than print it out, then feed it into the fax machine, dial the number etc.

Small networks are often called Local Area Networks [LAN]. A LAN is a network
allowing easy access to other computers or peripherals. The typical characteristics of a
LAN are,

• physically limited (< 2km)

• high bandwidth (> 1mbps)
• inexpensive cable media (coax or twisted pair)
• data and hardware sharing between users
• owned by the user

BASIC NETWORK COMPONENTS

There are a number of components which are used to build networks. An understanding
of these is essential in order to support networks. This is a discussion on some of the
elements which make up a network [LAN].

Network Adapter Cards

A network adapter card plugs into the workstation, providing the connection to the
network. Adapter cards come from many different manufacturers, and support a wide
variety of cable media and bus types [ISA, MCA, EISA, PCI, PCMCIA]. For an
explanation about various bus types, click here.
New cards are software configurable, using a software program to configure the
resources used by the card. Other cards are PNP [plug and Play], which automatically
configure their resources when installed in the computer, simplifying installation. With an
operating system like Windows 95, auto-detection of new hardware makes network
connections simple and quick.

On power-up, the computer detects the new network card, assigns the correct resources to
it, and then installs the networking software required for connection to the network. All
the user need do is assign the network details like computer name.

For Ethernet or 10BaseT cards, each card is identified by a twelve digit hexadecimal
number. This number uniquely identifies the computer. These network card numbers are
used in the Medium Access [MAC] Layer to identify the destination for the data. When
talking to another computer, the data you send to that computer is prefixed with the
number of the card you are sending the data to.

This allows intermediate devices in the network to decide in which direction the data
should go, in order to transport the data to its correct destination.

A typical adapter card looks like,

A PCMCIA adapter card, suitable for connecting to a portable laptop computer to a

network, looks like,
Peripheral cards associated with EISA and MCA are normally self configuring.

The major problem arises with cards for the ISA bus (found in the majority of AT type
computers and clones). This is because the cards are configured by the user (using either
jumpers or a software program).

Users make mistakes, and often configure cards so that they conflict with other cards
already present in this system. This causes intermittent or immediate non-operation of the
computer system.

For instance, a networking card that is allocated the same resources as a serial
communications program may function perfectly, except when the user is logged into the
network and then tries to use the serial port, at which time the machine will crash.

Resources Used By Peripheral Cards

We have already mentioned that resources used by ISA peripheral cards must not be
shared (two cards cannot use the same). So what are the resources used by peripheral
cards? Essentially, there are FOUR resources which are user configurable for peripheral
cards. Some cards may only use one (a port location(s)), others may require all four.

The FOUR resources are

1. Input/Output Port Address

In the PC, the port numbers used by peripheral cards range from 200h to 3FFh.
The I/O port address is used by the PC to communicate with the peripheral card
(issue commands, read responses, and perform data transfer).
2. Interrupt Request Line
The interrupt request line is used by the card to signal the processor that the card
requires the processors attention. ISA peripherals cannot share the same interrupt
request line, and IRQ2 in AT/2386/486 computers should not be used (there are
others which must also not be used). IRQ2 to IRQ15 appear on the ISA bus.
3. Direct Memory Request Line
The DMA request line is used to transfer data between the peripheral card and the
computers memory at high speed. DMA channel 0 cannot be used, as it is
reserved for system use.
4. Buffer Memory Address
Some peripheral cards prefer to use memory space rather than an I/O port address
to transfer data to the processor. This memory space occupied by the peripheral
card appears in the main system memory RAM area available to the processor
(usually between C0000h to EFFFFh). Care must be taken to ensure this space is
not being used for other purposes (like shadow RAM, EMS for windows, VBGA
BIOS).

This space is also sometimes used by a remote boot Eprom, which is used for
diskless workstations which download the operating system from the server at
boot time.
 So How Do Peripheral Cards Work?
Peripheral cards require a software driver to function. This software driver provides the
interface between the card and the operating system, making the services provided by the
card available to the user.

The software driver is normally configured to match the resource settings of the card.
This is done by a configuration utility, and stored either in the executable file, or a
separate file (like .ini or .cfg).

It is obviously important for the configuration settings in the software driver to match
those configured on the peripheral card.

The resources used by the card are either set by jumpers (or slide switches). New cards
can also be configured using a software program, rather than by manually setting jumpers
on the card. Where cards are software configurable, the cards retain their configuration
when the power is turned off.

The software driver provides the follow functions

• initialization routine
• interrupt service routine
• procedures to transmit and receive data
• procedures for status, configuration and control

The basic operation looks something like,

• card receives data

• card generates interrupt by asserting interrupt request line
• processor responds to interrupt request and jumps to service routine
• service routine instructs processor to read data from port location
• interrupt service routine releases processor to continue previous work

The major problem is assigning values of these resources which are already being used
by either the system or another peripheral card. It is therefore handy to know what the
resources are which are used by common peripheral devices. The following tables
identify these.

Common I/O Port Addresses

Port Address Peripheral

200-207h Game I/O Adaptor
210-217h XT Expansion Unit
220h SoundBlaster
278-27Fh LPT2
2E8-2EFh COM4
2F8-2FFh COM2
300-30Fh Color Video Adaptor
320-32F XT Hard Disk
330h SoundBlaster MIDI
378-37Fh LPT1
3A0-3A9h IBM Synchronous Adaptor
3B0-3BFh Monochrome Video
3E8-3EFh COM3
3F0-3F7h Floppy Disk
3F8-3FFh COM1

Common Interrupts

IRQ Line Peripheral

2 EGA/VGA
3 COM2
4 COM1
5 LPT2, Bus mouse, Network
6 Floppy Disk
7 LPT1
13 Co-Processor
14 AT Disk Controller

Common Memory Addresses

Address Peripheral
A0000-BFFFFh EGA/VGA
B0000-B7FFFh Monochrome
B8000-BFFFFh CGA
C8000-CFFFFh XT Disk
F4000-FFFFFh AT ROM BIOS
F8000-FFFFFh PC/XT ROM BIOS

Common DMA Lines

DMA Line Peripheral

0 Memory Circuitry
1 Spare
2 Floppy Drive

Installing A Peripheral Card

This section discusses basic techniques for installing peripheral cards. By following
standardized procedures, this will help to minimize damage to the system or peripheral
card, and reduce the possibility of incorrect installation.

1. Determine the resources used by the computer

Use the previous tables to determine the interrupts, memory and port addresses
used by the current hardware in the computer.
2. Read the install manual
Check the disk for a read.me file (and read it). Read the manual and take note of
the jumper switches used by the card. Identify where these are located on the card.
3. Determine resources to be used by the card
Allocate resources to the card which do not conflict with existing hardware.
4. Observe electrostatic protection in handling the card
Use a wrist strap and ground yourself properly before handling the card. Handle
the card by the edges. Do not touch the components or edge connector. Use
electrostatic bags or an electrostatic mat.
5. Configure the card jumpers
Set the jumpers on the card
6. Insert the card
Remove the system base unit cover and insert the card into a spare peripheral bus
slot. Observe electrostatic precautions.
7. Load the software driver
If the card was provided with a software driver, install the software driver. This
might involve running an INSTALL program, or copying the drivers to the hard
disk. It might also mean adding the driver name to the config.sys file
(DEVICE=xxxxx.sys).
8. Configure the driver software
If the driver software needs to be configured (specify which resources the card is
using), this information might be stored in a separate file (.ini or .cfg). Often,
when installing the software, it will ask for configuration details. These must be
the same as the hardware jumpers used by the card.
9. Test card (run diagnostics where provided)
If the card was provided with diagnostic software, run that now to test the card
and driver. This is a good way to test if the installation was done correctly.
10. Test the machine
Test some of the other software packages on the system (like networking, serial
communications and printing) to see if they still work. If they don't, this indicates
a probable conflict of resources. In Windows 95 or NT, run the diagnostic
program to check for interrupt and resource conflicts (MSD or WINMSD).
 Summary of Installing Network Cards in Servers and Workstations

• ISA cards are a problem

• check what resources are already being used
• do not share resources between two cards
• interrupts can only be shared on EISA and MCA cards
• run the diagnostics software after installation
• if the computer hangs, remove one board at a time until the problem disappears

Brief Guide to BUILDING WIRING

The following is a very brief overview of the components that make up the wiring
standards for commercial buildings. The objectives of such standards is to

• define a generic voice and data wiring system that is multi-purpose and multi-
vendor
• help minimize cost of administration
• simplify network maintenance and changes

A building wiring system covers a number of different elements

• horizontal wiring
• backbone wiring

Horizontal Wiring
The horizontal wiring extends from the wall outlet to the system center
(telecommunications closet). It includes the

• the wall outlet

• the horizontal cable
• cables used to interconnect components [cross-connects or patch cables] in the
telecommunications closet (TC)

Some general features of the horizontal wiring scheme are

• uses star topology

• limit of 90 meters (295') from TC to wall outlet
• limit of 3 meters (10') to connect from wall outlet to PC
• patch cords and cross-connect leads are limited to 6 meters (20')
• minimum of two outlets per user (phone+data)
• standardized media, Outlet A=4pair 100ohm UTP, Outlet B=same or 2 pair
150ohm STP
Backbone Wiring The backbone wiring system interconnects telecommunication closets,
equipment rooms and entrance facilities (i.e., the outside world). Some general features
are

• star topology
• maximum of two hierarchical levels
• interconnections between any two TC must not go through more than 3 cross
connects
• use of recognized media
• adherence to distance limitations

BRIDGES
Bridges interconnect Ethernet segments. Most bridges today support filtering and
forwarding, as well as Spanning Tree Algorithm. The IEEE 802.1D specification is the
standard for bridges.

During initialization, the bridge learns about the network and the routes. Packets are
passed onto other network segments based on the MAC layer. Each time the bridge is
presented with a frame, the source address is stored. The bridge builds up a table which
identifies the segment to which the device is located on. This internal table is then used to
determine which segment incoming frames should be forwarded to. The size of this table
is important, especially if the network has a large number of workstations/servers.

The advantages of bridges are

• increase the number of attached workstations and network segments

• since bridges buffer frames, it is possible to interconnect different segments which
use different MAC protocols
• since bridges work at the MAC layer, they are transparent to higher level
protocols
• by subdividing the LAN into smaller segments, overall reliability is increased and
the network becomes easier to maintain
• used for non routable protocols like NETBEUI which must be bridged [see also
here]
• help localize network traffic by only forwarding data onto other segments as
required (unlike repeaters)

The disadvantages of bridges are

• the buffering of frames introduces network delays

• bridges may overload during periods of high traffic
• bridges which combine different MAC protocols require the frames to be
modified before transmission onto the new segment. This causes delays
• in complex networks, data may be sent over redundant paths, and the shortest path
is not always taken
• bridges pass on broadcasts, giving rise to broadcast storms on the network
Transparent bridges (also known as spanning tree, IEEE 802.1 D) make all routing
decisions. The bridge is said to be transparent (invisible) to the workstations. The bridge
will automatically initialize itself and configure its own routing information after it has
been enabled.

Bridges are ideally used in environments where there a number of well defined
workgroups, each operating more or less independent of each other, with occasional
access to servers outside of their localized workgroup or network segment. Bridges do
not offer performance improvements when used in diverse or scattered workgroups,
where the majority of access occurs outside of the local segment.

The diagram below shows two separate network segments connected via a bridge. Note
that each segment must have a unique network address number in order for the bridge to
be able to forward packets from one segment to the other.

Ideally, if workstations on network segment A needed access to a server, the best place to
locate that server is on the same segment as the workstations, as this minimizes traffic on
the other segment, and avoids the delay incurred by the bridge.

A bridge works at the MAC Layer by looking at the destination address and forwarding
the frame to the appropriate segment upon which the destination computer resides.

Summary of Bridge features

• operate at the MAC layer (layer 2 of the OSI model)

• can reduce traffic on other segments
• broadcasts are forwarded to every segment
 • most allow remote access and configuration
• often SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) enabled
• loops can be used (redundant paths) if using spanning tree algorithm
• small delays introduced
• fault tolerant by isolating fault segments and reconfiguring paths in the event of
failure
• not efficient with complex networks
• redundant paths to other networks are not used (would be useful if the major path
being used was overloaded)
• shortest path is not always chosen by spanning tree algorithm

HUBS
There are many types of hubs. Passive hubs are simple splitters or combiners that group
workstations into a single segment, whereas active hubs include a repeater function and
are thus capable of supporting many more connections.

Nowadays, with the advent of 10BaseT, hub concentrators are being very popular. These
are very sophisticated and offer significant features which make them radically different
from the older hubs which were available during the 1980's.

These 10BaseT hubs provide each client with exclusive access to the full bandwidth,
unlike bus networks where the bandwidth is shared. Each workstation plugs into a
separate port, which runs at 10Mbps and is for the exclusive use of that workstation, thus
there is no contention to worry about like in Ethernet.

These 10BaseT hubs also include buffering of packets and filtering, so that unwanted
packets (or packets which contain errors) are discarded. SNMP management is also a
common feature.

In standard Ethernet, all stations are connected to the same network segment in bus
configuration. Traffic on the bus is controlled using the CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access) protocol, and all stations share the available bandwidth.

10BaseT Hubs dedicate the entire bandwidth to each port (workstation). The workstations
attach to the hub using UTP. The hub provides a number of ports, which are logically
combined using a single backplane, which often runs at a much higher data rate than that
of the ports.
Ports can also be buffered, to allow packets to be held in case the hub or port is busy.
And, because each workstation has it's own port, it does not contend with other
workstations for access, having the entire bandwidth available for it's exclusive use.

The ports on a hub all appear as one Ethernet segment. In addition, hubs can be stacked
or cascaded (using master/slave configurations) together, to add more ports per segment.
As hubs do not count as repeaters, this is a better option for adding more workstations
than the use of a repeater.

Hub options also include an SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) agent. This
allows the use of network management software to remotely administer and configure the
hub. Detailed statistics related to port usage and bandwidth are often available, allowing
informed decisions to be made concerning the state of the network.

In summary, the advantages for these newer 10BaseT hubs are,

• each port has exclusive access to its bandwidth (no CSMA/CD)

• hubs may be cascaded to add additional ports
• SNMP managed hubs offer good management tools and statistics
• utilize existing cabling and other network components
• becoming a low cost solution

Virtual Networking
In virtual networking, workgroups can be created on demand. Users can be located
anywhere on the network. Using software management, the network components
(switches) are configured to recognize a number of defined workstations (by MAC
address) as belonging to their own domain.

Any traffic generated by these workstations can be sent to any other workstation in that
domain. Workstations outside that domain are unable to see any packets (including
broadcasts) that belong to the secure domain. Obviously, this has enormous implications
for developing secure networks. Multiple virtual workgroups can exist, like email and
www server. Users can belong to more than one virtual domain, thereby administration is
centralized and security is maintained. The use of switch technology makes this possible.
NETWORK TOPOLOGY
Topology refers to the way in which the network of computers is connected. Each
topology is suited to specific tasks and has its own advantages and disadvantages.

The choice of topology is dependent upon

• type and number of equipment being used

• planned applications and rate of data transfers
• required response times
• cost

There are FOUR major competing topologies

• Bus
• Ring
• Star
• FDDI

Most networking software support all topologies.

Bus Topology

• all workstations connect to the same cable segment

• commonly used for implementing Ethernet at 10mbps
• the cable is terminated at each end
• wiring is normally done point to point
• a faulty cable or workstation will take the entire LAN down
• two wire, generally implemented using coaxial cable during the 1980's

The bus cable carries the transmitted message along the cable. As the message arrives at
each workstation, the workstation computer checks the destination address contained in
the message to see if it matches it's own. If the address does not match, the workstation
does nothing more.

Ring Topology

• workstations connect to the ring

• faulty workstations can be bypassed
• more cabling required than bus
• the connectors used tend to cause a lot of problems
• commonly used to implement token ring at 4 and 16mbps
• four wire, generally STP or UTP
Star Topology

• all wiring is done from a central point (the server or hub)

• has the greatest cable lengths of any topology (and thus uses the most amount of
cable)
• generally STP or UTP, four wire

Star Topology: Summary

Advantages Disadvantages
 Hub failure cripples all workstations
Easy to add new workstations
connected to that hub
Centralized control Hubs are slighty more expensive than thin-Ethernet
Centralized network/hub monitoring

FDDI Topology

• 100mbps
• normally implemented over fiber optic (fast-Ethernet, UTP)
• dual redundancy built in by use of primary and secondary ring
• automatic bypassing and isolation of faulty nodes

Fiber Distributed Data Interface

FDDI is based on two counter rotating 100-Mbit/sec token-passing rings. The rings
consist of point to point wiring between nodes which repeat the data as it is received.

The primary ring is used for data transmission; the secondary is used for data
transmission or to back up the primary ring in the event of a link or station failure. FDDI
supports a sustained transfer rate of about 80Mbps, a maximum of 1000 connections (500
nodes) and a total distance of 200 kilometers end to end. There is a maximum distance of
2 kilometers between active nodes.

FDDI Station Types

There are two main types of stations, class A which attach directly to dual rings; or class
B which attach to a station acting as a concentrator.
A concentrator is a specialized workstation that attaches to the ring and has multiple ports
that allow attachment of other devices in a physical star configuration. These may be
cascaded.

http://viewzoft.com/projecttopics/databasesearchresults.asp?textfield=networking&Subm
it=Search

Chat server is a standlone application that is made up the combination of two-application, server application (which
runs on server side) and client application (which runs on client side). This application is using for chatting in LAN.
To start chatting you must be connected with the server after that your message can broadcast to each and every
client.
For making this application we are using some core java features like swing, collection, networking, I/O Streams
and threading also. In this application we have one server and any number of clients (which are to be
communicated with each other). For making a server we have to run the MyServer.java file at any system on the
network that we want to make server and for client we have to run MyClient.java file on the system that we want to
make client. For running whole client operation we can run the Login.java.
Understand and get the chat server application by following steps :
Features and Limitations of the Application
Some features of the application are as follows :

This application is used for sending messages from one client to all clients. In this, server takes a message from
the sender client and sends it to all clients. If any client wants to join the chatting then he runs the client application
on client side, enters the login name and hits the login button and starts the chatting with every client. If any client
joins the chatting system then the message “User_Name has Logged in” comes on the message list box of every
client window. Same like this, if any client exit from the chatting then the message “User_Name has Logged Out”
comes on the message list box of every client window.
In this we are maintaining the list of user names (client name) also. After creating the connection with server, client
sends the user name to server and server store it in the arraylist and sends this arraylist to all clients. Same like
this when any client has logged out then server remove this name from the arraylist and send this updated arraylist
to every client.
For creating the Client side application firstly creates the login frame it consist one textfield and the login button.
After hitting the login button it shows the next frame that Client Frame and it consist one textfield for writing the
message and one send button for sending it. And two list boxes, one is for showing the all messages and another
list box is use to show the all user names. This frame has one more button that is Logout button for terminating the
chat.

The idea of networking is probably as old as telecommunications itself. Consider people

living in the Stone Age, when drums may have been used to transmit messages between
individuals. Suppose caveman A wants to invite caveman B over for a game of hurling
rocks at each other, but they live too far apart for B to hear A banging his drum. What are
A's options? He could 1) walk over to B's place, 2) get a bigger drum, or 3) ask C, who
lives halfway between them, to forward the message. The last option is called
networking.

Of course, we have come a long way from the primitive pursuits and devices of our
forebears. Nowadays, we have computers talk to each other over vast assemblages of
wires, fiber optics, microwaves, and the like, to make an appointment for Saturday's
soccer match.[1] In the following description, we will deal with the means and ways by
which this is accomplished, but leave out the wires, as well as the soccer part.
We will describe three types of networks in this guide. We will focus on TCP/IP most
heavily because it is the most popular protocol suite in use on both Local Area Networks
(LANs) and Wide Area Networks (WANs), such as the Internet. We will also take a look
at UUCP and IPX. UUCP was once commonly used to transport news and mail messages
over dialup telephone connections. It is less common today, but is still useful in a variety
of situations. The IPX protocol is used most commonly in the Novell NetWare
environment and we'll describe how to use it to connect your Linux machine into a
Novell network. Each of these protocols are networking protocols and are used to carry
data between host computers. We'll discuss how they are used and introduce you to their
underlying principles.

We define a network as a collection of hosts that are able to communicate with each
other, often by relying on the services of a number of dedicated hosts that relay data
between the participants. Hosts are often computers, but need not be; one can also think
of X terminals or intelligent printers as hosts. Small agglomerations of hosts are also
called sites.

Communication is impossible without some sort of language or code. In computer

networks, these languages are collectively referred to as protocols. However, you
shouldn't think of written protocols here, but rather of the highly formalized code of
behavior observed when heads of state meet, for instance. In a very similar fashion, the
protocols used in computer networks are nothing but very strict rules for the exchange of
messages between two or more hosts.

Other Network Types

Most other network types are configured similarly to Ethernet. The arguments passed to
the loadable modules will be different and some drivers may not support more than one
card, but just about everything else is the same. Documentation for these cards is
generally available in the /usr/src/linux /Documentation/networking/ directory of
the Linux kernel source.

Network Introduction
Data Networking continues to evolve. The demand for a High-Speed Network
Infrastructure has been growing at an alarming rate. Just a few short years ago, 4
Mbps (Million bits per second) Token Ring and 10 Mbps Ethernet shared networks
were the norm. Now they can’t keep up with the growing demands from end-users.
End-user applications and files are growing in size and number.

This is an introduction to networking terminology and network infrastructure. For an

introduction to Local Area Networks (LANs), please see What is a LAN?

One of the early types of networking topologies was Token Ring. Token Ring uses a
token passing access method. In token passing, collisions between packets are
prevented by assuring that only one station can transmit at any given time. This is
accomplished by passing a special packet, called a token, from one station to another
in a ring topology. (To learn more about ring topologies, please see What is a LAN?)
When a station gets the token, it can transmit a packet, which travels in one direction
around the ring. When the packet passes by the station it is addressed to, it is copied.
The packet continues to travel around the ring until it returns to the sending station,
which removes it and sends the token on to the next station on the ring.

Another popular network technology is Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI).

FDDI provides data transport at 100Mbps. Originally, FDDI networks required
fiber-optic cable, but today they can accommodate twisted-pair cable as well. Fiber-
optic cable is still preferred in many FDDI networks because it can be used over
much greater distances than twisted-pair cable. FDDI uses a token passing access
method and is usually configured in a ring topology. FDDI is used primarily as a
backbone, a segment of network that links several individual LANs together in
building or campus environments.

One of the most common types of networks is Ethernet. Originally, Ethernet cables
were coaxial (similar to cable TV wires), but now twisted-pair cables (similar to
telephone wires) are more common. Fiber-optic cables are used for higher speeds
and greater distances than copper wires are capable of providing. One version of
Ethernet, called 10BASE-T, consists of twisted-pair cables and can transmit data at
10Mbps (10 million bits per second). Another version, Fast Ethernet is 10 times
faster than 10 Base-T.

Two of the common types of Fast Ethernet are 100Base-T and 100Base-FX.
100BASE-T consists of twisted-pair cabling similar to 10Base-T except the cables
have to be of a higher quality to transmit the data reliably, and the distance limitation
is 100 meters. 100Base-FX is Fast Ethernet that runs over fiber-optic cabling. The
fiber-optic cable extends the distance to 2,000 meters over Multi-mode cable.

The newest version of Ethernet is called Gigabit Ethernet and it can transmit data at
1000Mbps. Gigabit Ethernet can use either Category 5 twisted-pair cable or fiber-
optic cable to transmit the signals. Soon, 10 Gigabit Ethernet will be available. It
will only use fiber-optic cables. 10 Gigabit Ethernet will primarily be used for
backbone applications.

Ethernet can support both bus and star topologies. (To learn more about bus and star
topologies, please see What is a LAN?) The most popular is the star topology, which
makes use of a central hub or switch through which all information is passed. All
stations on the network are connected to the hub or switch and can "sense" packets
as they are sent across the wire. Because each station can send a packet at any time,
collisions between packets do occur. These are common and are corrected
instantaneously.

Ethernet networks are replacing Token Ring and FDDI networks daily. Ethernet with
its speed, simplicity and low cost has won the war of the LAN. Many sites are
migrating their legacy networks to Ethernet.

Hubs (also referred to as repeaters or concentrators) are a very important part of

the networking process. Hubs are wiring concentrators, which make use of
structured wiring to connect stations on a LAN. They contain user ports into which
each station's cable is connected. Many hubs are called intelligent, or manageable,
which means that each of the ports on the hub can be configured, monitored,
enabled, and disabled by a network operator from a hub management console.

There are three different types of hubs:

• A stand-alone hub is, as the term implies, a single unit with a fixed number
of ports. Stand-alone hubs usually include some method of linking them to
other stand-alone hubs.
• A stackable hub looks and acts like a stand-alone hub except that several of
them can be stacked together, usually joined by short lengths of cable. When
they are linked together, they can be managed as a single unit.
• A modular hub consists of modules that each act like a stand-alone hub, but
like the stackable hubs they can be managed as a single unit. Modular hubs
consist of a chassis and the modules that go into the chassis. The chassis links
the modules together with an internal backplane and handles the management
of individual modules.

All of these hubs can be linked together to broaden the network. In order to create an
internetwork (linking LANs together), other more complex devices are used.

• Bridge - device that connects two or more networks and forwards packets
among them. Usually, bridges operate at the physical network level. For
example, an Ethernet bridge connects two physical Ethernet cables and
forwards from one cable to the other exactly those packets that are not local.
Bridges differ from repeaters because bridges store and forward complete
packets while repeaters forward electrical signals. They differ from IP
Gateways or IP Routers because they use physical addresses instead of IP
addresses.
• Routers - use Network Layer Protocol Information within each packet to
route it from one LAN to another. This means that a router must be able to
recognize all of the different Network Layer Protocols that may be used on
the networks it is linking together.
• Switches - devices with multiple ports, each of which can support an entire
Ethernet, FDDI or Token Ring segment. With a different segment connected
to each of the ports, it can switch packets between them as needed. In effect,
 a switch acts like a very fast multi-port bridge because packets are filtered
based on the destination address. A new network technology, called
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), is based on the switch concept.

Switches are starting to replace hubs and routers in many installations. Switching
technology is increasing the efficiency and speed of networks. This technology is
making current systems more powerful, while at the same time facilitating the
migration to faster networks. Switching directs network traffic in a very efficient
manner. It sends information directly from the port of origin to only its destination
port. Switching increases network performance, enhances flexibility and eases
moves, adds and changes. Switching establishes a direct line of communication
between two ports and maintains multiple simultaneous links between various ports.
It proficiently manages network traffic by reducing media sharing, traffic is
contained to the segment for which it is destined, be it a server, power user or
workgroup.

There are many different types of Switches, some common examples are:

• Unmanaged switch: These switches come in many port varieties. Anywhere

from 4 to 24 ports. Unmanaged switches are inexpensive, but lack features
for management. Comparable to an unmanaged hub, except they have the
speed of a switch.
• Workgroup switch: Similar to unmanaged switch, except provide
management of the unit. Sometimes provide Gigabit ports to uplink to larger
backbone switches.
• Stackable switch: Usually has a proprietary cable to interconnect them
together. It allows a stack of switches to only use one IP address for
management. Some use Gigabit links to interconnect them and to uplink them
to backbone switches.
• Chassis Switch, Backbone Switch or Core Switch: Usually support Layer
3 switching, along with Layer 2 switching and many high level protocols.
The Chassis have blades similar to high-end routers. So you can mix and
match different interfaces for connecting different types of networks together.

Layer 2 switches (The Data-Link Layer) operate using physical network

addresses. Physical addresses, also known as link-layer, hardware, or MAC-layer
addresses, identify individual devices. Most hardware devices are permanently
assigned this number during the manufacturing process. Switches operating at Layer
2 are very fast because they’re just sorting physical addresses, but they usually aren’t
very smart—that is, they don’t look at the data packet very closely to learn anything
more about where it’s headed.

Layer 3 switching (The Network Layer) and all of its related terms (e.g. multilayer
switching, IP switching, routing switches, etc.) was introduced as the router-killer.
Layer 3 switching attempts to reduce the performance bottlenecks associated with
traditional routers. Layer 3 switches use network or IP addresses that identify
locations on the network. They read network addresses more closely than Layer 2
switches—they identify network locations as well as the physical device. A location
can be a LAN workstation, a location in a computer’s memory, or even a different
packet of data traveling through a network. Switches operating at Layer 3 are smarter
than Layer 2 devices and incorporate routing functions to actively calculate the best
way to send a packet to its destination. But although they’re smarter, they may not be
as fast if their algorithms, fabric, and processor don’t support high speeds.

Layer 4 (The Transport Layer) of the OSI Model coordinates communications

between systems. Layer 4 switches are capable of identifying which application
protocols (HTTP, SMTP, FTP, and so forth) are included with each packet, and they
use this information to hand off the packet to the appropriate higher-layer software.
Layer 4 switches make packet-forwarding decisions based not only on the MAC
address and IP address, but also on the application to which a packet belongs.
Because Layer 4 devices enable you to establish priorities for network traffic based
on application, you can assign a high priority to packets belonging to vital in-house
applications such as Smartstream, with different forwarding rules for low-priority
packets such as generic HTTP-based Internet traffic. Layer 4 switches also provide
an effective wire-speed security shield for your network because any company- or
industry-specific protocols can be confined to only authorized switched ports or
users. This security feature is often reinforced with traffic filtering and forwarding
features.

Hubs vs. Switches

Traditional Ethernet LANs run at 10Mbps over a common bus-type design. Stations
physically attach to this bus through a hub, repeater or concentrator, creating a
broadcast domain. Every station is capable of receiving all transmissions from all
stations, but only in a half-duplex mode. This means stations cannot send and receive
data simultaneously. Nodes on an Ethernet network transmit information following a
simple rule: they listen before speaking. In an Ethernet environment, only one node
on the segment is allowed to transmit at any time due to the CSMA/CD protocol
(Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection). Though this manages packet
collisions, it increases transmission time in two ways. First, if two nodes begin
speaking at the same time, the information collides; they both must stop transmission
and try again later. Second, once a packet is sent from a node, and Ethernet LAN will
not transfer any other information until that packet reaches its endpoint. This is what
slows up networks. Countless hours have been lost waiting for a LAN to free up.

When a single LAN station is connected to a switched port it may operate in full-
duplex mode. Full-duplex does not require collision detection, there is a suspension
of MAC protocols. A single device resides on that port, and therefore no collisions
will be encountered. Full-duplex switching enables traffic to be sent and received
simultaneously. (Hubs between a workgroup and a switch will not run full-duplex,
because the hub is governed by collision detection requirements. The workgroup
 connected to the hub is unswitched Ethernet).

The bottom line is a 24 port 100Mbps hub is only capable of sharing the full
100Mbps with all 24-ports, which averages out to 4.16Mbps for each port. While at
the same time a 24-port 100Mbps Switch has 24 individual 100Mbps ports. The
switch is capable of 2400Mbps or 2.4 Gigabits per second. Also a switch can operate
in full-duplex mode, so it has a theoretical throughput of 4800Mbps or 4.8 Gbps.

Virtual LANs (VLANs)

When something is virtual it appears to be real, but it is not. A virtual LAN, or

VLAN, appears to be one large network. It is actually a collection of multiple
networks. While these networks are physically connected, logically they are separate.
The protocol of each can be different. A switch can control and regulate traffic of a
number of networks (creating a virtual LAN), but it cannot connect a user on one
VLAN with a user on another. A router is required for that kind of connection.

A switched virtual LAN is a broadcast domain connecting a group of LANs at wire

speed. Ethernet switches have evolved from creating VLANs based on port
assignment. They can now create VLANs based on MAC addressing and network
addressing. This enables VLANs to be divided into closed logical user groups, called
subnets, determined by administrative controls. An Ethernet VLAN can be
established through software, allowing a network administrator to group a number of
switch ports into a high bandwidth, low-latency switched workgroup. For network
management identification purposes, each virtual LAN gets a unique network
number. VLANs function on a bridge architecture, switching and transmitting data
by media access control (MAC) source and destination addresses. Traffic between
virtual LANs is filtered, secured and managed by a router at the software level,
separate from the virtual LAN switching logic.

Wireless networking can prove to be very useful in public places – libraries, guest
houses, hotels, cafeterias, and schools are all places where one might find wireless access
to the Internet. From a financial point of view, this is beneficial to both the provider and
the client. The provider would offer the service for a charge – probably on a pay per use
system, and the client would be able to take advantage of this service in a convenient
location; away from the office or home. A drawback of wireless Internet is that the QoS
(Quality of Service) is not guaranteed and if there is any interference with the link then
the connection may be dropped.

Types of Wireless Networks

WLANS: Wireless Local Area Networks

WLANS allow users in a local area, such as a university campus or library, to form a
network or gain access to the internet. A temporary network can be formed by a small
number of users without the need of an access point; given that they do not need access to
network resources.

WPANS: Wireless Personal Area Networks

The two current technologies for wireless personal area networks are Infra Red (IR) and
Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15). These will allow the connectivity of personal devices within an
area of about 30 feet. However, IR requires a direct line of site and the range is less.

WMANS: Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks

This technology allows the connection of multiple networks in a metropolitan area such
as different buildings in a city, which can be an alternative or backup to laying copper or
fibre cabling.

WWANS: Wireless Wide Area Networks

These types of networks can be maintained over large areas, such as cities or countries,
via multiple satellite systems or antenna sites looked after by an ISP. These types of
systems are referred to as 2G (2nd Generation) systems.

Below is a table indicating the range that wireless data networks can handle:

Metres Network
0-10 Personal Area Network
0-100 Local Area Network
0-10000 Wide Area Network

http://compnetworking.about.com/od/p2ppeertopeer/a/p2pintroduction.htm

Introduction to Peer to Peer (P2P) Networks and Software Systems

P2P networking has generated tremendous interest worldwide among both Internet surfers and computer
networking professionals. P2P software systems like Kazaa and Napster rank amongst the most popular
software applications ever. Numerous businesses and Web sites have promoted "peer to peer" technology
as the future of Internet networking.

Although they have actually existed for many years, P2P technologies promise to radically change the future
of networking. P2P file sharing software has also created much controversy over legality and "fair use." In
general, experts disagree on various details of P2P and precisely how it will evolve in the future.

Traditional Peer to Peer Networks

The P2P acronym technically stands for peer to peer. Webopedia defines P2P as
"A type of network in which each workstation has equivalent capabilities and responsibilities.
Ultimate Guide to Networking: Part One
BY:- Michael Furdyk

What is a Network?
A network is simply a group of two or more Personal Computers linked together.

What Types of Networks Exist?

Many types of networks exist, but the most common types of networks are Local-Area
Networks (LANs), and Wide-Area Networks (WANs). In a LAN, computers are connected
together within a "local" area (for example, an office or home). In a WAN, computers are
farther apart and are connected via telephone/communication lines, radio waves, or other
means of connection.

How are Networks Categorized?

Networks are usually classified using three properties: Topology, Protocol, and Architecture.
Topology specifies the geometric arrangement of the network. Common topologies are a bus,
ring, and star. You can check out a figure showing the three common types of network
topologies here. Protocol specifies a common set of rules and signals the computers on the
network use to communicate. Most networks use Ethernet, but some networks may use IBM's
Token Ring protocol. We recommend Ethernet for both home and office networking.
Architecture refers to one of the two major types of network architecture: Peer-to-peer or
client/server. In a Peer-to-Peer networking configuration, there is no server, and computers
simply connect with eachother in a workgroup to share files, printers, and Internet access.
This is most commonly found in home configurations, and is only practical for workgroups of a
dozen or less computers. In a client/server network, there is usually an NT Domain Controller,
which all of the computers log on to. This server can provide various services, including
centrally routed Internet Access, mail (including e-mail), file sharing, and printer access, as
well as ensuring security across the network. This is most commonly found in corporate
configurations, where network security is essential.

Local-Area Networks

Originally, only medium to large-sized businesses could afford the cost of networking
hardware. In the last decade, prices have rapidly dropped as new technology has developed,
and it is now possible to grab a basic 4-PC 10Base-T home networking kit for under $150. The
affordable price and added convienence of having a LAN has made it commonplace to see
networks in many homes and offices. Each PC in a LAN is able to access shared files and
devices anywhere on the LAN. This makes the sharing of expensive devices, such as laser
printers or large removable storage drives, a cost-effective alternative to purchasing a device
for every user.

If you decide to use Ethernet for your LAN (which we recommend you do), you can choose
from 10Base-T (10 million bits per second, or 10 Mbps) or 100Base-T (100 million bits per
second, or 100 Mbps), which is usually refered to as Fast Ethernet. 10Base-T is used mostly
for home and small office networks, because it offers both affordability (around $20-30 for a
network card, and $80 for an 8-port hub) and decent performance. For large businesses, a
100Base-T solution may be required if there are a large number of PCs connected to the
network, or if large amounts of data is frequently transferred.
There are three different types of cabling for Ethernet networks. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
is the most popular type of cabling, and the one we recommend because of its wide availibility
and low price. The other two types are coaxial and Shielded Twisted Pair (STP). STP cable
provides more shielding against outside Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) than UTP, but is
more expensive. We've never had any problems with EMI, so we suggest the cheaper UTP.
Coaxial uses much thicker and more expensive cable, and must be run in a ring configuration,
from PC to PC, unlike Twisted Pair, which is run directly from each computer to a port on the
hub, making wiring more convienent in most cases.

Ethernet networks require a Hub, a hardware device that all PCs on a network are connected
to by cabling. The hub manages receiving and transmitting data from networked devices. Hubs
come in many different port configurations, but you will probably need a 4, 8, or 12 port hub,
depending on the number of PCs you want to connect together. Each port supports a single
10Base-T connection from a PC or peripheral. If you're using Coaxial cable, you need to find a
hub with one Coaxial port and minimal Twisted Pair ports. There are both Manageable Hubs,
which allow advanced configuration of Hub properties via a software package, and Standard
Hubs, which are cheaper, and usually used for home or small office networks. We recommend
purchasing a standard hub, since the extra features included in Manageable Hubs are not
useful for a home or small office network. Since you will probably purchase a standard hub,
we'll discuss the three types of standard hubs next.

Standard Hubs
When thinking about what type of Standard Hub you want to purchase, you need to think
about what you will be doing with your network in the near future. Will you be adding many
more devices to your network? If so, you need to make sure your hub can handle network
expansion.

Standalone Hubs
Standalone hubs are single products with a number of ports.
Standalone hubs usually include some method of linking them to other standalone hubs for
network expansion. Standalone hubs are usually the least expensive type of hub, and are best
suited for small, independent workgroups, departments, or offices, typically with fewer than
12 users per LAN.

Stackable Hubs
Stackable hubs work just like standalone hubs, except that
several of them can be "stacked" (connected) together,
usually by short lengths of cable. When they are connected
together, they act like a modular hub, because they can be
managed as a single unit. These hubs are ideal if you want
to start with a minimal investment, but realize that your
LAN will grow.
Modular Hubs
Modular hubs are popular in networks because they are easily expanded and always have a
management option. A modular hub is purchased as a chassis, or card cage, with multiple card
slots, each of which accepts a communications card, or module. Each module acts like a
standalone hub, and usually has 12 twisted pair ports. Modules supporting different types of
network cabling, like coaxial or token ring, can also be purchased.

If you are building a home or small office network, you will probably want to purchase a
standalone or stackable hub. For a medium to large sized company, a Modular hub will
probably fit your needs more efficiently. Next, we'll take a look at other types of network
hardware, like routers, bridges, and switches.

Bridges, Routers, and Switches

Bridges and routers are devices used for linking different LANs or LAN segments together.
There are many companies that have LANs at various offices across the world. Routers were
originally developed to allow connection of remote LANs across a wide area network (WAN).
Bridges can also be used for this purpose. By setting up routers or bridges on two different
lans LANs and connecting them together, a user on one LAN can access resources on the other
LAN as if they were on the local LAN.

Sample Network Layout With a LAN Switch, Courtesy of Bay Networks

There are maximums on distances between workstations and hubs, hubs and hubs, and
stations connected to a single LAN. You can exceed these maximums by linking two LAN
segments (groups of users/devices) together using a Bridge or Router.

Bridges
Bridges are simpler and less expensive then routers. Bridges make a simple do/don't decision
on which packets to send across two segments they connect. Filtering is done based on the
destination address of the packet. If a packet's destination is a station on the same segment
where it originated, it is not forwarded. If it is destined for a station on another LAN, it is
connected to a different bridge port and forwarded to that port.
Routers
Routers are more complex and more expensive than bridges. They use information within each
packet to route it from one LAN to another, and communicate with each other and share
information that allows them to determine the best route through a complex network of many
LANs.

Switches
Switches are another type of device used to link several LANs and route packets between
them. A switch has multiple ports, each of which can support either a single station or an
entire Ethernet or Token Ring LAN. With a different LAN connected to each of the ports, it can
switch packets between LANs as needed.