result in various forms of international arbitrage, along with the realignments that will occur in response; and • To explain the concept of interest rate parity, and how it prevents arbitrage opportunities.
A7 - 2 International Arbitrage
• Arbitrage can be loosely defined as
capitalizing on a discrepancy in quoted prices. Often, the funds invested are not tied up and no risk is involved. • In response to the imbalance in demand and supply resulting from arbitrage activity, prices will realign very quickly, such that no further risk-free profits can be made. A7 - 3 International Arbitrage
• Locational arbitrage is possible when a
bank’s buying price (bid price) is higher than another bank’s selling price (ask price) for the same currency. • Example: Bank C Bid Ask Bank D Bid Ask NZ$ $.635 $.640 NZ$ $.645 $.650 Buy NZ$ from Bank C @ $.640, and sell it to Bank D @ $.645. Profit = $.005/NZ$. A7 - 4 International Arbitrage
• Triangular arbitrage is possible when a
cross exchange rate quote differs from the rate calculated from spot rates. • Example: Bid Ask British pound (£) $1.60 $1.61 Malaysian ringgit (MYR) $.200 $.202 £ MYR8.1 MYR8.2 Buy £ @ $1.61, convert @ MYR8.1/£, then sell MYR @ $.200. Profit = $.01/£. (8.1×.2=1.62) A7 - 5 International Arbitrage
• When the exchange rates of the
currencies are not in equilibrium, triangular arbitrage will force them back into equilibrium.
A7 - 6 International Arbitrage
• Covered interest arbitrage is the process
of capitalizing on the interest rate differential between two countries, while covering for exchange rate risk. • Covered interest arbitrage tends to force a relationship between forward rate premiums and interest rate differentials.
A7 - 7 International Arbitrage
• Example: £ spot rate = 90-day forward rate = $1.60 U.S. 90-day interest rate = 2% U.K. 90-day interest rate = 2% Borrow $ at 3%, or use existing funds which are earning interest at 2%. Convert $ to £ at $1.60/£ and engage in a 90-day forward contract to sell £ at $1.60/£. Lend £ at 4%.
A7 - 8 International Arbitrage
• Locational arbitrage ensures that quoted
exchange rates are similar across banks in different locations. • Triangular arbitrage ensures that cross exchange rates are set properly. • Covered interest arbitrage ensures that forward exchange rates are set properly.
A7 - 9 International Arbitrage
• Any discrepancy will trigger arbitrage,
which will then eliminate the discrepancy. Arbitrage thus makes the foreign exchange market more orderly.
A7 - 10 Interest Rate Parity (IRP)
• Market forces cause the forward rate to
differ from the spot rate by an amount that is sufficient to offset the interest rate differential between the two currencies. • Then, covered interest arbitrage is no longer feasible, and the equilibrium state achieved is referred to as interest rate parity (IRP).
A7 - 11 Derivation of IRP
• When IRP exists, the rate of return
achieved from covered interest arbitrage should equal the rate of return available in the home country. • End-value of a $1 investment in covered interest arbitrage = (1/S) × (1+iF) × F = (1/S) × (1+iF) × [S × (1+p)] = (1+iF) × (1+p) where p is the forward premium. A7 - 12 Derivation of IRP
Example: • Suppose 6-month ipeso = 6%, i$ = 5%. • From the U.S. investor’s perspective, forward premium = 1.05/1.06 – 1 ≈ - .0094 • If S = $.10/peso, then 6-month forward rate = S × (1 + p) _ ≈ .10 × (1 .0094) ≈ $.09906/peso A7 - 14 Determining the Forward Premium
• Note that the IRP relationship can be
rewritten as follows:
F – S = S(1+p) – S = p = (1+iH) – 1 = (iH–iF)
S S (1+iF) (1+iF)
• The approximated form, p ≈ iH–iF, provides
a reasonable estimate when the interest rate differential is small.
A7 - 15 Test for the Existence of IRP
• To test whether IRP exists, collect the
actual interest rate differentials and forward premiums for various currencies. Pair up data that occur at the same point in time and that involve the same currencies, and plot the points on a graph. • IRP holds when covered interest arbitrage is not worthwhile.
A7 - 16 Interpretation of IRP
• When IRP exists, it does not mean that
both local and foreign investors will earn the same returns. • What it means is that investors cannot use covered interest arbitrage to achieve higher returns than those achievable in their respective home countries.
A7 - 17 Does IRP Hold?
• Various empirical studies indicate that IRP
generally holds. • While there are deviations from IRP, they are often not large enough to make covered interest arbitrage worthwhile. • This is due to the characteristics of foreign investments, including transaction costs, political risk, and differential tax laws. A7 - 18 Considerations When Assessing IRP
Transaction Costs ¤ IRP may not be feasible after taking into consideration transaction costs.
A7 - 19 Considerations When Assessing IRP
Political Risk ¤ A crisis in the foreign country could cause its government to restrict any exchange of the local currency for other currencies. ¤ Investors may also perceive a higher default risk on foreign investments. Differential Tax Laws ¤ If tax laws vary, after-tax returns should be considered instead of before-tax returns. A7 - 20 Explaining Changes in Forward Premiums
• During the 1997-98 Asian crisis, the
forward rates offered to U.S. firms on some Asian currencies were substantially reduced for two reasons. The spot rates of these currencies declined substantially during the crisis. Their interest rates had increased as their governments attempted to discourage investors from pulling out their funds. A7 - 21 Impact of Arbitrage on an MNC’s Value
Forces of Arbitrage
m n ∑ [ E ( CFj , t ) × E (ER j , t ) ] j =1 Value = ∑ t =1 ( 1 + k ) t E (CFj,t ) = expected cash flows in currency j to be received by the U.S. parent at the end of period t E (ERj,t ) = expected exchange rate at which currency j can be converted to dollars at the end of period t A7 - 22 Chapter Review
• International Arbitrage ¤ Locational Arbitrage ¤ Triangular Arbitrage ¤ Covered Interest Arbitrage ¤ Comparison of Arbitrage Effects
A7 - 23 Chapter Review
• Interest Rate Parity (IRP)
¤ Derivation of IRP ¤ Determining the Forward Premium ¤ Test for the Existence of IRP ¤ Interpretation of IRP ¤ Does IRP Hold? ¤ Considerations When Assessing IRP
