The Case for Devata Mahakoka

from Bharhut
K. L. Mankodi

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 IT is assumed that everything worth 10, H. Lűders listed all the Bharhut inscriptions then known
knowing about the ancient Buddhist Stupa of Bharhut has in Epigraphia Indica X.1 In the 1940s, during British rule, the
already been published and is easily available. For, did not Archaeological Survey of India had proposed a publication
Alexander Cunningham, pioneer of Archaeological Survey by Lűders which would present a revised version of
of India, who discovered the great site nearly one hundred Cunningham’s original readings of the inscriptions from
and forty years ago, himself give an exhaustive description Bharhut. Unfortunately, this project did not materialise.
of it together with illustrations of hundreds of remains Later, in 1963, the Archaeological Survey of India published
as early as 1879? And did not Cunningham himself, and Bharhut Inscriptions edited by Lűders and revised by E.
thereafter Heinrich Lűders, followed by Ernst Waldschmidt Waldschmidt and M. A. Mehendale.2 In between, other
and M. A. Mehendale, re-edit and revise the hundreds of books and articles by B. M. Barua-Gangananda Sinha, and
inscriptions that Bharhut had yielded? by S. C. Kala have appeared on the subject. For this paper,
references to Cunningham and Lűders-Waldschmidt-
Mehendale will suffice.
Bharhut: discovery and documentation
Cunningham, in his explorations in central India during Devata Chulakoka
1873 came across the remains of the ancient stupa at the One sculpture recovered from the ruins and now in the
village of Bharhut, twenty kilometres to the south of the Indian Museum bears the inscription Chulakoka Devata,
present district headquarters of Satna in Madhya Pradesh the Sanskrit form of which would be Kshudrakoka Devata.
(1, 2). Considering the enormity of the task, Cunningham According to linguistic experts, the name means the Little
promised to write a full account later, which appeared as Goddess Koka.3 Koka has been shown to be the name of
The Stupa of Bharhut in 1879. the bird Chakravaka (Anas Casarca). Chulakoka Devata is
Even in 1873, when Cunningham chanced upon therefore the “Little Chakravaka Goddess”. It is not known
the site, the entire monument unlike the Great Stupa of if this nomenclature had any totemic significance. During
Sanchi, had not been preserved. He was able to recover the second century BCE, Indian iconography had not yet
only parts of the circular memorial, its railings with their developed the concept of associating attributes with
medallions, some gateways (toranas), and several jataka divinities. Thus, Chulakoka like other Devatas and Yakshis
scenes or stories of the Buddha’s previous births, quasi- of Bharhut, stands under a tree, in this instance an Ashoka
historical narratives about the Buddha’s life, and over-life- tree, holding its bough overhead and supporting her feet
size sculptures of divine/semi-divine figures. These ancient on an elephant (4).
remains were sent to Calcutta by train on the new Great In Buddhist tradition, the Little Chakravaka goddess
Indian Peninsula Railway. To facilitate the loading of this has a companion, an elder sister or a senior, called Devata
material, a dedicated station was specially built at the Mahakoka or the Great Chakravaka Goddess. Mahakoka
village of Lagargawan close to Bharhut, between Uchehra Devata also was represented at Bharhut, but the figure
and Satna. remained unknown and this major sculpture was never
Bharhut’s stupa was reassembled in the Indian illustrated anywhere. Mahakoka Devata has become
Museum in a special gallery (3). Reproductions of known recently, under circumstances that are exceptional,
mythological characters sculpted in stone like Ajakalako and is being published here for the first time.
Yakho, Kupiro Yakho, Sudasana Yakhi, Chanda Yakhi, Sirima The reason Mahakoka was never reproduced by
Devata, Chulakoka Devata and others are seen in books Cunningham or anyone else is that when Cunningham
on Indian art. Of Amazonian proportions, these tattooed first explored Bharhut and the surrounding villages, he
figures, loaded with primitive jewellery, constitute the found that some sculptures, pillars – some split into two
earliest examples of India’s indigenous art. Unlike the art of – jataka scenes and other legends that once adorned the
the preceding period – that of the Imperial Mauryas of the stupa had been dispersed in nearby villages before his
third century BCE – which represents the earliest surviving time, that is, even before 1873. One of them was a female
examples of the Indian sculptural tradition, the Bharhut figure preserved in the neighbouring village of Batanmara.4
sculptures reveal no traces of foreign influence. Other pieces of various kinds were in the adjacent village
More than two hundred short inscriptions found of Uchehra, and still others in Pataora (1). These included,
on the stupa fragments give the names of the personages among split pillars, the inscribed sculpture of Mahakoka,
represented, as also those of their donors. Cunningham’s which Cunningham merely described as being “inside the
volume The Stupa of Bharhut has published these temple” without further particulars.5 This must refer to the
inscriptions, as also their translations. Much later, in 1909- shrine in the mansion or kothi of a local land owner.
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 1. Map of the area, Bharhut
Photograph after Cunningham, A. The Stupa of Bharhut, London, 1879

Cunningham, however, did make an eye copy of Sculptures “Dispersed” from the Stupa
the two short inscriptions engraved on the trunk of the Hundreds of architectural pieces including torana uprights,
tree under which Mahakoka like Chulakoka stands. Unlike lintels, railing pillars, cross bars, coping stones, medallions,
Chulakoka, who has continued to receive attention ever figures of Yakshas, Yakshis, Devatas, and human characters
since she was moved to Calcutta, Mahakoka has been recovered from the stupa were transported to Calcutta.
all but forgotten, a mere name and the donor’s record However, the monument had been greatly disturbed
reproduced in Cunningham’s eye copy and its first reading over the centuries. It had served as a quarry for building
corrected by Lűders and Waldschmidt-Mehendale. materials for neighbouring villages. Some dispersed pieces

2. Stupa site, Bharhut, July 2012

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 were found in the three villages of Batanmara, Uchehra Museum, the Allahabad Museum, the Museum at Ramban
and Pataora. Cunningham had diligently listed all these. near Satna and the National Museum of India in New
Except for these “dispersed” pieces, the operation Delhi. The Freer Gallery of Art in Washington acquired four
of the removal of Bharhut’s remains, carried out at a time sculptures in 1932 before India’s independence, which
when scientific archaeology had not begun, was like a were published by Ananda Coomaraswamy in La sculpture
controlled excavation, accounting for every single find. de Bharhut.6 Thus, if any collection other than those that
The institutions that received the major part of Bharhut’s officially received Bharhut’s antiquities possesses anything
antiquities, after following due processes, were the Indian from the site, the source needs to be explained.

3. A section of the Bharhut railing, Indian Museum, Calcutta

Photograph: American Institute of Indian Studies, Digital South Asia Library, Gurgaon, (AIIS), No.35301

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 Mahakoka Surfaces in the USA in 2012 Kapoor was wanted in India for antique thefts in
The all but forgotten sculpture of Mahakoka Devata Tamil Nadu and was extradited in July 2012; his trial has
surfaced unexpectedly in the USA. The circumstances were commenced in Chennai. He is also wanted in the USA
as follows: by ICE/DHS for breaking US laws, and may be wanted in
Since 2011, the US Immigration and Customs Australia as well for the sale of stolen antiques, including a
Enforcement’s Department of Homeland Security (ICE/ South Indian Nataraja (worth approximately US $ 5 million)
DHS) has been investigating the activities of an Indian to the Australian National Gallery.
antique dealer, Subhash Kapoor, based in New York. As an archaeologist concerned about the illegal
According to their own records, antiquities worth US $ export of antiquities, this writer has been trying to trace
100 million allegedly illegally exported, in plain language, and repatriate such antiquities by circulating worldwide
smuggled, from India and other South Asian countries were all available information of thefts from Indian sites, as also
recovered in raids on Kapoor’s shop ART OF THE PAST. through a website www.plunderedpast.in.
Kapoor has been running his family business for many Although India has been the principal sufferer of
decades, and his client base is spread over four continents antique smuggling, there is little evidence that the Indian
– the US, Europe, Australia and Asia. The World’s Press authorities are greatly concerned. This article about the
has been reporting these investigations spreading alarm extremely valuable sculpture of Mahakoka from Bharhut
among several museums and collectors that the art they shows that Kapoor was not active in Tamil Nadu alone but
received from Kapoor was illegally exported from their had spread his tentacles to other Indian States as well.
original countries.
Theft and Smuggling of the Goddess
The Great Chakravaka Goddess Mahakoka was never
photographed because it was not at the site of the stupa
when it was discovered. However, in 1973, when the
Registration of Antiquities Rules came into force, the
family who had inherited this sculpture wisely registered
it with the archaeological authorities, together with its
photograph. The goddess always had remained enshrined
in the landlord’s house, covered from head to toe – only
the face was visible. She was worshipped as their family
deity, and her blessings were sought on special occasions
like marriages. She was never exposed.
The Great Bird Goddess remained enshrined until
the night of 18/19 July 2004, when the theft happened. The
theft was reported to the police, the ASI was also informed.
The owners even declared a reward of Rs. 50,000 for the
recovery of what was the cherished image of their family
deity.
With the lodging of the FIR, the matter seems to
have rested in the files, as far as the police and the ASI
are concerned. If any investigation was carried out, it did
not turn up anything – no clue, no suspect, no recovery.
The owner reconciled himself to never seeing his ancestral
goddess again.

The Recovery of Mahakoka

In June-July 2012, several photographs of a large sculpture
about 6’ 6” tall that ICE/DHS Special Agents had seized
during their raids on Kapoor’s gallery became available.
Kapoor had presented fabricated papers to show its
provenance to be Khartoum in Sudan and for it to have
been imported before the Indian antiquity laws came into
operation. Under questioning, he admitted to smuggling it
from Bharhut. It was essential for the US authorities to find
the owner in order to restore it to him.
Though no photograph of Mahakoka had ever
4. Chulakoka Devata, Bharhut, Indian Museum, Calcutta been published, the inscription giving her name and that of
Photograph: AIIS 68520 the donor had been copied by Cunningham more than one
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 hundred and twenty-five years ago. The goddess seized by
the Special Agents bore the name “Mahakoka Devata” and
the name of the donor which matched the published record
of Cunningham. Kapoor had admitted to ICE/DHS Special
Agents that he had picked up the sculpture from Pataora
and that the people who had supplied it had no idea of
its value. For Kapoor, of course, the sculpture’s value was
its market worth, which he astutely estimated at US $ 15
million or Rs. 90 crores in India. Considering its antiquity of
second century BCE, its large size, its mint condition and
the uniqueness of the goddess, the piece might well have
commanded a heavy price. Kapoor had reportedly sold
an eleventh century South Indian Nataraja bronze to the
Australian National Gallery for more than US $ 5 milllion;
this one was more than a thousand years older, and there
are few Bharhut sculptures in collections abroad.
Bharhut’s neighbourhood, such as Pataora,
Uchehra, Khoh, still possess old sculptures - not all of which
are properly studied. Personal exploration by this writer
in this area, only a few kilometres from Bharhut, helped
locate the family whose deity she was. The owner kindly
furnished the supporting documents. The photographs
submitted by the owner at the time of registration
matched the sculpture seized by DHS in 2012. There was
no doubt that the sculpture was the same as that reported
by Cunningham in 1873/1879.

Description of Mahakoka
Mahakoka published here (5) closely resembles Chulakoka
(4) in the Indian Museum in many respects. There are slight
but significant differences, though, the most important
being the mounts under their feet, a hunchback for
Mahakoka and an elephant for Chulakoka.
Two thousand years ago when this figure was
carved, figural “vocabulary” was limited and the distinction
between Yakshis and Devatas is not observed in Bharhut
carvings. Their features are similar, and it is only the
inscribed records on them that serve as means of identifying
them as either the one or the other. For example, both the
“Devatas” Mahakoka and Chulakoka are shaded by a tree,
but then so is Chanda, who is labelled on the sculpture as
a “Yakshi”. On the other hand, Sudarshana Yakshi and the
unidentified female figure at Batanmara near Bharhut-
Satna stand alone without a tree,7 as does Sirima Devata.
Similar is the case with the Yakshas labelled
Gangita, Suciloma, Kubera as well as other figures, which
stand with folded hands on the railing posts. There is little
to differentiate one from the other.
Mahakoka, like the other figures from Bharhut, is
clad in a diaphanous lower garment reaching below the
knees, which is discernible only from the ridge of the hem
and the thick folds gathered up in front (5). The bosom is
apparently bare, but four incised curved lines under the
right breast suggest that there is a fine upper garment
as well (5, 6) exactly as is the case with Yakshi Chanda as
observed by Cunningham.8 5. Mahakoka Devata, Bharhut
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 Like all other Bharhut sculptures, Mahakoka’s (Cunningham’s term) of pearls or beads worn over the left
adornments include rich and varied ornaments as also shoulder and then around the upper body in the manner of
an ornate head cover which are in sharp contrast to her the Brahmanical sacred thread (yajnopavita). After every
scanty garments. What appears to be a gold-embroidered one or two pearls a variety of amulets or charms are strung
headwear is thrown crosswise over the head (7) as in on the garland. They include an ankusha or elephant goad,
Yakshi Chanda.9 At the parting of the hair is a large circular crescent, svastika, disc, barrel-shaped talisman, srivatsa,
forehead mark. a human figurine (as far as can be made out from the
Mahakoka’s ear ornaments, like those of several photographs supplied, since the original sculpture is not
other male and female figures from the stupa, are strikingly available for personal observation as yet) Batanmara has a
original, and of unusual interest (7). They comprise two simpler form, having only alternating crescent and elephant
parts, a box and a double coil, the box being close to goad after every three beads/pearls (11).12 Cunningham
the cheek. Though large, they must have been hollow called it a collar, to differentiate it from necklaces/garlands
and therefore light in weight. The box is decorated with that are worn around the neck.
symbolic shapes on the surface, and the coils or spirals with A variety of rich girdles, employing pearls or beads
gold pellets. Such ear ornaments are unique to Bharhut of various sizes and shapes, flat discs, and other elements
and a very limited number of ancient sites. Thereafter, they adorn Bharhut’s sculptures. A girdle of seven strings of
disappear from the scene, making way for more elegant large square beads with chased flowers and round beads is
shapes.10 around Mahakoka’s waist, with a long flat belt of precious
Great attention was lavished on Mahakoka’s fabric holding it in place in front (5).13
jewellery, (5, 6) as is the case with practically all of Bharhut’s Mahakoka wears large armlets with floral bosses
figures, especially female. She wears a long flat garland from the centre of which issue pearl strings (7). This shape
of strings with spacers around her neck; over this are six does not occur in other Bharhut figures. Her bracelets also
more necklaces, made of pearls and beads of various sizes. have the ankusha amulet (9). Her anklets of many rings
One of these necklaces is strung with two elephant goads have metal bells attached to their ends (5).
(ankusha) and a crescent shape, surely charms or amulets, Tattoos of various shapes decorate many Bharhut
flanking a central (gold?) leaf pendant. Yakshi Chandra in figures, among them the Sun-and-Moon or lunar crescent
the Indian Museum wears a similar necklace.11 In addition on the cheeks. Mahakoka has a crescent on the right
to these necklaces, there is a bodice-like adornment with cheek (7). It is possible that she has only one tattoo, since
a central round jewelled clasp, sometimes known as Cunningham notes Sirima having only “a single star or
chhannavira. flower”, on the left cheek bone in her case. Chandra also
A special ornament worn by Mahakoka, and only has lunar-solar cheek tattoos.14
a few other Bharhut sculptures, such as the Batanmara A dwarf with long plaited hair, a necklace and a
sculpture, is worth noting (6, 11). It is a “collar” leaf as his loin cloth, is stout and handsome in his own

6. Mahakoka Devata, Bharhut Detail of 11

Detail of 5: ornaments and folds of upper garment

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 way. He is shown in a weight-lifter’s crouch balancing the
goddess on the palms of his hands (8). Batanmara (11) and
Kupiro Yakho15 also have dwarfs, all drawn from a common
fountain of fantasy. In folklore and mythology, dwarfs and
misshapen, abnormal men are believed to have magical
powers – but this paper is hardly the occasion for such
an exploration.
Like other sculptures at Bharhut, whether they
are large Yakshis, Devatas or small figures on pillars, a tree
is integral to the composition. Often a tree and a woman
are depicted in tight embrace, limbs interlocked three,
or sometimes even four times (5). Students of Indian art
would recognize here at once the ancient shalabhanjika, at
the core of which were ideas of fecundity and life’s sudden
bursting forth. Legends developed, the most important
being Dohada or the longing of a pregnant woman, from
dvi-hridaya the condition of pregnancy in which two hearts
are beating in a woman’s body, her own and that of the
baby in her womb. To illustrate this notion a passage from 8. Mahakoka Devata, Bharhut
the Kathasaritsagara may be cited: “Spring comes, and Detail of 5: dwarfish figure support of Mahakoka
the Kuruvaka tree blooms, embraced by young maids; the
Ashoka bursts into bloom, struck by young women; the
Bakula blooms, sprayed with wine from the mouths of
maidens; and the Champaka bursts, as it is sprinkled with
perfumed water”.16
The tree under which Mahakoka stands (9, 10), or
around which she entwines herself, has been provisionally
identified as Neolamarckia cadamba, or the Kadamba.17

Mahakoka’s Inscription
Like most Bharhut inscriptions, the one on Mahakoka
is brief, just twenty-four letters recording the gift of the
goddess in the Brahmi script of the second century BCE

9. Mahakoka Devata, Bharhut

Detail of 5: tree provisionally identified as
Neolamarckia cadamba or the Kadamba tree

7. Mahakoka Devata, Bharhut

Detail of 5: embellished headgear, ear ornaments, facial 10. Mahakoka Devata, Bharhut
tattoos, amulet-strung necklace and armlets Detail of 5: tree shading her, shown in profile

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 in a Prakrit dialect. Until now, the few published readings Smaller countries are also successfully repatriating
have all been based on Cunningham’s eye copy published their smuggled heritage.19
in 1879 book (12). A direct reading of the engraved record A responsive administration is expected to take
is as follows: up the repatriation of this unique and extremely valuable
Chuladhakasa purikaya bhatudesakasa danam figure as its own responsibility after following due process,
Mahakoka Devata and hand it over to the owner. Since the time the owner
The letters, deeply cut by a practiced hand, are clear and of the sculpture came to know about its recovery, he has
well-shaped: the engravers of records must have been made many visits to the Ministry, ASI’s offices in New Delhi
in steady demand. Only, the letter pu in purika is rather and Bhopal, and even the (then) Prime Minister.
shallow, but still decipherable. It has been translated as The ASI is not an investigative agency, as its officials
“Gift of Chuladhaka (?) from Purika, the superintendent say; but who is preventing ASI from adding a page on their
of meals. Mahakoka Devata”. 18 official website www.asi.nic.in where antiques stolen from
their own sites can be posted? As to thefts from ASI’s own
When Will Devata Mahakoka Return to Her Shrine? sites, does its responsibility end once a report has been
Since its recovery in 2012, Mahakoka has been in Department lodged at some remote police station such as Nagod, Atru,
of Homeland Security’s custody. The owner had fulfilled Kuthla, Rawatbhata? An unsuspecting art collector may
his legal requirements way back in 1977, and had lodged a end up buying stolen art smuggled out with fabricated
police report when it was stolen in July 2004. The ASI and the papers, as has allegedly been done in this case.
Ministry of Culture have been made aware of all this by this From this writer’s perception, international
writer. The owner’s title has been proved to the satisfaction security agencies who intercept smuggled art are keen to
of the US authorities. Now it is for the government of India restore it to India after observing due legal processes, more
to act, to get confirmation of ownership so that the Bird- than our agencies are on retrieving that art. Two amorous
voiced goddess can return to her shrine. couples stolen from the protected site of Atru in eastern

11. Female figure in a local shrine, Batanmara, Satna district 12. Mahakoka Devata, Bharhut
Partial view of the collar strung with charms and amulets Detail of 5: Inscription
similar to Mahakoka Devata

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 Rajasthan in April and September 2009 and handed over to Bharhut and a few other sites elsewhere, see Postel, M. Ear Ornaments of
India on 14/15 January 2014 are a case in point. Ancient India, 1989, Franco-Indian Pharmaceuticals Limited, Bombay, pp.34-
In the 1870s, a conscientious British archaeologist 35 and figures, A,B,C.
documented the sculptures of Bharhut, transferred them For a discussion of shalabhanjika through the earliest period in general:
to Calcutta, also copying the inscription on a piece that Desai, Devangana, “Salabhanjika and Surasundari—Auspicious Figures
could not be transported. Full one hundred years later, the in Art”, in Art and Icon: Essays on Early Indian Art, 2013, Aryan Books
Indian family that had been worshipping the sculpture as a International, New Delhi, p. 161.
goddess got it registered in due observance of the law, and 11
Cunningham,1879, pl. XXII/3.
reported to the police when the sculpture was stolen and 12
Ibid., p.36 and pl.XXI central figure, and Pl. L, Fig.8 for a diagram.
smuggled out of the country. One hundred and forty years 13
Ibid., cf. pl. LI, Fig.3, for the girdle of Sirima Devata, which is slightly more
after the first discovery of this invaluable image, our own ornate.
government needs to do everything possible to ensure 14
Ibid., pl.LII/2.
that the family and the goddess that they worshipped are 15
Ibid., pl.XXII.
re-united. 16
Adapted from The Ocean of Story, (ed) by Penzer, N.M., 1968, Indian
Edition, New Delhi, Vol.I, p. 222.
END NOTES
17
Acknowledgements are due to J. M. Garg, Dr. Vijayasankar and Ms. Radha
1
Epigraphia Indica X (1909-10), (Reprinted 1959), Government of India, Veach for suggesting these. Mr. Garg posted this writer’s query on www.
New Delhi. Appendix “ A List of Brahmi Inscriptions from the Earliest Times [email protected]/Efloraofindia. Kadamba was a favourite
to About A.D. 400, with the Exception of Those of Asoka”, (ed) Lűders, H., subject in Indian art. (http://www.flowersofindia.net/botanical.html).
Nos.687-903 list all of Bharhut inscriptions then known. This is commonly
18
Lűders, Waldschmidt and Mehendale, p.20.
known as “Lűder’s List”, pp.65-91.2 Ibid., The authors cite Pali Buddhist texts for the expression bhatta-uddesaka,
2
Bharhut Inscriptions, (ed) by Lűders and revised by Waldschmidt, E., “a thera or elder [monk] who supervises the distribution of food”, p.20, fn.3
and Mehendale, M.A., “Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum” series, 1963, Chuladhaka : As Lűders, Waldschmidt and Mehendale write on p.20, fn 3,
Government of India, New Delhi, Vol. II, Part II. Chula occurs as the first part of the goddess Chulakoka, “Little Koka”. Chula
3
Ibid., p.20, fn.3: “Chula has been derived from kshudra in the translation of is derived from kshudra.
our inscription by Lűders in his List.” Purika : Purika, literally, “the town”, occurs in many Bharhut records
4
Cunningham, Alexander, The Stupa of Bharhut: A Buddhist Monument as the place of residence of donors. (It is something like when people
Ornamented with Numerous Sculptures Illustrative of Buddhist Legend and in the neighbourhood of a large town such as Ahmednagar refer to
History in the Third Century B C, 1879, London. Reprinted 1962, Indological that town they often say simply “Nagar”; that they mean Ahmednagar
Book House, Varanasi, pl. XXI. Reprinted, 1998, New Delhi. is understood. Purika, therefore, must have been a place of some
5
Ibid., p.22, fn 4. importance.
6
Lűders, Waldschmidt and Mehendale, p. viii a, refers to two Bharhut Lűders, Waldschmidt and Mehendale, on the authority of Hultzsch proposed,
sculptures preserved in the Freer Gallery of Art in Washington, DC. “a town between two ranges of the Vindhya mountains”, p.8.
See, Coomaraswamy, Ananda K., La sculpture de Bharhut, 1956, D’Art et
19
Peru, for example, has retrieved 8,000 pieces according to the Museum
Dehistoive, Paris, pl. XXV. Security Network report (MSN No. 16433) of 21 March 2014, and Cambodia
The few known to this writer are in the Norton Simon Museum at Pasadena, had successfully negotiated recovery of sculptures from the Norton Simon
USA. They are a split architectural piece (No. f.1972-55S) and a yakshi under Museum in Pasadena, USA, (MSN 1731) of 4 June 2014.
a tree (No. 1972.11.1.S). The numbers are on the museum’s website.
7
This sculpture is published by Cunningham, Alexander, pl.XXI. The brief ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
label inscription read by Cunningham and others including this writer at the Photograph: Mahakoka, Department of Homeland Security of the USA.
site simply says Sakaya thabho danam (the pillar is a gift of Saka); whether Photograph: Chulakoka, American Institute of Indian Studies (AIIS).
Yakshi or Devata, or any other character of mythology is not mentioned. Photographic Archives, Gurgaon, India.
Reference is given here to the accession numbers of the American Institute of Photograph: Bharhut gallery in the Indian Museum, (AIIS).
Indian Studies’ digital photographic archives (dsal.uchicago.edu): Chulakoka Dr. Chaitanya Swaroop Saxena, Deputy Director of Archaeology in Madhya
68520; Sudarshana 68526. Sirima Devata is 34306, 68637; Chandra yakshi Pradesh, accompanied the author to Bharhut, Batanmara and Uchehra.
68579. The Batanmara figure is in the shrine facing the lake in the village of The site of Bharhut and the Batanmara sculpture were photographed in July
the same name. 2012.
8
Cunningham, 1879, p.33. Courtesy of the Archaeological Survey of India and all the above is
9
Ibid., p.34, pl.XXII/3. acknowledged, as also of the custodians of Batanmara’s shrine, and of the
10
Ibid., About this peculiar ear ornament Cunningham remarks: “...the middle family who is the devotee of Mahakoka Devata.
portion was formed of a spiral tube, and that the whole ornament, though
very large, was most probably not very heavy. The flanged end was always
worn outwards, and the square flowered end inwards touching the cheek.
They were no doubt placed in position by pushing outwards the flanged end
through the long slit in the lobe of the ear, and then two complete turns
of the spiral would place the ornament in position ... with the square end
touching the cheek”, p.35. For a discussion of this unique ear ornament at

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