INTERNSHIP TRAINING REPORT

by

CHANDAN SAXENA
Second Year (Mechanical)
MADHAV INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND
SCIENCE (MITS), GWALIOR
[email protected]

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 CONTENT

1. Introduction............................................................................. 1
2. Overview.................................................................................. 1
3. Technical description of springs and material......................... 4
 Definition of springs......................................................... 4
 Objective of springs.......................................................... 4
 Commonly used spring materials..................................... 5
 Spring manufacturing processes...................................... 5
 Terminology of Helical springs.......................................... 6
 Stresses in helical spring wire........................................... 9
 Deflection of helical spring of circular cross section wire. 11

4. Description of processing processes of RSK........................... 12

 Raw Materials.................................................................. 12
 End Tapering.................................................................... 13
 Coiling.............................................................................. 15
 Oil quenching and tempering.......................................... 16
 End grinding and chamfering........................................... 18
 Shot peening.................................................................... 19
 Magna-flux testing........................................................... 20
 Load testing and colour coding........................................ 21
 Reworking, black painting and packing............................ 22

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INTRODUCTION
Railway Spring Karkhana (RSK), is an advanced spring
manufacturing plant situated near Gwalior at Sithauli. The factory is
the major source of production of hot coil spring for the Railway and
is serving for the Railway from long time. The factory is enable to
manufacture various types of springs for facilitates cushioning of
wagons bogie, passenger bogie, fiat and as per the requirement of
customer.
RSK is even developing itself yet in order to increase and to
improve the production and to minimise the rejection. The factory is
using the latest advanced machines and equipments so as to maintain
the quality to the satisfactory level. The Factory also ensures quality
check of the product produced with the help of highly calibrated
precise machines.

OVERVIEW
Railway Spring Factory follows a well planned processing
method which is shown by the flow chart on the next page. Starting
with the raw material which are basically well grounded Peeled Bars
of different specifications (i.e. dia and length). These bars are then
tapered at the end to facilitate the proper sitting of spring. Thereafter
when both the ends are tapered it can now be coiled in Coiling
Machine to obtain the resemblance of spring. Thereafter hardening (
or Oil Quenching) is done for producing enough hardness in spring
material. Tempering is done hereafter to remove unstable grain
structure of spring. End grinding, chamfering, shot peening processes
are then applied to obtain desirable structural and physical properties.
Magna-Flux Testing is used to have a check on the crack if any,
developed in spring which may led to is failure. Now springs are
ready to have a load test.
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 Colour codes are provided to each spring on the basis of
performance under load test and also on the basis of Nominal Length
of the spring.

RSK Processing Flow Chart

Raw Material Bar Heating

End Tapering Coiling
(Peeled bar) Furnace

Oil Quenching Tempering End Grinding Chamfering

Shot Peening Magna-Flux Primer Painting Scragging

Testing

Load Testing Black Painting Colour Coding Packing

Once the colour codes are done, spring can go for primer and
black painting. Further spring is send to the costumer after packing.
An Overview of the production line is thus presented. Detailed
information of each and every individual process along with the data
is also provided in this report.

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 TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF SPRINGS AND
MATERIAL

DEFINITION OF SPRINGS

A spring is an elastic object used to store mechanical energy.

Springs are elastic bodies (generally metal) that can be twisted,
pulled, or stretched by some force. They can return to their original
shape when the force is released. In other words it is also termed as a
resilient member.
A spring is a flexible element
used to exert a force or a torque and,
at the same time, to store energy.
The force can be a linear push
or pull, or it can be radial, acting
similarly to a rubber band around a
roll of drawings.

OBJECTIVE OF SPRINGS

 To provide Cushioning, to absorb, or to control the energy

due to shock and vibration.
Car springs or railway buffers to control energy, springs-
supports and vibration dampers

 To Control motion
Maintaining contact between two elements (cam and its
follower) creation of the necessary pressure in a friction device (a
brake or a clutch)

 To Measure forces
Spring balances, gauges
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COMMONLY USED SPRING MATERIALS
One of the important considerations in spring design is the
choice of the spring material. Some of the common spring materials
are given below.

 Hard-drawn wire
This is cold drawn, cheapest spring steel. Normally used for low
stress and static load. The material is not suitable at subzero
temperatures or at temperatures above 120ºC.

 Oil-tempered wire
It is a cold drawn, quenched, tempered, and general purpose
spring steel. It is not suitable for fatigue or sudden loads, at
subzero temperatures and at temperatures above 1800ºC.

 Chrome Vanadium
This alloy spring steel is used for high stress conditions and at
high temperature up to 2200ºC. It is good for fatigue resistance
and long endurance for shock and impact loads.

 Chrome Silicon:
This material can be used for highly stressed springs. It offers
excellent service for long life, shock loading and for
temperature up to 2500ºC.

SPRING MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

If springs are of very small diameter and the wire diameter is

also small then the springs are normally manufactured by a cold
drawn process through a mangle.

However, for very large springs having also large coil diameter
and wire diameter one has to go for manufacture by hot processes.

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First one has to heat the wire and then use a proper mangle to wind
the coils.

TERMINOLOGY OF HELICAL SPRING

The main dimensions of a helical spring subjected to
compressive force are shown in the figure.
They are as follows:
d = wire diameter of spring (mm)
Di = inside diameter of spring coil (mm)
Do =outside diameter of spring coil (mm)
D = mean coil diameter (mm)

Therefore,

D=

There is an important parameter in spring design called spring

index. It is denoted by letter C. The spring index is defined as the
ratio of mean coil diameter to wire diameter. Or

C = D/d

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 In design of helical springs, the designer should use good
judgment in assuming the value of the spring index C. The spring
index indicates the relative sharpness of the curvature of the coil.

A low spring index means high sharpness of curvature. When

the spring index is low (C < 3), the actual stresses in the wire are
excessive due to curvature effect. Such a spring is difficult to
manufacture and special care in coiling is required to avoid cracking
in some wires. When the spring index is high (C >15), it results in
large variation in coil diameter. Such a spring is prone to buckling and
also tangles easily during handling. Spring index from 4 to 12 is
considered better from manufacturing considerations.

Therefore, in practical applications, the spring index in the range

of 6 to 9 is still preferred particularly for close tolerance springs and
those subjected to cyclic loading.

1) Solid length: Solid length is defined as the axial length of the

spring which is so compressed, that the adjacent coils touch each
other. In this case, the spring is completely compressed and no further
compression is possible. The solid length is given by.
Solid length = Nt . d
Where Nt = total number of coils

2) Compressed length: Compressed length is defined as the axial

length of the spring that is subjected to maximum compressive force.
In this case, the spring is subjected to maximum deflection. When the
spring is subjected to maximum force, there should be some gap or
clearance between the adjacent coils. The gap is essential to prevent
clashing of the coils.
3) Free length: Free length is defined as the axial length of an
unloaded helical compression spring. In this case, no external force
acts on the spring. Free length is an important dimension in spring

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design and manufacture. It is the length of the spring in free condition
prior to assembly.
Free length is given by,
Free length = compressed length + y
= solid length + total axial gap + y

The pitch of the coil is defined as the axial distance between

adjacent coils in uncompressed state of spring. It is denoted by p. It is
given by,
p=

The stiffness of the spring (k) is defined as the force required

producing unit deflection

K=

Therefore,
Where k= stiffness of the spring (N/mm)
F = axial spring force (N)
Y= axial deflection of the spring corresponding to force p
(mm)
There are various names for stiffness of spring such as rate of
spring, gradient of spring, scale of spring or simply spring constant.
The stiffness of spring represents the slope of load deflection line.
There are two terms are related to the spring coils, viz. active coils
and inactive coils.
Active coils are the coils in the spring, which contribute to
spring action, support the external force and deflect under the action
of force. A portion of the end coils, which is in contact with the seat,
does not contribute to spring action and called inactive coils. These
coils do not support the load and do not deflect under the action o
external force. The number of inactive coils is given by,
Inactive coils = Nt – N ; where, N = number of active coils

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STRESSES IN HELICAL SPRING WIRE
It can be found out that the
direction of the internal torsion T
and internal shear force F at the
section due to the external load F
acting at the centre of the coil.
It is observed that for both
tensile load as well as compressive
load on the spring, maximum shear
stress (τT + τF) always occurs at
the inner side of the spring. Hence, failure of the spring, in the form of
crake, is always initiated from the inner radius of the spring.
The radius of the spring is given by D/2. Note that D is the mean
diameter of the spring. The torque T acting on the spring is
τ=F×
If d is the diameter of the coil wire and polar moment of inertia,
Ip =
The shear stress in the spring wire due to
torsion is

Average shear stress in the spring

wire due to force F is

τF =
So,

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 Ks =
The above equation gives maximum shear stress occurring in a spring.
Ks are the shear stress correction factor. The resultant diagram of
torsional shear stress and direct shear stress is shown.

From the above equation it can be

observed that the effect of direct shear
stress i.e.,

τ=

Above expression is appreciable for springs of small spring index ‘C’

Also the effect of wire curvature is neglected in equation (A).

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DEFLECTION OF HELICAL SPRING OF CIRCULAR CROSS
SECTION WIRE

Total length of wire = length of one coil x number of active coils

∴ l = π.D.i

∴ Axial deflection of spring y = θ where θ = angular deflection

We know ,

By a little consideration, we will see that the deflection, in a helical

spring is given by the formula,

∴ y=

∴ Angular Deflection θ =

Hence axial deflection,

y=

stiffness Fa = F/y =

Where,
i = Number of active coils
F = load on the spring or Axial force
τ = Permissible stress or design shear stress
y = Deflection
G = Modulus of Rigidity

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 DESCRIPTION OF PROCESSING PROCESSES OF
RSK

RAW MATERIAL
Factory basically uses two types of raw material namely
Chromo-vanadium and Silico-mangnese. These are obviously used as
according to the requirement and according to Indian Standard
IS:3195.
Actually the main difference which specifies its use in different
type of spring is its HARDENABILITY. Hardenability is a property
which reduces the difference of hardness of surface and of core of any
material. It can be said as Hardenability shows the difference of
hardness of core and surface. Better the hardenability lesser will be
the difference. So Chromovanadium (52Cr2Mo2V) is preferred over
Silicomangnese as its hardenability is better than the later one.
This is the reason that chromovanadium is used as raw material
in spring where rod diameter is comparatively larger. But due to the
reason of easy availability and lower cost silicomangnese is used in
springs of narrower rod.
Apart of the material of raw material, its strength and structure
is also of utmost importance. Railway Spring Workshop is also
incorporated with a laboratory for the purpose. Hardness where can be
determined by the advanced Hardness Testing Machine. Also
chemical structure can be determined using various equipments. Also
very accurate and precise calculation can be made about the
composition using spectrometer. Spectrometer uses inert gas to create
a non-reactive atmosphere which uses an electric arc to measure the
composition.

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END TAPERING
The chief purpose of End Tapering is to taper both the ends so
that it may facilitate the proper sitting of spring. RSK has two end
tapering machine of different capacity namely 8A and 8B. 8A has a

capacity of 50-60 bar/hr and can heat 75 bars at a time of rod of

diameter 30-57mm. While 8B type can heat 40-45 rod together of
diameter between 26-42mm.
End Tapering includes heating the end at 940 ±10 ºC so that a
treatable end is obtained. End tapering is a hot process which includes
impact on rod by two dies namely Flat die and taper die. End tapering
machine is shown in picture below.
As clearly shown, a furnace is the integral part of the machine
placed sidewise the tapering machine.
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 Tapering involves the operation of two dies as stated already
called Flat die and taper die. Actually tapering includes forging
concept, i.e. it first is pressed against the flat die so that a flat surface
is obtained but naturally it expands and is required to pressed from
sidewise. This is done couple of times so that the final required
tapered end is obtained. The machine is hydraulically operated and
semi-automatic. Furnace makes the rods sliding by walking beam
mechanism and thus confirms the supply of rod to the machine
Some parameters are required to specify the dimensions of rod and
also of spring. There are some parameters which are stated as below-

S. No. Set Parameter on STD/SET Value Measured by

machine
1. Furnace temperature 960±10 ºC Temperature recording gauge

2. Heating and Soaking 0.83 min/min -

Temp.
3. Walking Beam cycle 30 sec min, 40-45 Set by operator
time sec
4. End tapering process 850ºC-950ºC By pyrometer
start
5. Temp at punching 850ºC min By pyrometer

6. Stamping Code CM.RSK

7. Tip thickness d/3 ± 1.5mm By Vernier
8. Elongation π/3 x d x w Measuring Tape
9. Magazine Capacity 75 bars

10. Production/hrs 50-60 ends

Elongation refers to the change in length due to tapering, thus

length of raw rod is taken such that after elongation rod length
achieve required length. Tapered tip must be equal to one-third of the
dia.

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COILING
As name stated coiling refers to continuous bending of rod to
get desirable spring dia and length. It is follows by Bar Heating
process in which whole of the rod is heated at 950ºC and is essentially
allowed to cover a cycle of about 0.85min/mm to achieve uniform
heated volume of rod.

Above shown is bar heating Furnace. This is LPG operated

furnace which also slide bars by walking beam mechanism. Furnace
works on simple 240V/50Hz supply and maintains constant
temperature throughout using 4 heating zones. Max temp which this
furnace can maintain is 1000ºC. Furnace uses fuel between 15m³/h to
50m³/h. This furnace can produce about 12.8 kWh of thermal energy
per kg of fluid. Thus this furnace is much efficient and useful for the
purpose and is alone completing this purpose.
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 Thereafter, red hot bar at about 950ºC is taken out and is
allowed to coil at about 850ºC at coiling machine.
Coiling Machine is most important machine in coiling line
which can produce spring of one meter length and of about 470mm
dia.
OIL QUENCHING AND TEMPERING
Just after the coiling process, coil is allowed to cool instantly by
quenching it in cool oil at 40-70ºC for about 16 minutes, which
produce hardness in spring. Thus spring cools very fast to about room
temperature. This is the reason quenching is also called Hardening.
Quenched springs taken out of the oil are shown in picture below. A
sample is taken after this process to keep a check on the properties
developed in the
material.
Due to the sudden
cooling, there is a strong
possibility of forming
unstable and highly
stressed grain structure.
Thus tempering is
required here after to
stabilize grain structure
and to make strain-free
structure. Thus requires a
tempering medium.

Tempering machine shown maintains a constant temperature of

400ºC to 500ºC by blowing hot air in the furnace. A temperature
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recording gauge keeps a check on the temperature maintained.
Springs are kept at this temperature for 90-120 minutes which causes
relaxation in structure of the material and results in stress free form.
Thereafter a keen check is kept on hardness of the spring.
Quenched spring has an hardness of 555-600 BHN. While after
tempering it reduces to 415-460 BHN. Actually this testing (hardness)
involves certain measure such as load is applied for few seconds of a
specific ball. Normal springs may have BHN number between 415 to
460 BHN. While high speed springs (fiat springs) it may be between
420 to 510 BHN. About 1 out of every10 springs are to be tested to
keep a check on hardness. Testing machine is shown below.

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END GRINDING AND CHEMFERING
End Grinding is basically a finishing operation, applied to obtain
a smooth and horizontal plain surface so that proper placing of spring
can be done. Broadly, it has two main objectives to achieve-
1. Squareness
2. Parallelism
Term squareness refers to vertical spring, i.e. spring must be vertical
so that it can serve maximum.
And parallelism refers to the horizontal bases of the spring, i.e. a
spring’s faces must be horizontal
Parallelism and squareness can be achieved by proper grinding
of ends.
Term chamfering means to remove the ends or to cut out an
edge in order to make it blunt and to remove extra material.

End Grinding Machine 1

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 Grinding is accomplished by the grinding machine in the
factory shown above. Principle of its working is quite easy. Springs to
be grinded are clamped in the chuck (number of springs depand upon
the capacity of machine) and thus, springs are made to oscillate
relative to the revolving wheel. Water supply is pumped on the
contact surface of grinding wheel to maintain normal working
temperature of wheel. Thus grinding operation completes. A close
check is kept on each spring, so if required hand grinding can also be
done using grinder.
SHOT PEENING
Shot Peening or simply peening is done to harden the material
surface by hammering or by bombarding shots. Here it is done by
bombardment of shots so as refers to be Shot Peening.
This process behind of providing hardness also provides fatigue
resistance and resilience to ensure performance of springs under
rapidly repeated loading.

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 Machine includes two turbine rotating at a high speed in
opposite direction and impacting tiny shots on the springs moving on
a conveyer. This conveyor also ensures the rotation of spring for
complete and uniform treatment. Thus a uniform surface along with
the desired properties is obtained.
MAGNA-FLUX TESTING
Now the processed product can now be checked for cracks
which can be the reason of failure of product under extreme
conditions.

Magna-flux testing is done for the purpose. Process includes

forming a liquid mixture of water and magnetic ink. This follows the
application of high potential across the spring after letting the
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magnetic mixture to pour over the spring. This result in formation of a
layer of magnetic liquid which get dispersed in the crack if any
developed on the surface. But this ink is not visible in simple white
light, but is under Ultra Violet rays. Thus UV rays are let to be put on
spring which make liquid layer visible. Thus any crack can be pointed
out. Picture shows the enlightened spring under UV rays.

LOAD TESTING AND COLOUR CODING

Actually here after Scragging and Load Testing are done which
helps to distinguish spring under small and of considerably important
factor i.e. load bearing capacity and nominal length. That means
springs are first tested under load, thus are given colour codes so that
when being in use these can be used together with same colour coded
springs and avoid different behaving under same conditions which is
obviously not desirable.

For example, for a particular C91 type springs (having some

particular specifications) can be differentiated into two different
categories and marking them as White or Red. This categorization is
done on length and load testing. Springs which bear about 22kN
(22000 N) under a particular deflection are categorised as White type.
Similarly those springs which bear about 23-24 kN under same
deflection are categorised as of Red type. This means that when used,
red types will be used together and white will be used together.

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REWORKING, BLACK PAINTING AND PACKING
Reworking means to improve or remove any defect. It broadly
includes two processes namely Repitching and Hot Scragging.
Repitching is applied to those spring which actually fails to attain a
particular height, whether it may achieve length greater or lesser than
the nominal one. Thus an operation is required to get that height to
spring. This process includes adjusting the length pitch wise pitch.

A V-shaped ram is used to increase pitch in case height is less

than nominal, all along the coil. Thus total height can be adjusted. If

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height is greater than nominal, hot scragging can be preferred. It
includes heating of springs at about 250ºC and compressed and
attaining the required height.

At last, springs now can go for black painting for gaining corrosion
resistance and then to the customer after packing.

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